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Spacecraft Structures
Tetsuo Yasaka Junjiro Onoda
Kyushu University Institute of Space and Astronautical Sciences

I. Structural Configuration
II. Environment and Design Requirements
III. Materials
IV. Structural Analyses
V. Verification

GLOSSARY SPACECRAFT is a system comprised of many thousands

Coupled load analysis Analysis of combined space-
craft/launch vehicle structure response under antici-
pated flight load at each vehicle launch sequence.
Deployable structure A part of the spacecraft which
changes its shape to increase its dimension after the
orbit insertion by electrical, chemical, elastic, or other
kind of energy.
FEM Computational tool to analyze structural behavior
by dividing the structure into small elements and ap-
plying force balance at each element node.
Flight load factor Maximum flight load normalized by
the earth gravitational acceleration (g).
Margin of safety Expression of strength margin in
reference to the allowable strength of the structure
material.
Primary structure Main portion of the structure trans-
mitting major flight loads to all parts of the spacecraft.
Secondary structure Lightly loaded structural part
maintaining geometrical positions of the spacecraft
components.
Ultimate load Maximum flight load multiplied by a
safety factor.
of electrically and/or mechanically interconnected com-
ponents that are located at predetermined geometrical po-
sitions to perform predetermined functions. The structure
maintains the geometrical locations of all components, un-
der any internal and external forces during its mission life.
During the boost phase into the orbit, a large thrust is given
from the booster, and the force must be adequately trans-
mitted to all components so that they are equally acceler-
ated to attain the orbital velocity. The structure provides
the load paths during any event of external force applica-
tions. The magnitude of the load over each path may vary
depending upon the dynamical characteristics of the struc-
ture, particularly under time-varying forces. The structure
must be so designed that it can withstand these loads with-
out failure, and that the loads transmitted are not excessive
to the spacecraft components. In orbit, the loads are ex-
tremely small compared to those during the launch phase,
but operation activities impose stringent requirements on
structural distortions, both static and dynamic, such as re-
sponding to thruster firing, appendage slewing, mechan-
ical component motion, and thermal load. Temperature
variations due to the cyclic solar illumination and eclipses
often necessitate major structural design considerations

