Journal of Applied Food Technology 3 (2) 1–6

Journal of Applied Food Technology

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(Review)
Potential Food Safety Hazard of Acrylamide in Deep Fried Fritter Sold as
Street Food in Indonesia
Yoga Pratama
Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Animal and Agricultural Sciences, Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia
*Corresponding author (yoga.pratama@undip.ac.id)

Abstract
Article information:
Food safety studies in Indonesian street food are mainly focused on Received 15 November 2016
microbiological risks. Therefore, this paper aims to review the food safety risk Accepted 27 December 2016
of acrylamide, a process contaminant, in Indonesian street food’s deep fried Available online 31 December 2016
fritter. Acrylamide is a carcinogenic and neurotoxic compound formed when
Keywords:
carbohydrate-rich material is heated above 120°C. Prevalence data was acrylamide
reviewed from selected papers on both laboratory simulation and monitoring deep frying
studies while online survey was conducted to obtain the consumption data. It fritter
street food
has been shown that deep fried fritter products meet the prerequisites for
Indonesia
acrylamide formation. Considerable amount of asparagine and reducing
sugars, the acrylamide precursors, were found in banana and sweet potato as © 2016
the fritter’s material. The acrylamide content in deep fried fritter was found to Indonesian Food Technologists
be comparable with that of French fries with the highest value of 1789.5 and All rights reserved

1060 ng/g for banana fritter and sweet potato fritter, respectively. Using the This is an open access article
worst/highest consumption-prevalence scenario, acrylamide intake from deep under the CC BY-NC-ND license
fried fritter in Indonesia may reach 895 µg of acrylamide per day which is
equivalent to >5 times tolerable daily intake (TDI). Hence, it needs further and doi: 10.17728/jaft.2

more robust risk assessment study.

Introduction are observed from the consumption of street food.

Street food has been characterized by ready to
eat, low priced, and sold at public places. Food can be
freshly prepared or premade and sold for immediate
consumption. Street vendors normally use push cart,
open air stall, truck or tent which become the main
reason why it costs lower than food served by restaurant.
Meanwhile, it is located in the public places such as on
the street or where it can be easily reached from the
street (Mamun and Turin 2016). Street food has become
economically important as it provides income opportunity
for people with limited education and capital.
Furthermore in some countries, the majority of street
vendors are women (Roever 2014). Due to its low price,
it is also affordable by many people, particularly those
who have low income such as in developing countries.
Thus, 2.5 billion people have been estimated to consume
street food daily (Kraig and Sen 2013). On contrary to its
advantage, street food has been source of several food
safety problems. The reported cases include harmful
microbiological infestation, prohibited additives, and also
environmental contamination due to its open air and near
street characteristic (Mamun and Turin 2016).
Indonesia, as a developing country, has a large
number of street vendors and consumers depending on
it every day. Consequently, many foodborne illnesses
1
Gasem et al. (2001) have reported that more typhoid
fever cases have been found in people who consume
street food. Whereas street food has been associated
with poor food hygiene (Farida et al. 2013). Various
pathogen contaminations have been reported in street
food such as Vibrio cholera in edible ice (Waturangi et al.
2013), Klebsiella pneumonia carriage in people who
have access to street food and poor water hygiene
(Farida et al. 2013), Staphylococcus aureus in foods sold
in the vicinity of elementary schools (Adolf and Azis
2012), and Salmonella sp. in various street food vendors
(Vollaard et al. 2004; Adolf and Azis 2012). Prohibited
additive such as formalin has been reported to be used
as preservative for several street foods in Surakarta,
Indonesia (Proietti et al., 2014). Many other cases of
unpermitted additive including textile colorant and boric
acid are reported in regular basis by the media and
indexed journal.
However, as seen also in many other developing
countries, many food safety investigations on street food
are related to microbiological hazards while more limited
information found on toxicological hazards (Proietti et al.,
2014). It is easily understood as microbiological attack
causes acute response while the toxicological hazard,
except for very high exposure, will normally affect human
 Journal of Applied Food Technology 3 (2) 1–6

