GOLD MINERALOGY
The mineralogy of gold and its significance
in metal extraction
CLAUDIA GASPARRINI
Consultant in ore microscopy and mineralogy
applied to metal extraction
Minmet Scientific Ltd.
Toronto, Ontario
ABSTRACT
Factors affecting the extraction of gold are of a mineralogical
nature. Kno wledge of the mineralogy of the ore or metal-
lurgical produ ct to be treated, if appropriately com bined with
the metallurgical test work, may impro ve gold recoveries. . testing (test work) is usuall y done sim ply by trial and error
This pap er outlines the mineralogical techn iques f or the
study ofgold ores and metallurgical produ cts and describes the
gold m ineralogy in relation to its metallurgy. A n effective plan
f or studying refractory and oth er difficult ores, combining
metallurgical test work, chem ical analysis and min eralogy and
capable of giving positive results over relatively short periods
of time, is suggested.
Introduction
Fa ctors a ffecting gold recoveries are of a min eralogical nature
a nd include (i) the gold-bearing minerals, (ii) the ir grain size
a nd, particularl y where the grain size is very fine (10 microns in
diameter a nd less), (iii) their host minerals and (iv) th e associa-
tion these form with the gold-bearing minerals.
Claudia Gasparrini
Claudia Gasparrini, a graduate of the
University of Rome in Italy, is the
president of Minmet Scientific Ltd.• a
firm which she incorpora ted in 1976
and which she fully owns.
She has had wide experience in the
mineralogy of gold, silver, some of the
platinum-group metals, and some of
the base metals and of uranium. During the last three years she has
contr ibuted a large amount of geochemical data to a world-wide pro-
ject for diamon d exploration. Her fields of specialization include ore
microscopy and mineralogy used for the location of problems which
develop during the process of metal extractio n. Electron microprobe
and SEM techniques play an important role in her studies of ore and
metallurgical samples, In the identification of ore minerals and in the
determination of the distribution of metals and other elements of
economic value in their host rock. Several of the techniques used in
the s t u ~ y and identification of minerals by the electro n microprobe, as
well as In the determination of their qualitative and quantitative com-
positions have been developed by her while carrying out research pro-
jects in which she has been involved during the last 15 years.
She has published extensively in the fields of ore microscopy and
electron microprob e.
Keywords: Gold, Gold mineralogy. Metal extraction, Electron
microprobe, Gold-bearing minerals, Gold recovery.
144
Mineralogical studies of gold ores and metallurgical pro-
du ct s containing gold in economic a mo unts (today down to
1/10 of one o unce per tonne or 2.84 ppm) ar e difficult and
tim e co ns um ing . Mo stly becau se of suc h reason, metallurgical
without und erst anding th e causes fo r failur e or success.
Mineralogical stud ies, if a ppro pria tely conducted and co m-
bin ed with th e test wo r k, provide a n efficient mean s of im-
proving reco veri es throu gh th e understanding of gold losses
deri ved fro mt he use o f the wron g technique fo r separatio n .
The in fo rma tio n they provide is th ere for e th e first ste p in the
development of reco ver y techniq ues, fo r those o res wher e the
test work alone fa iled to produce po sit ive results.
This paper de scr ibes so me of th e rea son s fo r the difficulties
in locating eco no mic amo unts o f gold by optical met hods a nd
sugge sts techniques a nd ins tru ments fo r its acc ura te deter-
mina tion . It discusses th e ind ividual fac to rs a ffecting gold
recov eri es, a nd summa rizes the gold metallurgy and the man-
ner in which thi s is a ffec ted by the mineralogy o f the ore. It
pre sents a plan fo r the study of ore s on which the test work
alone fa iled to produce po sitive results a nd suggests a way of
predicting the manner of oc curren ce of th e gold in samples
where low co ncentra tio ns, or lack of experti se or proper equip-
ment, pr event direct determ inations. The pre sence of gold in
discrete particles of gold minerals, rather than in solid solution
in one or more of the major constituents o f the ore, is em-
phasized a nd suppo rted by a large number of photomicro-
graphs .