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in the orbit, in terms of thermal stresses, in addition to
the thermally induced distortions. In the prelaunch phase,
the structure should provide adequate load paths against
ground handling and integration loads.
The structure design goes through iterative processes,
along with the design evolutions of the spacecraft system
and various subsystems. Payload configuration, attitude
control concept, power and thermal requirements, and all
other subsystem requirements are considered in the de-
sign of the structure. Often, the resulting structural design
is reflected back to other subsystem designs for the con-
sideration of overall system optimization. The design is
verified by utilizing computational tools, mainly Finite
Element Method (FEM), and finally by tests. Because the
whole design process is costly and time consuming, it is
desirable to re-use structures already verified in past pro-
grams. However, reexamination of structure is inevitable
due to change of some portion of the system, except in the
case of multiple identical spacecraft like the low-Earth
orbit communications satellite constellations.
Deployable structures are often introduced to meet de-
manding mission requirements. These structures enable
appendages to extend beyond the limitations of the launch
vehicle volume constraints after separation from the ve-
hicle, while the launch load during the launch phase is
relieved in a stowed configuration.
I. STRUCTURAL CONFIGURATION
A. Major Components
A spacecraft structure is divided into the primary struc-
ture and the secondary structure. The primary structure
provides a basic load path from the launch vehicle in-
terface to major component attachment structures. Pro-
pellant tanks, batteries, communication equipment and
other components of considerable masses must be at-
tached to sufficiently strong panels or trusses, which are
connected to the main portion of the primary structure.
The primary structure includes the launch vehicle inter-
face structure, through which the largest portion of the
launch loads are transmitted. The secondary structure sup-
ports other smaller but often orientation sensitive compo-
nents, including sensors and thrusters. Solar arrays and
antennas often behave as independent structural subsys-
tems after their deployment in the orbit, and they are
connected to the primary structure through mechanical
bearings or joints. Thermal control devices are often in-
tegrated into the structure, including surface paints, ther-
mal insulators, rovers, thermal plugs and imbedded heat
pipes.
In some satellites, bus and payload modules are devel-
oped separately and mated afterward just before the over-
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Spacecraft Structures
all system tests. The satellite may be further modularized
to allow each component to be replaced to meet specific
mission needs. Modularization enhances development ef-
ficiency by allowing parallel development/verification and
reutilization of already proven units on different satellites.
B. Configurations
The spacecraft shape and structural configuration are se-
lected by consideration of the launch vehicle constraints,
the attitude control system, the power requirement, and
other mission requirements. Earth-oriented satellites have
sensors and antennas pointed toward the Earth. If the
spacecraft is spin-stabilized, none of its surface points per-
manently toward the Earth. Therefore, a de-spin mecha-
nism may be employed to provide a nonspinning platform.
Three-axis stabilized spacecraft, on the other hand, can
maintain one surface pointed toward the earth. Since one
of the spacecraft axes is kept normal to the orbital plane,
from the ease of the attitude determination and control,
the orientation of the spacecraft at any point on the orbit
is determined. Then, the solar array mount position is se-
lected to obtain maximum solar flux throughout the orbital
period.
In case of a three-axis-stabilized geostationary satel-
lite, the solar arrays are mounted on the north and south
surfaces and spun around the north–south axis once per
revolution. Since the orbit lies close the equatorial plane,
the solar arrays point toward the sun within about 23.5◦
at any time during the orbital life without further attitude
maneuvers. If the satellite is spin stabilized, the array is
mounted on a surface parallel to the spin axis, which co-
incides with the orbit normal. A drum-type solar array
is the most common configuration for a spin-stabilized
spacecraft.
Many spacecraft have a propulsion module for injection
into a higher-energy orbit after the separation from the
launch vehicle. The mass center of the propellant is de-
sired to be located along the launcher interface center axis
to avoid an excessive bending moment during the launch
phase, and to avoid an undesirable mass center shift after
propulsion maneuvers. Therefore, the propulsion module
is located symmetrically with respect to the center axis,
in case of a liquid propellant system, and at the center if a
solid propellant motor is used. The thrust from the propul-
sion module often results in a critical design load for the
spacecraft structure, and the motor must be mounted to
the primary structure in a proper way such that the force
is transmitted to the structure without severe concentrated
loads. The thrusters of the auxiliary propulsion system, on
the other hand, produce much smaller loads during attitude
or orbit maneuvers. Therefore, they are mounted on brack-
ets which are considered as part of the secondary structure.
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Spacecraft Structures 451

