Chapter 5

GLOBAL CITY
Global city, an urban center that enjoys significant competitive advantages and that serves as
a hub within a globalized economic system. The term has its origins in research on cities carried
out during the 1980s, which examined the common characteristics of the world’s most
important cities. However, with increased attention being paid to processes of globalization
during subsequent years, these world cities came to be known as global cities. Linked with
globalization was the idea of spatial reorganization and the hypothesis that cities were
becoming key loci within global networks of production, finance, and telecommunications. In
some formulations of the global city thesis, then, such cities are seen as the building blocks of
globalization. Simultaneously, these cities were becoming newly privileged sites of local politics
within the context of a broader project to reconfigure state institutions.
(Charnock, 2007).

THE GLOBAL CITY

A global city is an urban center that enjoys significant competitive advantages and that serves
as a hub within a globalized economic system. The first identified global cities were London,
New York City and Tokyo.

Saskia Sassen (1991)’s The Global City identified in four ways:

1. Key locations for finance and specialized service firms, which have replaced
manufacturing as the leading economic services;
2. Sites of production, including the production of innovations, in leading industries;
3. Highly concentrated command points in the organization of the world economy;
4. Markets for the products and innovations produced

ATTRIBUTES OF A GLOBAL CITY

There are two globalization-related trends that supported the rise of global cities:
1. Rise and expansion of Transnational Corporation (TNCs) in global production patterns;
and
2. Decline of mass production and the rise of flexible production centered within urban
areas.

Sassen (2005) hypothesized a global city model with seven major attributes:
1. The geographic dispersal of economic activities that marks globalization along with the
simultaneous integration of such activities is a key factor feeding the growth and
importance of central corporate functions.
2. Central corporate functions become so complex that increasingly, the headquarters of
large global firms outsource them.
3. Those specialized global firms engaged in globalize markets are subject to
agglomeration economies.
4. Global cities were formed because firms are free to look for multiple locations outside
leading business centers to outsource their most complex and specialized functions.
5. Specialized firms need to provide a global service.
6. There is a growing number of talented, high-level professionals and high profit.
7. There is a growing in formalization of a range of economic activities such as production
and distribution including services.
8.
STANDARD CHARACTERISTICS OF WORLD CITIES
A. Variety of international financial services
B. Headquarters of several multinational corporations
C. Existence of financial headquarters, a stock exchange, and major financial institutions
D. Domination of the trade and economy of a large surrounding area
E. Major manufacturing centers with port and facilities
F. Considerable decision-making power on a daily basis and at a global level
G. Centers of new ideas in business, economics, culture and politics
H. Centers of media and communication
I. Dominance of national region
J. High percentage of residents employed in the services and information sector
K. High quality educational institutions
 L. Multi-functional infrastructure offering some of the best legal, medical and
entertainment facilities.
M. Highly diverse.

10 TRAITS OF GLOBALLY FLUENT METRO AREAS

Traits below have proven to be particularly strong determinants of a metro area’s ability
to succeed in global markets, manage the negative consequences of globalization, and better
secure its desired economic future.

1. Leadership with a Worldview

Local leadership networks with a global outlook have great potential for impact on the global
fluency of a metro area.

2. Legacy of Global Orientation

Due to their location, size, and history, certain cities were naturally oriented toward global
interaction at an early stage, giving them a first mover advantage.

3. Specializations with Global Reach

Cities often establish their initial global position through a distinct economic specialization,
leveraging it as a platform for diversification.

4. Adaptability to Global Dynamics

Cities that sustain their market positions are able to adjust to each new cycle of global change.

5. Culture of Knowledge and Innovation

In an increasingly knowledge-driven world, positive development in the global economy
requires high levels of human capital to generate new ideas, methods, products, and
technologies.

6. Opportunity and Appeal to the World

Metro areas that are appealing, open, and opportunity-rich serve as magnets for attracting
people and firms from around the world.

7. International Connectivity
Global relevance requires global reach that efficiently connects people and goods to
international markets through well-designed, modern infrastructure.

8. Ability to Secure Investment for Strategic Priorities

Attracting investment from a wide variety of domestic and international sources is decisive in
enabling metro areas to effectively pursue new growth strategies.

9. Government as Global Enabler

Federal, state, and local governments have unique and complementary roles to play in enabling
firms and metro areas to “go global.”

10. Compelling Global Identity

Cities must establish an appealing global identity and relevance in international markets not
only to sell the city, but also to shape and build the region around a common purpose.