In the pap er , the term ore is used to indic at e gold-bearing
sa m ples befor e any crushing, grinding or met allurgical testing
ha s been applied (for example, a hand sa m ple or a drill core) .
The term metallurgical product is used to indica te sa m ples
wh ich hav e been crus hed, ground or have undergone som e
me tallu rgical treatmen t.
Mineralogical Techniques for the
Study of Gold Samples
(Ores and Metallurgical Products)
Man y o f the go ld-bearing minerals a re read ily identified by the
or e microscope alo ne, due to their dist inctive optical proper-
ties wh en obser ved in reflected light (for exa m ple, high reflec-
tivity, bright yellow, orange and white colo urs, low hardness,
etc. ) An electron microprobe or sca nning electron microscope
(SEM) study is normally needed to co nfirm th eir identifica-
tion s and to determine their chemical composition s. That
mean s th at those instruments will help to differentiate native
gold from electru m , to determine th e silver and other minor-
elem ent percentages of the native gold, to determine the com -
position of the tellurides, etc . (Gasparrini 1980) .
As aga inst their ease of identification, the location of gold-
Volume 76, No. 851
 PLATE 1. Gold-bearing minerals. A: native gold in pyrite; B: elect rum at the border between pyrite and chalcopyrite; C: bismuthian
gold in arsenopyrite; 0: calaverite in pyrite. Tb in plate 0 is tellurobismuth.

bearing minerals in economically valuable ores is difficult and TABLE I. Gold-Bearing Mlnerals ", Native gold and
time consuming for the following reasons: electrum, underlined, are more common
• The chances of finding gold in ppm concentrations on the
surface of one polished mount I inch in diameter are very Native Gold Au
small. Electrum (Au,Ag)
• Where dealing with ores, gold shows generally an irregular Cuproauride (Au,Cu)
distribution on a macroscopic as well as on a microscopic Porpezite (Au,Pd)
scale. That means that gold has a tendency to occur in greater Rhodite (Au,Rh)
concentrations and in clusters of grains in certain parts of the Iridic Gold (Au,lr)
deposit (Hallbauer and Joughin 1972) as well as in confined Platinum (Au,Pd)
Bismuthian Gold (Au,Bi)
areas of the same polished mount. The problem does not occur Amalgam AU2Hg3(?)
when studying metallurgical products if finely ground. Maldonite AU2Bi
• Ppm concentrations are normally coupled with very fine Auricupride AuCu3
sizes (a few microns and less in diameter). These sizes are not Rozhkovite (Cu,Pdb Au2
readily observed when using the more common ore micro- AuTe2
Calaverite
scopes which are only equipped with average magnifications Krennerite (Au,Ag)Te2
(100x-200x). However, high-magnification! high-resolution Montbrayite (Au,SbhTe3
microscopes are not easily accessible. Neither are electron Petzite Ag3AuTe2
microprobes or SEMs necessary for the analysis of the gold- Muthamannite (Ag,Au)Te
bearing particles . Sylvanite (Au,Ag)Te4
• Experienced ore microscopists and electron microprobe! Kostovite Auoute,
SEM operators are scarce. Nagyagile PbsAu(Te,Sb)4SS_8
Based on these considerations, an efficient way of studying Gold Tellurate (?)
gold samples will involve: Uytenbogaardtite Ag3AuSb2
• Detailed examinations of large numbers of polished Aurostibnite AuSb 2
mounts. Where dealing with concentrations between 5 and 10 Fishchesserite Ag3AuSe2
ppm, 6 polished mounts I inch in diameter are normally suffi-
cient for the study of metallurgical products. • Modified after Boyle (1979)
• Detailed chemical analyses of small sections of the deposit,
if studying ores, and detailed examinations of polished mounts
energy-dispersive X-ray analysis has been described by Free-
cut from samples which yielded higher gold values to the
man et al.(1981)
chemical assay . An efficient way of conducting this study may
involve the preparation of polished mounts of the rejects from Mineralogical Factors
the chemical assay, because such a method ensures an even Affecting Gold Recoveries
distribution of the gold on the surface of the mount, thus
eliminating the problem of confined higher concentrations. Gold-Bearing Minerals
Examinations of mounts prepared from the uncut ore sample Gold-bearing minerals are native gold, electrum, a number of
will still be necessary for determinations of the general miner- alloys and tellurides, possibly a tellurate and compounds of
alogy and mineral assemblages. the element with sulphur, antimony and selenium (Table I) .