C. Structural Components
The structure is an assembly of simple structural elements
of trusses, panels, cylinders, spheres and other machined
blocks of more complicated shapes. Those elements are
made into a functional structure subsystem when joined
together through bolts, rivets, adhesions, and other me-
chanical joints including hinges and bearings. The struc-
tural elements are sized so that the mass is minimized
while the stress is within the allowable limit of the ma-
terial. The stiffness is influenced not only by the element
sizing and material properties but also by the arrange-
ment of the elements and character of joints between the
elements.
Trusses are effective devices for transmitting concen-
trated loads. They usually have the shape of a thin-walled
tube, with end fittings shaped to match the joints. The tube
portion is an extruded or machined metal or a fiber reen-
forced composite tube. The size is determined by consid-
eration of the longitudinal stress and buckling loads. If the
joints have rotational rigidity, bending moments often be-
come the critical loads. Figure 1a shows a truss structure
of optical bench of an X-ray telescope.
Many panels are of sandwich-type construction, be-
cause this provides the best specific mass relative to stiff-
ness and strength. Aluminum honeycomb core is com- (a)
monly sandwiched by thin face sheets of aluminum or
fiber reenforced composite material as shown in Fig. 1b.
The honeycomb sandwich panel is not adequate for cop-
ing with concentrated forces. Therefore, screws or other
force-bearing elements must be imbedded in locally in-
serted metal or plastic blocks in the core section, so that the
blocks distribute the concentrated load effectively along
the periphery of the blocks.
A cylinder is an effective load carrying member by it-
self and it is often used in the central portion of the space-
craft with a machined element attached to its lower end to
(b)
provide the mechanical interface with the launch vehicle.
A sphere is an ideal form for a fluid container and a pres- FIGURE 1 Structural elements. (a) Truss structure, (b) honey-
comb sandwich panel.
sure vessel. Both cylinders and spheres are made up of thin
walls of metal or composite materials. Machined brack-
ets are attached to them for providing supports to other
cruise phase between the observation phases. This type
structural members and functional elements.
of spacecraft has a legacy of well-established spinning
spacecraft structure, often found in geostationary com-
D. Examples munications satellites. It has a central aluminum conical
shell, whose lower end has an attachment fitting to mate
1. Example 1. Spin/Three-Axis-Stabilized
with the launch vehicle and whose upper end supports
Deep Space Probe (CONTOUR)
the large solid propellant motor used for injection into
Figure 2 shows the structural configuration of CONTOUR, a heliocentric trajectory. The main deck is an aluminum
a deep space mission spacecraft for performing multiple honeycomb composite panel, supported by struts at the
comet nucleus fly-by’s. CONTOUR employs three-axis outer peripheral and by the central shell in the inner pe-
control mode during the comet fly-by periods for nucleus ripheral. Hydrazine tanks and the majority of electronic
imaging purpose, but it is spin stabilized during the long components are attached on the deck. The central shell, the
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452
FIGURE 2 CONTOUR Spin/three-axis deep space probe structure. (Courtesy of Johns Hopkins University/Applied
Physics Laboratory.)
main deck and the struts compose the primary structure,
and the secondary structures including a solar array sup-
port frame, aft panel support struts and dust shield support
frames are supported by the primary structure.
2. Example 2. Large Polar Platform
Satellite (ENVISAT)
ENVISAT, shown in Fig. 3 is a very large Earth observa-
tion satellite of more than 8000 kg of mass, which will
be launched by Ariane 5 into a sun-synchronous orbit
of 800 km altitude. The primary structure consists of a
Carbon Epoxy central cylinder with four equally spaced
shear panels (90◦ each), built as sandwich panels with
aluminium honeycomb and composite facesheets. In the
upper part of the spacecraft (Payload Module), the cen-
tral cylinder is built in four sections, joined together with
forged aluminium rings. The central cylinder has a conical
shape in the lower part of the spacecraft (Service Module)
interfacing with the launch vehicle adapter. The satellite
secondary structure is composed of a box-shaped config-
uration of sandwich panels with aluminium honeycomb
and composite face-sheets, connected to the internal shear
panels and providing external mounting surfaces for the
payload experiments. The propulsion module structure is
located between the Service Module and the Payload Mod-
ule, and comprises an aluminium alloy machined plate
which supports the four propellant tanks.
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Spacecraft Structures
3. Example 3. ASTRO-F (Three-Axis Infrared
Imaging Surveyor)
ASTRO-F satellite shown in Fig. 4a is a three-axis con-
trolled infrared imaging surveyor that will be launched
into a sun-synchronous polar orbit. The cryostat mounted
on the top of the satellite contains infrared imaging tele-
scope keeping it at a extremely low temperature. The cryo-
stat is connected to the main body of the satellite by truss
struts. Figure 4b shows structure configuration of the main
body. The main structure consists of a carbon epoxy cen-
tral cylinder and sandwich panels with aluminum honey-
comb and aluminum face-sheets. The central cylinder is
reinforced by upper ring, lower ring, and stringers. The
truss struts supporting the 400-kg-weight mission instru-
ment (cryostat and infrared imaging telescope) are con-
nected to the top ends of the cylinder and stringers. Two
propellant tanks and a gas tank are installed in the cen-
tral cylinder support by struts. Most of the bus equipment
is installed on the inside panels that are mounted on the
stringers of the central cylinder. The solar array is wrapped
around the main body in launch phase.
E. Deployable Structures
Many missions call for in-orbit deployment, so that cer-
tain satellite elements can be extended away from the
main body or enlarged in area. The simplest examples
are whip-shaped elements that elastically snap out from
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Spacecraft Structures 453

(a)

FIGURE 3 ENVISAT large polar platform. (Courtesy of European

Space Agency.)

the spacecraft main body. Actual deployment incorporates

very complex mechanisms and operations procedures, uti-
lizing rotational hinges, extensional elements and mechan-
ical or cable restrained links. Typical examples are solar
arrays on a high power spacecraft, communication antenna
reflectors, and radar antennas for earth observation. The
deployed structures are very flexible appendages attached
to the spacecraft. During the launch phase, however, they
are stowed and clumped on to the spacecraft main struc-
ture by explosive bolts or separation nuts. Because of the
high rigidity in the stowed configuration, the launch loads
on the deployable structures are considerably low. On the
other hand, high-thrust maneuvers are usually avoided af-
ter the deployment.