health in long term (chronic). Therefore, some potential

hazards arising from non-microorganism may be
overlooked. One of the examples is deep fried fritter,
which becomes this review paper’s focus. The product is
processed by frying at high temperature resulting in a
very unlikely microbiological contamination. However,
another food safety hazard may come from
contamination during process which is called as process
contaminant.
Compared to microbiological hazards, process
contaminant related food safety issue has not been
widely discussed in Indonesia. One process contaminant Figure 2. Preference of Indonesian People towards Street
associated with frying process, namely acrylamide, has Food Fritter (n=263)
been a concern recently since it is considered as
potential human carcinogen (Krishnakumar and Table 1. Typical Preparation for Fritter in Indonesia
Bana Cassa Sweet Tem- Vege
Visvanathan 2014). The objective of this work is to Step
na va Potato peh
Tofu
table
assess the prevalence and the potential risk of Peeling √ √ √ - - √
acrylamide in deep fried fritter snack in Indonesia. Critical Cutting √ √ √ √ - √
review was made from selected research articles, 8x8 Shred
x8 ding
whereas the consumption data was collected through Approx.
15x5 10x10 15x5 15x15 (alrea to
Dimension
online survey from 263 respondents. (in cm)
x5 x10 x1 x1 dy in small
piece piece
s) s
Boiling - √ - - - -
Flour √ √ √ √ √
batte- - batte- batte- batte- mix
addition ring ring ring ring ing
Frying √ √ √ √ √ √

Except for cassava and vegetables, the fritters are

Figure 1. (A) pushed cart for fritter selling; (B) banana fritter;
(C) cassava fritter; (D) sweet potato fritter; (E) vegetable
fritter; (F) tofu fritter; (G) tempeh fritter
Hazard Identification
Fried food has become popular choice in
Indonesian diet. It is supported by the abundant supply
of palm oil in the country. The liquid part of palm oil, i.e.
palm olein, has been widely recognized as good frying
medium as it has good oxidative stability and preferred
organoleptic attributes due to less greasy mouth feel
compared to palm oil (Matthäus, 2007). Most
importantly, the palm olein product is considerably
cheaper than other frying oil products available in
Indonesia such as coconut oil and the imported olive oil.
Due to the popularity, a large numbers of fried street food
can be easily found in Indonesia. Some popular dishes
include fried rice, fried chicken, fried cat fish, fried duck
and a particular form of deep fried fritter, locally called as
“gorengan”, where “goring” literally means fry.
The fritter snack is normally sold during afternoon
to night in a pushed cart (Figure 1). Several types of most
common fritters are made from banana, cassava, sweet
potato, tempeh, tofu, and vegetables (mix of cabbage,
carrot and bean sprout) which are called “pisang
goreng”, “singkong goreng”, “ubi goreng”, “tempe
goreng”, “tahu goreng” and “bakwan”, respectively
(Figure 1). Typical preparation of the fritters can be seen
in the Table 1.
typically prepared by cutting the material in a specific
dimension and then battered (mainly combination of
water, wheat flour, rice flour, sugar, salt and spices).
Subsequently, the battered product is deep fried using
palm olein until golden brown colored product is reached
and in most cases, having a crunchy crust. Time and
temperature combination for deep frying are
approximately 5-10 minutes at 150-180 degree Celsius
(Ilmi et al., 2015). Traditional gas stove and wide frying
pan are commonly used instead of temperature-
controlled deep fryer, hence the reason of temperature
variability. Cassava fritter is normally prepared by cutting
and boiling (with garlic, and salt) prior to deep frying so
that the inside texture of cassava fritter becomes soft
while having crunchy crust. Vegetable fritter is prepared
from a mix of vegetables, which include but not limited to
cabbage, carrot and bean sprout. Shredded vegetables
are mixed with diluted wheat & rice flour and selected
spices before it is made into an irregularly shaped lump
and fried.
As one of the most common snacks, deep fried
fritter is loved and consumed by majority of people in
Indonesia. A consumption study has been conducted by
online survey covering 263 respondents (original data).
Preference towards fritter has been checked by asking
respondent to choose type of fritter that they like
(minimum 0, maximum 3) out of 6 most common fritter
types. As can be seen in Figure 2, the most preferred
fritter was tempeh fritter with 63.1% respondents like it,
followed by banana fritter with 55.5% respondents.
Tempeh is traditional Indonesian fermented soybean
product which is produced by Rhizopus spp.
fermentation on cooked soybean. Upon growth, the