GLOBAL DEMOGRAPHY
DEFINITION OF DEMOGRAPHY
Demography is the study of human populations- their size, composition, and distribution
across space- and the process through which populations change. own trade barriers and open
up their current accounts and capital accounts. This also refers to the statistical study of
populations, especially human beings. Demography encompasses the study of the size,
structure, and distribution of these populations, and spatial or temporal changes in them in
response to birth, migration, aging, and death.
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION
It pertains to the decline in fertility and mortality that started in Europe from the 18th
to 19th century onwards (Lesthaenge, 2010).

Demographic transitions is a singular historical period during which mortality and

fertility rates decline from high to low levels in particular country or region. The broad outlines
of the transition are similar in countries around the world, but the pace and timing of the
transition have varied considerably.

There are four stages to the classical demographic transition model:

Stage 1: Pre-transition
Characterized by high birth rates, and high fluctuating death rates.

Stage 2: Early transition

During the early stages of the transition, the death rate begins to fall.
As birth rates remain high, the population starts to grow rapidly.

Stage 3: Late transition

Birth rates start to decline.
The rate of population growth decelerates.

Stage 4: Post-transition
Post-transitional societies are characterized by low birth and low death rates.
Population growth is negligible, or even enters a decline.

BEFORE THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION

The transition started in mid- or late 1700s in Europe. During that time, death rates and
fertility began to decline. High to low fertility happened 200 years in France and 100 years in
the United States. In other parts of the world, the transition began later. It was only the
twentieth century that mortality decline in Africa and Asia. With the exemption of Japan.
This resulted in rapid population growth after the Second World War, affecting the age
structure of Asia and the developing world. Specifically, The baby boom in the developing world
was caused by the decline of Infant and child mortality rates.
Population prior to 1800 was reasonably stable- population grew slowly; age structures,
birth rates and death rates changed only gradually. This is what Thomas Malthus refers to as
equilibrium.
1. Positive check. Mortality response which means faster population growth may cause the
rise of famines, wars and diseases (misery).
2. Preventive check. A response where faster population growth may result to marriage
postponement which could lead to prostitution and contraception (vices).

THE FIRST DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION

There are four major turns in the classic demographic transition. It starts with a
mortality decline, followed by reduced fertility, and then decreasing population growth and
finally population aging (Lee, 2003)

THE SECOND DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION

SDT expects no such stability. It sees new developments that bring sustained fertility, a
multitude of living arrangements other than marriage, disconnection between marriage and
procreation, and no stable population.

The First Demographic Transition

There are four major turns in the classic demographic transition.
1. Mortality Decline
In the late 18th century, the development of preventive medicines such as the smallpox
vaccine, played a major role in the decline of mortality in Europe. Other factors essential to
the decline are public health measures, quarantine measures, and improved personal hygiene
as a result of rising incomes and acceptance to the germ theory of disease.
Another major factor in the increasing life span are improvements in nutrition, storage and
transportation which permitted integration of regional and international food outputs to have
local agricultural variations. These improvements reduced famine mortality. It was
recognized that better nourished populations were better able to resist disease.
2. Fertility Decline
In most of Europe from 1870 to 1930, fertility began to decline by about 40% (Coal end
Treadway, 1986 in Lee 2003). Lee (2003) postulates that one of the biggest factors that affect
this decline of fertility in Europe is the bearing and rearing of children. It was recognized
that childbearing and rearing are both time intensive and costly relative to consumption
goods.
3. Population Growth
The rapid global convergence in mortality and fertility among countries over the past 50 years
resulted in differences of growth rate among more developed, less developed and least
developed regions of the world. The population growth of developed countries is almost
stable – the population decrease in Europe and Japan was offset by population increase in the
United States.
4. Population Aging
Due largely to lowering fertility and greater longevity of life, the final stage of the global
demographic transition is population aging. The ageing of the population and lowering
fertility and old – age mortality are shifting the population balance from young to old.
The Second Demographic Transition
1. The most obvious change is the rise of total population from 1 Billion in 1800 to 9.5 Billion
in 2100. This, however, is being challenged by uncertain future of fertility especially among
more developed countries which already have negative population growth rates. The United
Nations projects that the population in Europe will decline by 13% between now and 2050.
2. At the level of the families, the number of children both declines and childbearing
consumes very few years of woman’s life. When this happens, many years of adulthood
become more available for other activities. Parents with fewer children are able to invest
more in each child reflecting the quality – quantity trade off.
3. Greater longevity of life may also alter the health status of the surviving population.
Mortality declines and may allow less healthy and more disabled people to live longer. Trends
in health, vitality and disability are of huge importance for the economic and social
consequences of aging and human welfare.
4. Aging societies impose economic pressures in more developed countries. Generous public
pension programs combined with heavy taxes on those who are still actively working have
pushed the rise of early retirement among people in industrial nations since the 1960s.
5. Population aging pushes governments of more developed countries to provide incentives to
encourage childbearing. The opposite is true among developing countries with younger
populations and where public programs are focused on children.
6. At the global level, international migration from third – world countries to more developed
countries have risen. Net international migration has experienced an increase from near –
zero in the 1950s to around 2.3 million per year in the 1990s. This only partially offsets
population aging in more developed countries.
7. Also on the global level, capital flows from the more developed countries towards the less
developed countries help keep the financial stability from falling apart because of population
aging.