1. Example 4. Solar Array (MUSES-C)

Figure 5 shows stowed and fully deployed solar array of
MUSES-C spacecraft for the asteroid sample return mis-
sion. The spacecraft has two 2.5 × 4.2 m solar array wings.
Each wing consists of three solar panels, two booms, and
deployment mechanisms. The solar cells mounted on the
panels generate 2.7 kW electric power at 1 AU distance (b)
from the sun. To avoid the shadows of the high-gain an- FIGURE 4 ASTRO-F three-axis infrared imaging surveyor. (a)
tenna, and to keep high efficiency of thermal radiation Configuration, (b) structure. (Courtesy of Institute of Space and
from the main body, the solar panels are kept apart from Astronautical Sciences.)
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FIGURE 5 MUSES-C solar array. (Courtesy of Institute of Space and Astronautical Sciences.)
the main body when they are deployed. The tip solar pan-
els first deploy, driven by spring forces, when pyrotechnic
devices (wire cutters) are ignited and main holding mech-
anisms are released. Subsequently, the center panel and
booms deploy when subholding mechanisms are released.
2. Example 5. Deployable Communication
Antenna (ETS-VIII)
Figure 6 shows in-orbit configuration of the ETS-VIII.
The 13 m aperture (19 m × 17 m outside dimension)
mesh/truss antenna reflectors are used for transmission
FIGURE 6 ETS-VIII geostationary satellite with large deployable antennas. (Courtesy of National Space Development
Agency of Japan.)
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Spacecraft Structures
and receiving antennas. To construct such an antenna,
the modular structure has been developed. The antenna
reflector consists of several basic modules. Each mod-
ule is a hexagonal truncated pyramid. The module size is
optimized considering some design criteria such as total
weight, natural frequencies, stowed size, and deformation
characteristics especially during assembly and tests under
the gravity. Fourteen modules, 4.8 m across, are assem-
bled to a 13-m aperture antenna reflector. Each module
consists of a gold-plated molybdenum mesh surface, a
cable network with finely length adjusted cable elements,
and a deployable truss structure as a supporting structure.
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Spacecraft Structures 455

The steady-state acceleration is defined in both longi-

tudinal and lateral directions. Longitudinal acceleration
is induced by the launch vehicle thrust, and, therefore,
it has a tendency to increase with depletion of propel-
lant, reaching its maximum toward the end of each stage
burn. Lateral acceleration is a result of the lateral motion
of the vehicle, usually coupled with lateral thrust com-
ponents and attack angle during the atmospheric flight.
Dynamical responses of the vehicle may be induced by
transient loads such as gust, thrust build-up or tail-off,
and structure-propulsion coupling. Accelerations induced
by these dynamical responses are clearly time-varying,
but the maximum response accelerations of low-frequency
components are super-imposed to the steady-state accel-
eration, and the combined load factors are defined for the
purpose of design criteria (Table I).
The low-frequency vibration represents the sinusoidal
component of the accelerations, induced by the vehicle
dynamic response due to unsteady forces of engine thrust,
gust, attitude control limit cycle, and engine-structure
coupling. Most commonly, this is defined in the fre-
quency range of 5–100 Hz, with respect to both longi-
tudinal and lateral directions (Table II). Higher-frequency
FIGURE 7 Antenna deployment sequence (ETS-VIII). (Courtesy
of National Space Development Agency of Japan.)
TABLE I Flight Load Factors
The surface error that arose during the manufacturing pro-
Ariane 5
cess can be corrected by adjusting tie cable length. The
deployment sequence is shown in Fig. 7. Two deployment Longitudinal Lateral
booms with the stowed antennas on each end deploy at the Acceleration (g) Static Dynamic Static + dynamic
same time to avoid excessive disturbance torque against
the satellite attitude control system. The antennas then Lift-off −1.7 ±1.5 ±2
deploy one by one after the successful deployment of the Maximum dynamic −2.7 ±0.5 ±2
booms. Deployment force is obtained by springs set inside pressure
the center portion of each module. To control deployment SRB end of flight −4.55 ±1.45 ±1
motion, restraint cables are installed between each mod- Main core thrust tail-off −0.2 ±1.4 ±0.25
ule. Only four motors are used to drive the restraint cables. Max. tension case: SRB +2.5 ±0.9
The restraint cables can retract the antenna when needed jettisoning
during the deployment sequence.
The Quasi-Static-Loads (QSL) applied to payload center of gravity.