2
 Journal of Applied Food Technology 3 (2) 1–6
fungus’ hypha creates matrix which covers and binds the
soybean resulting in solid and sliceable product (Nassar
et al., 2008). It has been considered as healthy food due
to its high protein content and also low priced, which
might be the reason of its popularity.
Figure 3. Fritter consumption frequency and the amount
consumed in each occasion (n=263)
Figure 4. Proposed mechanism of acrylamide formation from
asparagine and reducing sugars (Krishnakumar and
Visvanathan 2014)
Figure 3 shows the frequency and the amount of
fritter consumed in each occasion. While majority of
Indonesian (34.2%) consume fritter 2-3 times/week, it
was surprising to have 16.3% of respondents who
consume fritter in daily basis. This shows that fritter has
become inseparable diet for some Indonesian people. In
each occasion, more than 65% of respondents consume
2-3 pieces of fritter whereas 11.8% of respondent
consume at least 5 pieces fritter. One piece of fritter is
approximately 100 gram. Consumption of 2-3 pieces can
be regarded as moderate while 5 pieces or more is
regarded high level considering the fact that it is a snack.
This consumption data will be very important in order to
formulate a risk assessment related to food safety of
street food fritter.
Overview of acrylamide
International Agency for Research on Cancer
(IARC) in 1994 has classified acrylamide as group 2A
carcinogen (probably carcinogenic to humans) while it is
also found to be toxic to the nervous system, causes
gene mutation and DNA damage (Krishnakumar and
Visvanathan 2014). Acrylamide carcinogenicity has been
well documented in numerous study using animal
(rat/mouse) models while a number of researches on its
potential as human carcinogen have been carried out
since the first discovery of acrylamide in food in 2002
(Virk-Baker et al. 2014). Exon (2006) has reviewed the
3
toxicology of acrylamide while Tardiff et al. (2010) has
estimated the safe dietary intake level of acrylamide for
humans. Tolerable daily intake (TDI) in terms of
neurotoxicity was estimated to be 40 µg/kg-day and as
low as 2.6 µg/kg-day was estimated for cancer. Even
though the TDI has not been adopted by regulatory
bodies, in Europe for instance (European Food Safety
Authority [EFSA] 2015), we can use the estimated 2.6
µg/kg-day limit to avoid any ill effect from acrylamide.
The origin and the formation mechanism of
acrylamide in food have been studied in numerous
publications. Evidence showed that acrylamide is formed
naturally when carbohydrate-rich food is processed at
high temperatures such as during frying, baking or
roasting. However, it is not found in raw foods or when
the carbohydrate-rich food is boiled. Similarly,
acrylamide is not found in protein-rich foods such as fish,
meat or chicken (Arvanitoyannis and Dionisopoulou
2014). As the presence is undesirable and related to
process applied to food, acrylamide has been
considered as a process contaminant. Among other
foods, potato fries and cereal products become the most
studied object for its acrylamide content.
Several mechanisms of acrylamide formation
have been proposed. Study showed that acrylamide is
formed during Maillard reaction, a non-enzymatic
browning reaction, which influences the development of
desirable color, flavor and aroma. It has been
demonstrated that the presence of free asparagine and
reducing sugar is the main cause of acrylamide formation
during Maillard reaction at high temperature (Figure 4)
(Das and Srivastav 2012). In addition to major pathway
via Maillard reaction, several minor reaction routes have
been proposed such as a pathway for lipid-rich product
which includes ammonia and acrolein while asparagine
is absent. Another proposed mechanism is protein
pyrolisis in cereals product. Nevertheless, acrylamide
formation from asparagines and reducing sugars
remains the major mechanism which is generally
accepted (Medeiros Vinci et al., 2012).
In accordance with the increasing interest towards
acrylamide, researchers are trying to improve the
efficiency and accuracy of its analytical method.
Determination of acrylamide in food is normally carried
out by chromatographic method such as gas
chromatography (GC)-mass spectrometry (MS) where
derivatization of acrylamide is needed, liquid
chromatography (LC)-MS, and LC-MS-MS. Food sample
is typically prepared by solid-phase extraction prior to
these analyses. Due to its accuracy, LC-MS-MS is the
most preferred method (Tekkeli et al., 2012).
Despite the research development in the
toxicological aspect, understanding of formation
mechanism and its analytical method, there is no
regulation of the acrylamide residue in food as of today.
United States Food Drug and Administration (USFDA)
and ESFA have published recommendation to reduce
the residue of acrylamide but not regulation (EFSA,
2015; USFDA, 2016). One of the reasons is inconclusive
epidemiological data which show that acrylamide is
human carcinogen (EFSA, 2015). Concurrently, there is
no regulation for acrylamide in Indonesia. Even if the
 Journal of Applied Food Technology 3 (2) 1–6