GLOBAL MOBILITY

Global Migration is the flow or movement of people from one place to another around the
world. The main purpose of migration is to find work or employment.
TRENDS IN GLOBAL MOBILITY
Considering the state of migration globally in 2015, the following facts stand out:
➢ In 2015, the number of international migrants worldwide was the highest ever
recorded, having reached 244 million.
➢ South-South migration flows continued to grow compared to South-North
movements.
➢ Germany became the second most popular destination for international migrants
globally.
➢ 2015 was the deadliest year for migrants
➢ Remittances continue to climb globally while remittances-sending costs remain
relatively high.
FACTORS INFLUENCING MIGRATION AND POPULATION MOVEMENTS
 ➢ Socio-political, economic and ecological factors are the main forces driving
migration
➢ Rising communal violence world-wide has led to increased levels of migration
➢ Economic disparity between developing and developed economies encourages the
movement of skilled labor from the former to the latter.
➢ Changes in the ecological environment have the potential to worsen food and
water insecurity in various parts of the globe.

Migration has been and continues to be an increasingly important feature of our world,
and has the potential to make a significant contribution to development. Local authorities are
at the forefront in confronting the transformations and opportunities that migration brings
about: the drivers and impact of migration are often most strongly felt at the local level – be
it in terms of effects on the local labor market, the size and demographics of the local
population, or the need for public service provision. Increased attention should therefore be
devoted to analyzing the role decentralized levels of governments could play in harnessing the
positive impact of migration for development. The increasing role of local governments in the
field of migration and development follows on from the growing importance of the local level
for planning and implementing socio-economic development. Dedicated local policies to foster
synergies between migration and development within the same territory are therefore
extremely important, as is the provision of a favorable environment allowing the maximization
of migrants’ capitals.
MIGRATION is defined as crossing the boundary of a political or administrative unit form a
minimum period of time. According to UNESCO (2000), there are two basic types of migration:
(1) internal migration refers to a movement of people within one country from one area to
another; and (2) international migration, means crossing the boundary of one state to another.
TYPES OF INTERNATIONAL MIGRANTS (Castles, 2000)
1. Temporary labor or guest workers or overseas contract workers. Women or men
who migrate for a limited period in order to take up employment and send money
2. Highly skilled and business migrants. People with very high qualifications who moved
within the internal labor markets
3. Irregular migrants or undocumented or illegal migrants. People who enter a country,
usually in search of employment without necessary documents and permits
4. Refugees. A person residing outside his/her country of nationality, who is unable to
return because of a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion,
nationality, membership in a social group or political opinion.
5. Asylum-seekers. People who move across borders in search of protection but who may
not satisfy the criteria for a refugee.
6. Forced migrants. Includes not only refugees and asylum-seekers but also people force
to move by environmental catastrophes or development projects.
7. Family members (also known as family reunion or family reunification migrants) are
people belonging to the same family crossing borders to join people who have entered
an immigration country under any of the above categories.
8. Return migrants. People who return to their counties of origin after a period in
another country
TYPES OF INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION (Kriz et al , 1983)
1. Permanent settlers
2. Temporary
3. Refugee
4. Illegal migration
International migration is also viewed by these scholars as a subcomponent of international
mobility. Which as a whole may include movement of persons from their country of birth of
residence to another for work, touristic, educational or business purposes.
Why do people move?
Global migration can be understood as a cause and effect relationship, though the causes are
just as numerous as their effects. People move across international borders for a variety of
reasons, including (though not limited to):
• Safety
• Natural disaster
• Political conflict
• Education
• Family
• Career
• Economic betterment
The Push-Pull Factor
Some of the reasons that trigger global migration can be explained by what’s known as the
Push-Pull factor. Pull factors are factors in the destination country that attract the individual
or group to leave their home. These factors attract people to a new place largely because of
the opportunities presented in the new location were not available to them previously. An
example of a pull factor would include a family moving from a country with minimal job
opportunities to a new location with more opportunities for a successful career. The beneficial
elements that the new country presents encourages people to migrate there in order to seek a
better life for their families.
A push factor refers to conditions which force people to leave their homes. A person would
typically move because of distress (safety, natural disaster, or political conflict). Although push
factors don’t require a person to leave their home, the conditions impacting the push factors
often negatively impact the quality of life for the person if they choose to stay. Places that
experience drought and famine, war conflicts, and/or high unemployment would contribute to
the push factors that trigger migration for that country’s residents.
Push factors, in particular, are often underestimated in their popularity and frequency, which
is emphasized by Manpower Inc.’s survey of employees across 27 countries. In this survey about
relocating internationally, 82 percent of respondents said they would move for a pay increase,
74 percent would move to increase their career, and 47 percent would move to learn another
language. In short, people migrate for all kinds of unexpected reasons.
Does migration improve the quality of life?
Whether individuals migrate due to push or pull factors, there are undeniable benefits involved
with adapting to a new country. Some benefits are simply fun and exciting: learning a new
culture and experiencing new opportunities, such as tasting new foods and getting to know a
different approach to communication, or immersing yourself in the new cultural activities, can
be exciting and enriching.
Other benefits, namely personal freedoms, are essential. People may leave their home
countries in search of safety and religious, academic, or political freedom in their new
countries. It’s estimated that around 11 million Syrians have fled their homes since the outbreak
of the civil war in March 2011; many fleeing for their safety in search of a better quality of life
for their families. In this example, migration can improve peoples’ lives drastically.
Potential Drawbacks for Global Migration
Migration can present a great variety of challenges ranging from simple discomfort to profound
shifts in mental health. Migrating to a new place where the diet or the local culture is largely
unfamiliar may be quite jarring. Imagine moving from the US where drinking coffee or tea in
the mornings is the cultural norm to living in Central Asia where in some parts, drinking salty
yak butter tea is the norm.
Culture shock is a predictable culprit for migratory challenges: changes in language, diet,
politics, religion, and environment are immediately visible. For example, those who migrate
from the Middle East or Africa are aware of the difficulties of adjusting to colder temperatures
in Scandinavia. What might not be as obvious, though, is the challenge of adjusting to extremely
short daylight hours in the winter, making seasonal affective disorder an unanticipated hurdle
for many immigrants.
Furthermore, the act of leaving a home country can be emotionally difficult, especially for
those who may never be able to return and/or were forced out by situations that they couldn’t
control. Having to emigrate as a refugee from a war-torn Syria, breaks up families and can
destabilize immigrants’ sense of self, which could lead to depression. These challenges
obviously should not be taken lightly – help and support are key.