II. ENVIRONMENT AND DESIGN H-IIA

REQUIREMENTS
Longitudinal Lateral

A. Mechanical Environment Acceleration (g) Static Dynamic Static + dynamic

The most severe design constraints to satellite structures

Lift-off −1.7 ±1.5 ±1.8
are derived from the mechanical environment during the (max. compression)
launch phase. Each launcher provides environment data in Lift-off (max. tension) −0.1 ±1.8
terms of steady-state acceleration, low-frequency vibra- Main engine cut-off −4.0 ±0.5
tion, acoustic vibration, and shock. These data are speci- Main engine +1.0 ±1.0
fied at the satellite/launch vehicle interface plane, and the cut-off-transit
probability that the actual load does not exceed the speci-
fied values is 99% or 3σ level. Maximum loads at the top of the payload adapter.
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456 Spacecraft Structures

TABLE II Sinusoidal Vibration Environment actuation may replace the reproduction of the shock envi-
Launcher Direction Frequency Hz Amplitude G 0-p ronment during ground tests.

Ariane 5 B. Thermal Environment

Longitudinal 5–100 1.0
Lateral 2–25 0.8
25–100 0.6
H-IIA
Longitudinal 5–30 1.0
30–100 0.8
Lateral 5–18 0.7
18–100 0.6
components are considered in random vibration or acous-
tic vibration environment. High-frequency vibration is in-
duced by acoustic noises emitted from rocket exhaust jet
and aerodynamic turbulence. The vibration excitation of
the vehicle structure and acoustic excitation of air within
the vehicle shroud determine the high-frequency random
vibration environment of the spacecraft. Recently, acous-
tic excitation tests were found to be more representative
than random vibration tests for the actual behavior of the
spacecraft structure during flight and, therefore, random
vibration environment is often omitted in the description of
the launch environment. The acoustic environment is de-
scribed in terms of sound pressure level as shown in Fig 8.
The shock environment is induced by a number of tran-
sient phenomena during the flight of the launch vehicle.
The most prominent of those transients are pyrotechnic
shocks experienced at the stage separation, the shroud jet-
tison and the spacecraft separation. The shock spectrum
defines the shock environment. Figure 9 shows the shock
spectrum at the time of separation. Actual pyrotechnic
During the ascent phase, the thermal environment of a
satellite is maintained under rather moderate conditions
even at the time of maximum aerodynamic heating. The
maximum heat flux from the payload shroud is speci-
fied for each launch vehicle and is in the rage of 500–
1000 W/m2 . After the jettisoning of the shroud, the satel-
lite is exposed to free molecular flow which is equivalent to
the heat flux of 1000 W/m2 . Because the satellite tempera-
ture is maintained within a comfortable range of 10–25◦ C
during the prelaunch operations, slight temperature varia-
tions during the ascent phase usually do not impose much
structural difficulties.
It is important to note that the thermal environment has
the most significant effects on the structure during the
rest of the orbital life. As long as the thermal design of the
satellite is adequate, the temperature usually do not exceed
the allowable temperature limit of the structural materi-
als. However, the thermal stresses under extreme thermal
conditions sometimes reach the critical design limit, espe-
cially for the structural portions which were lightly loaded
during the ascent. Extreme conditions are influenced by
the effects of solar radiation incidence and eclipse com-
bined with degraded thermal properties at the exterior
surfaces. Internal energy dissipation also contributes to lo-
cal hot-spot generation and temperature gradient between
the component mount structure and the exterior heat re-
jection areas.
Structural deformations under temperature variations
are also important design criteria for spacecraft equipment

FIGURE 8 Acoustic environment: sound pressure level (H-IIA).