regulation exists, Indonesia may face difficulties to
implement it as the current analytical method is deemed
to be sophisticated for Indonesian laboratories.
Acrylamide prevalence in deep fried fritter of Indonesia
The nature of Indonesian deep fried fritter which is
prepared from carbohydrate-rich materials and
processed using high temperature fits the prerequisite
conditions for acrylamide formation. Hence, it is
reasonable to expect that the fritters may contain a
considerable amount of acrylamide. As can be seen in
Table 2, several authors have reported the acrylamide
level in fritter products, as the result of laboratory
simulation or the analysis result from samples taken from
the market. However, there is data scarcity in terms of
the fritter’s type. Out of 6 most common fritters found in
Indonesia, only banana fritter, sweet potato fritter and
cassava fritter’s data are available. Acrylamide level on
the most preferred tempeh fritter’s data was not found.
Daniali et al. (2013) studied the effect of two
varieties of banana in Malaysia namely Abu and Awak,
and its maturity towards the acrylamide content of the
banana fritter produced. It was found that the simulated
banana fritter product contain acrylamide as much as
67.3 - 809.2 ng/g. Meanwhile, Komthong et al. (2012)
took banana fritter samples from the traditional market in
Chonburi, Thailand and reported that it has acrylamide
level of 184.9 - 200.7 ng/g. Another monitoring study
conducted in Manado, Indonesia showed that banana
fritter sample’s acrylamide range from 39.65 to as high
as 1789.5 ng/g (Tandi et al., 2012). Findings on
simulated product have been confirmed by market
sample analysis. This shows that considerable amount
of acrylamide is present in banana fritter product.
Sweet potato fritter has also been simulated by
Lim et al. (2014) to see the effect of frying oil type and
the number of frying towards its acrylamide content. The
products of the first frying (chosen as to provide
comparable data) were reported to have acrylamide
content range from 296 to 1060 ng/g. It is noteworthy to
mention that the lowest result was obtained from lower
degree of unsaturation oil, i.e. palm olein, while the
highest value was fried using soya bean oil which has
higher degree of unsaturation. Sengke et al. (2013) has
collected sweet potato fritter from 7 locations in Manado,
Indonesia and found that the product contain acrylamide
from 118.5 to 866.7 ng/g. Similar to banana fritter, these
findings have shown that sweet potato fritter also contain
a considerable amount of acrylamide.
The information of acrylamide level in cassava
fritter in Indonesia is lacking. However, one monitoring
study conducted in Brazil found only traces amount of
acrylamide in the cassava fritter sample (Arisseto et al.
2007). As only one data present, more monitoring study
and laboratory simulation should be carried out if we
want to draw firmer conclusion about the presence of
acrylamide in cassava fritter. The same need applies to
tempeh fritter, tofu fritter and vegetable fritter, as
currently there is no data available for those products.
Since the finding of acrylamide in food product,
French fries has been the focus of many studies which
attempt to analyze and to reduce its acrylamide content.
Therefore, it can be used as a good reference for the
similar study in different type of products. Based on a
study by Becalski et al. (2004), acrylamide content of
French fries range from 50 to 1823 ng/g. Compared to
this, banana fritter has the similar range with the
maximum level of 1789.5 ng/g whereas sweet potato
fritter has somewhat lower acrylamide content with
maximum level of 1060 ng/g. The comparison shows that
deep fried fritter has comparable amount of acrylamide
content with French fries. Furthermore, part of
Indonesian consume fritter products in daily basis.
Therefore, it would be logical if Indonesian need to put
attention on this product’s acrylamide as the Western
people do with French fries.
Risk factors: process condition and material
The content of acrylamide in the food products is
mainly influenced by two main factors, i.e. the raw
material and the process condition. Acrylamide formation
is believed to happen at above 120 °C (Krishnakumar
and Visvanathan 2014). It has been well acknowledged
that more severe the heating process, the higher the
acrylamide content. In street deep fried fritter vendors, a
stabile frying temperature is hard to achieve as they are
using manual gas stove. In addition, frying time also
varies. Some vendors want to make crispier products