CAUSES OF MIGRATION
International migration is greatly a part of globalization.
The following are some theories and perspectives that explain the causes of migration
1. Neo-classical economic perspective. The disparity in levels of income, employment,
and social well-being between differing areas cause migration.
2. New economics of labor migration approach. Chances to secure employment,
availability of capital for entrepreneurial activity, and the need to manage risk over
period push people to migrate.
3. The development perspective. Migration is both a result and cause of development.
4. Migration systems theory. Migratory movements arise from the existence of prior links
between sending and receiving countries.
 5. The refugee phenomenon perspective. Closely linked to internal struggles within
nation-states for economic development. Social justice and relations between ethnic
groups.

EFFECTS OF MIGRATION
For sending country
➢ Leads to large proportions of the young population
➢ Leads to brain drain
➢ Remittances make a tremendous contribution to the national accounts
For the receiving country
➢ Leads to permanent settlement of certain proportion of migrants
➢ (May) Lead to discrimination or other conflicts brought by biological differentiation
➢ Leads to strong public relations
Issues Associated with Migration
➢ 1. The issue on whether migration actually facilitates and hinders development of
both the sending and receiving countries.
➢ 2. Most of the time, institutions, structures and services for the protection of the
immigrants in the receiving country are ineffective or worse, unavailable. The
number of consular officials is often too small to cope with the load of cases
especially on irregular migrants.
➢ 3. There is lack of coordinated strategies to assist returning migrants with re –
integration. Most returning migrants are faced with the difficulty of finding
employment reciprocal to their skills acquired abroad.
➢ 4. Despite international declarations such as the International Labor Organization
Conventions No. 97 of 1949 and No. 143 of 1975; and 1990 UN Convention on the
Rights of Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families crafted to regulate
migration and protect the rights of migrants, action is needed to persuade more
countries to sign up and implement these conventions.
➢ 5. International migration is seen as big factor in the erosion of the nation – state.
The territory and border controls, essential markers of nation – state sovereignty,
are being challenged by increased migratory flows particularly those that are
unwanted.