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Spacecraft Structures
FIGURE 9 Shock spectrum (H-IIA).
such as communication antennas and orientation-sensitive
devices. Selection of materials with a low thermal ex-
pansion ratio is of primary importance to maintain low
distortion of the structure. Overall deformation is also in-
fluenced by the rigidity of the structure. CFRP provides
excellent material properties in terms of thermal expan-
sion and rigidity.
C. Launch Vehicle Compatibility
Mechanical design requirements are defined for each
launch vehicle so that the spacecraft can be made com-
patible with the launch vehicle. The mass limit is the most
important consideration for the overall spacecraft system.
The mass capability of a vehicle is strongly dependent on
the orbit to be achieved. The available mass to the low
earth orbit is the largest of all. This mass is decreased to
40% when the target orbit is a sun-synchronous or geosta-
tionary transfer orbit. The mass in the geostationary orbit
is further decreased by about 50% from that in GTO.
A launch vehicle provides several choices for payload
shrouds and payload adapters. The payload adapter is used
to mechanically connect the spacecraft to the vehicle. A
clamp band or separation nuts attach the spacecraft on
to a machine shaped ring on the interface plane of the
adapter (Fig. 10). The space shuttle provides multiple at-
tach fittings as shown in Fig. 11. The spacecraft maxi-
mum dimensions should be within the specified zone of
the payload shroud, leaving the clearance zone free. The
clearance zone is specified so that the satellite does not
touch the shroud inner surface or acoustic blankets for
the maximum deflection under static and dynamic ascent
loads. The position of the spacecraft mass center should
be within a specified area with respect to the launch ve-
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457
hicle attach fitting(s). This is to avoid control problems
of the launch vehicle and excessive bending loads on the
satellite/launch vehicle structures.
Launch vehicles require spacecraft to possess rigidities
above certain values, specified by the lowest vibration fre-
quencies in the lateral and longitudinal directions under
the rigidly fastened conditions at the mounting points. This
requirement is imposed to limit the maximum deflection
during the ascent and to avoid dynamic couplings with the
launch vehicle. In many cases, the rigidity requirement
poses the largest structural design constraint among the
requirements specified by the launch vehicle. Typically,
fundamental frequencies of 10 Hz in the lateral direction
and 30 Hz in the longitudinal direction are required.
III. MATERIALS
A. Material Selection
Materials for spacecraft structure are selected based pri-
marily on the specific strength (strength/density) and the
specific rigidity (elastic modulus/density). Other prop-
erties for consideration are ductility, fracture tough-
ness, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, corrosion
resistance, volatility, fabrication ease, and procurement
ease. The use of large amounts of magnetic materials is of-
ten undesirable from the attitude control stability consider-
ation and interference with the environment during space
physics measurements. Aluminum alloys are widely used
in any part of the structure, but graphite–epoxy composite
materials are also increasingly utilized for both the
primary and the secondary structures to take advantage
of the superior mechanical properties. Typical materials
used for structural parts are listed in Table III.
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458 Spacecraft Structures

FIGURE 10 Payload adapters: examples from H-IIA. Spacecraft attached by clump band (above) or by separation
nuts (below).

FIGURE 11 Space shuttle attachment points.

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Spacecraft Structures 459

TABLE III Mechanical Properties of Typical Materials for Spacecrafta

Specific Tensile Compressive Modulus of
Gravity Strength yield stress elasticity in Elongation
Material 10−3 kg/m3 MPa MPa tension GPa %

Aluminum
2024-T3 sheet 2.77 441 269 72 12
6061-T6 bar 2.71 290 240 68 10
7075-T73 sheet 2.80 460 380 71 8
Heat-resistant alloy
A-286 2-in. bar 7.94 970 660 201 12
Inconel 718 4-in. bar 8.22 1280 1080 203 12
Magnesium
AZ31B H24 sheet 1.77 270 165 45 6
Titanium
Ti-6Al-4V annealed plate 4.43 900 855 110 10
Berylium
AMS 7906 bar 1.85 320 — 290 2
Graphite/epoxy
T800H/epoxy [0, ±45, 90] 1.6 820 660b 60 —
Aramid/epoxy
Kevlar 49/epoxy [0, ±45, 90] 1.4 500 150b 30 —
Glass/epoxy
E-Glass/epoxy [0, ±45, 90] 2.2 300 300b 10 —
a Metals: MIL-HDBK-5H. Composites: Typical data.
b Compressive strength.