Table 2. Prevalence of Acrylamide in Selected Deep Fried Fritters Compared to French Fries
Product type French Fries Banana fritter Sweet Potato fritter Cassava
fritter
Research type: lab simulation (S) / S S M S M M
monitoring (M)
Asparagine (mg/g) 1.49–11.37 0.92–2.16 - - 1.970–1.982 - -
Reducing sugar (glu+fru) (mg/g) 0.14–12.39 1.19–14.09 - - 9.22 - -
Non reducing sugar (suc) (mg/g) 0.57–10.6 1.03–7.87 - - 52 - -
Frying Temperature (°C) 180 170 160–180 - 180 - -
Frying Time (min) 4.25 10 5–6 - 10 - -
a
Acrylamide content (ng/g) 50–1823 67.3–809.2 184.9–200.7 39.65–1789.5296–1060 118.5–866.7 < LOQ
Number of samples (n) 66 24 3 12 16 7 3
LOD (ng/g) - 5 4 - 2 - 10
LOQ (ng/g) - 15 15 - 5 - 20
Reference(s) Becalski et al. Daniali et al. Komthong et Tandi et Lim et al. Sengke et al. Arisseto
b
(2004) (2013) al. (2012) al. (2012) (2014) (2013) et al.
c
(2007)
a b c
value taken from sweet potato fritter which is fried once, monitoring data from Thailand, monitoring data from Brazil. LOD: limit of
detection; LOQ: limit of quantification

4
 Journal of Applied Food Technology 3 (2) 1–6
which involve longer frying time. However, one aspect
that may limit the temperature of frying is the frying
stability of the oil used, palm olein. Although it has better
stability than many other oils such as olive oil, soybean
oil, corn oil, etc., it has lower stability than the palm oil
(shortening) which normally used in fast food restaurant.
Furthermore, it is a common practice for street vendors
to use the oil repeatedly. By doing so, the oil quality will
degrade. The degradation of the oil itself will not affect
the acrylamide formation (Mestdagh et al., 2007),
however it will affect the frying stability such as the
smoke point due to the increasing free fatty acid content.
If the smoke point lowers, it will prompt the vendor to
lower the frying temperature.
From the material aspect, it has been mentioned
previously that asparagine and reducing sugars are
major precursors for acrylamide. Table 2 shows that both
banana and sweet potato have considerable amount of
asparagine, although it is lower than that of potato
(assumption using the highest value of the range). Sweet
potato also has lower reducing sugars than potato, whilst
in contrast, banana has higher range. It is
understandable considering the banana’s sweet taste.
Those conditions might be the reason why sweet potato
fritter has lower acrylamide content than French fries
while banana fritter has a similar level. The lower
asparagine value in banana is compensated by higher
reducing sugars content. Daniali et al. (2013) has shown
that maturity of banana significantly correlates to the
concentration of reducing sugars, and thus higher
acrylamide content in banana fritter.
How significant is potential safety hazard from
consuming deep fried fritter?
As has been mentioned in the previous section,
estimated TDI for acrylamide intake is 2.6 µg/kg-day
which equals to 156 µg per day for the average 60 kg
human. Using the consumption data and the prevalence
data, we can estimate the acrylamide intake from fritter
in Indonesia. Assumption being used is worst scenario
where consumption-prevalence combination is highest.
Consumption data of deep fried fritter shows that
Indonesian might consume as much as 5 pieces or more
of fritter in daily basis. Approximate weight of each
pieces of fritter is 100 gram, thus make the estimated
highest daily fritter intake is 500 gram of fritter.
Multiplying this value with the highest acrylamide level in
banana fritter (1789.5 ng/g) gives the approximation of
worst scenario where 894750 ng (≈ 895 µg) of
acrylamide is ingested daily from deep fried fritter.
Worst scenario is an exaggeration of the problem,
yet it can be used as a quick check if the issue needs for
further examination or not. When the value of the worst
scenario is still under the safe limit, then the issue does
not need to be further examined. In the deep fried fritter’s
acrylamide context, the worst scenario gives
approximation of 895 µg daily intake which is more than
5 times TDI. This demonstrates the potential safety
hazard to Indonesian consumers, thus the need to do a
more detailed risk assessment exercise. One of widely
accepted risk assessment methods is by using Margin of
Exposure (MOE) approach (EFSA, 2005).
5
Considering the potential hazard posed by deep
fried fritter consumption, consumer must do moderation
so that their daily intake will not exceed the TDI.
Therefore, consumption of one piece of fritter per day
can be considered safe in terms of acrylamide intake.
Conclusion
Acrylamide is a known carcinogenic and
neurotoxic compound. The deep fried fritter product has
the prerequisites for acrylamide formation as it contains
considerable asparagine and reducing sugars while also
processed using high frying temperature. The
acrylamide content is comparable with that of French
fries, especially for banana fritter. However, there is a
data scarcity for several fritter types which urge the need
for study. Working with the worst/highest consumption-
prevalence scenario, it has been demonstrated that deep
fried fritter consumption in Indonesia might lead to
ingestion of 895 µg of acrylamide per day. This value
exceeded the TDI and shows that potential food safety
hazard might come from this. As the assumption is an
over exaggeration, it needs a further and more robust
risk assessment study to evaluate the actual risk level for
Indonesian consumers. Currently, there is no regulation
for acrylamide residue, in Indonesia and the world.
Acknowledgement
This paper was made in part of International
Training Program in Food Safety, Quality Assurance and
Risk Analysis held in Ghent University, Belgium 2016
(http://www.itpfoodsafety.ugent.be/) under VLIR-UOS
Scholarship. Author thanks Prof. Liesbeth Jacxsens
(Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Ghent
University) and all contributed members of Faculty of
Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University for valuable
inputs which greatly improved the manuscript.
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