B. Metallic Materials lecting orientations and contents of graphite fibers, for

Among the aluminum alloys, A 7075 and A 2024 find wide
application areas. Honeycomb sandwich panels and shells
are composed of face sheets of A 7075-T6 or A 2024-T3,
and honeycomb core of A 5052 or A 2024. Composite
materials are also used for the core, but the aluminum
core is selected when the higher thermal conductivity be-
tween the face sheets is needed. Machined elements, like
ring frames, flanges, fittings, and brackets are made from
A 7075-T7351 and A 7075-T7352. A 6061-T6 can be used
for elements which do not require high strength. Stainless
steels (A286CRES, 302CRES, 305CRES) and titanium
alloys (Ti-6Al-4V) are nonmagnetic materials and they
are used for small mechanical elements and bolts. Magne-
sium is superior with its low-density and good vibration
damping property, but special care must be taken against
corrosion. Beryllium has very high specific rigidity and
good thermal properties, but its use is limited or some-
times not allowed because of its toxicity.
C. Composite Materials
Graphite–epoxy is the most popular composite material
applied to spacecraft structures. Strength and rigidity are
provided by graphite fibers which are imbedded in an
epoxy matrix. Material properties can be tailored, by se-
strength, rigidity, and thermal expansion. Because the ther-
mal expansion ratio of a graphite fiber is very small, and
sometimes negative, a virtually zero expansion material
at least in one direction can be fabricated. Distortion-
sensitive components like antenna dishes can effectively
utilize this character. The fibers are classified into high
modulus type and high strength type. The high modulus
fibers are used for buckling or rigidity sensitive elements
and the high strength fibers for strength critical elements.
Aramid (Kevlar)-epoxy is also applied to face sheets of
sandwich panels or shells for electrically nonconductive
surfaces.
D. Adhesives and Fillers
Epoxy-type adhesives are often used to bond together
independently fabricated composite elements. Many
composite structural members have metallic end or edge
elements, which are normally bonded by adhesives. A
sandwich panel uses an adhesive sheet to bond the face
sheets and the core. Some portion of a honeycomb sand-
wich panel must be reenforced for compressive strength
across the core element. Epoxy polymer mixed with silica
micro-balloons is inserted into the honeycomb void as a
filler material to strengthen bolt holes and panel edges.
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460 Spacecraft Structures

IV. STRUCTURAL ANALYSES

Structural analysis serves to define structural strength and

deformation properties under various loads imposed on
the satellite during all phases of its life. In the earliest
design phase, structural components are represented by
simple beams, columns, shells and membranes to deter-
mine their sizes and thickness, considering the most crit-
ical loads, combined with the properties of materials to
be utilized. In the later phases of the design, the struc-
ture is represented by a FEM model. Figure 12a shows
an example of FEM model of a satellite. In the course of
development, the FEM evolves from a simple model to a
very detailed one, involving more than 10,000 elements.
Beside an overall model of the satellite, substructures and
elements are modeled with finer elements to determine the
stress distribution and the displacement characteristics in
detail. The models are often updated to reflect actual static
and dynamic test results.
Static analyses provide information on stress and de-
formation distributions under various launch loads and
temperature distributions in orbit. The FEM analysis ap-
plied to a static analysis involves a simple linear algebraic
equation defined by (a)
[K ]{δ} = { f },
where [K ], {δ} and { f } are the stiffness matrix, nodal
displacements and external forces, respectively. Strains
and stress are derived successively by
{ε} = [B]{δ}e
,
{σ } = [D]{ε}
where {δ}e is the nodal displacements of an element, {ε}
and {σ } are strains and stresses of the element.
Primarily, the structure must have sufficient margins of
safety under the combined steady state load factors ap-
plied at the launch vehicle attach fitting. In this case, the
uniformly distributed acceleration which is equivalent to
the load factor provides the external force { f }. However,
when the structure responds to dynamical loads, espe-
cially to sinusoidal excitations, the structure is subjected
to distributed values of acceleration. The responses may
result in larger local loads than those given by the static
loads applied at the interface. Therefore, results from the
dynamical analysis must also be considered for the de-
tailed design of appendage structures.
The dynamical analysis is based on the equations of
motion expressed in a matrix form as
[M]{δ̈} + [C]{δ̇} + [K ]{δ} = {F(t)},
where [M] and [C] are the mass and the damping ma- (b)
trix, respectively, and {F(t)} is the external time depen- FIGURE 12 FEM model of a x-ray observatory. (a) 8870 Element
dent forces. Dynamical analyses first solve the eigen value model, (b) The first natural vibration mode.
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Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology EN015K-899 August 2, 2001
Spacecraft Structures
problem, by equating the right-hand side of the equation
to zero, to find out the natural frequencies associated with
the natural modes. Figure 12b shows a natural vibration
mode. Then, dynamical responses against time-varying
loads are identified either by applying direct integration
of the equations of motion or by utilizing the eigen values
and modes.
The margin of safety MS is defined by
M S = (allowable stress)/
(applied stress X safety factor) − 1
All MS must be positive under the ultimate loads.
When the design work proceeds, detailed load history to
the spacecraft is needed for finalizing the structural design.
This is done jointly with the launch vehicle by the coupled
load analysis, where the mathematical models of both the
vehicle and the spacecraft are mated together to analyze
the response against typical load histories at various events
during the launch sequence. The events considered in the
coupled load analysis are lift-off, gust, maximum dynamic
pressure, sinusoidal engine thrust variation (POGO), and
stage separations. The spacecraft mathematical model is
transferred to the launch vehicle side in the form of com-
plete FEM matrices or by a reduced dynamical model
incorporated by the natural frequencies and modes. The
response accelerations of the spacecraft elements at each
event of the launch sequence define the actual dynamic
loads in more detail. Often, the critical loads thus ana-
lyzed differ, especially in the secondary structure, from
those previously given by the load factors or by the sim-
ple responses of the spacecraft alone. The coupled load
analysis usually results in less severe loads than those as-
sumed previously.
V. VERIFICATION
Spacecraft are subjected to ground tests to verify its struc-
tural compatibility with launch requirements. Static, vi-
bration, acoustic, and shock tests are conducted on engi-
neering models or proto-flight models at qualification test
levels which are higher than the expected environmental
level to guarantee the strength margins. The flight models
also go through similar tests, but the test level is lowered to
an acceptance test level which represents the actual envi-
ronment. For the subsequent repeated manufacturing of al-
ready qualified spacecraft, some test items may be deleted.
A static load test proves the load-carrying capability of
the spacecraft structure. The inertial loads that correspond
to the maximum load factors during the ascent phase are
replaced by simple concentrated forces in axial and lateral
directions. A tournament device effectively distributes a
concentrated force into various portions of the spacecraft.
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461
In case of the lateral load test, concentrated lateral forces
applied at appropriate axial positions simulate the max-
imum moment and shear force acting simultaneously at
the spacecraft/launch vehicle interface.
The launch vehicle authority specifies the sinusoidal
vibration test spectra, which represent the launch envi-
ronment at the launch vehicle interface. The spacecraft
is directly attached to the vibration table at the interface,
or through the launch vehicle adapter. The test spectrum
may cause an unrealistic response buildup of spacecraft el-
ements at their resonant frequencies. In this case, a notch-
ing procedure can be adopted to suppress the maximum
response on the basis of the coupled load analyses. Prior
to the vibration load test, the spacecraft is subjected to
low-level random burst or sine sweep tests to find out its
natural vibration frequencies and associated modes. This
is a procedure to verify the mathematical model and to
assure that the rigidities meet the criteria required by the
launch vehicle.
Acoustic tests are conducted to assure the spacecraft
capability against high-frequency vibration and direct at-
mospheric sound pressure. Acoustic energy radiated from
the test facility walls excites the spacecraft and its com-
ponents up to a very high frequency of 10 kHz. This test
essentially covers the effects of random vibrations through
the launch vehicle adapter and, therefore, random vibra-
tion tests may not be required anymore by many launch
vehicle authorities.
Shocks are transmitted through the launch vehicle
adapter. The most severe shock comes at the separation
of the spacecraft from the launch vehicle, because shock
response decreases rapidly along the distance of travel
through the structure. The launch vehicle provides shock
spectra at discrete points from the origin of the shock.
The test is usually conducted by activating the separation
device on the actual hardware, so that the measured accel-
eration responses on the spacecraft can be compared with
the specified spectra to verify the spacecraft capability.
SEE ALSO THE FOLLOWING ARTICLES
SPACECRAFT CHEMICAL PROPULSION • SPACECRAFT DY-
NAMICS • SPACECRAFT SYSTEMS DESIGN AND ENGINEER-
ING • SPACECRAFT THERMAL CONTROL • SPACEFLIGHT
MECHANICS • SPACE NUCLEAR PROPULSION • SPACE
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS, ADVANCED • STRUCTURAL
ANALYSIS, AEROSPACE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ariane 5 User’s Manual, Issue 3, Rev. 0, March 2000.
H-IIA Brief Description, KAD-98007C(E), NASDA, March 2000.