• The use of high-magnification! high-resolution micro- The more common of these are native gold and electrum. The
scopes and of an electron microprobe or SEM. alloys and tellurides are scarce. The otber minerals are rare.
• The availability of experienced ore microscopists. Although referred to by a different name, electrum is only a
A microscope-microprobe study aimed at locating gold in variety of native gold containing silver in amounts of 20 per
concentrations between 5 and 10 ppm may take up to a full cent and more. There is no sharp mineralogical distinction bet-
week. If a good indication of the precious metal distribution is ween native gold and electrum. Their crystal structure and op-
required, the entire surface of the 6 polished mounts will need tical properties are similar and, for ores in which the gold-to-
to be systematically examined. silver ratio is large, the two phases may occur together. The
A method of studying gold distributed in low concentrations other gold-bearing minerals have different optical properties
in refractory ores involving the combined use of an SEM and (Plate 1) and structures.
CIM Bulletin, March 1983 145
 PLATE 2. Gold-pyrite associations. A: native gold distributed along the outside and between pyrite grains; B: native gold distributed in
medium-size fractures; C: native gold distributed in fine fractures; D: native gold totally enclosed in the pyrite and forming relatively
coarse grains; E: native gold totally enclosed in the pyrite and forming a very fine grain. Different qualities in recovery may be expected
depending on the type of association. E will give the poorest recovery by conventional methods.
PLATE 3. Native gold enclo sing grains of pyrite (A) and
chalcopyrite (B). Associations such as these are rare and only
normally found in high-grade deposits.
Gold occur s in minor to trace amounts in minerals such as
tellurium, Te, atokite (Pt, Pd) J Sn (Kuhnel, Prins and Rooda
1980), atheneite, (Pd.HgjAs, palladoarsenide, Pd-A s, and
zvyagint sevite, Pd 3Pb (Cabri 1976). Small concentrations of
gold (a few ppm and lower) are reported in solid solution in
sulphides and sulphosa lts. Most of these solid solutions,
however, are not proven, but are only assum ed present to ac-
count for the gold in the ore, after the mineralogical study has
failed to locate discrete gold particles: there are no instruments
available capable of an alyzing routin ely fine mineral grains for
trace elements. If gold solid solutions do exist, these are not as
common as reported.
Grain Size
Grain sizes for gold-be aring minerals range from gra ins and
veins visible in the ore without the aid of a hand lens (several
mm in diameter or thickness) to particles a fraction of a
micron in diam eter. Finer particles not visible even at the
higher SEM resolutions (15,000x) are reported (Hausen 1981),
but, as in the case of the solid solutions, they are not proven.
Grain size is generally proportional to the ore grade, with the
lower grades normally coupled with average sizes in the micron
to fraction-of-a-micron range.
Host Minerals
Gold occurs in association with most of the common rock -
forming minerals. When sulphides are present, gold is normal-
ly associated with the sulphides, totally enclos ed, in gaps and
146
fractures or in the silicate gangue, but in their close proximity.
Pyrite. Pyrite is the most common host mineral. Gold occurs
in pyrite as native gold and electrum in all sizes and in a large
variety of forms, which depend on the ore grad e and the
general textural features of the ore. Plates 2 and 3A show some
typical gold-pyrite associations.
Arsenopyrite. Arsenopyrite is a relatively common host for
gold, probably second after pyrite . When dealing with pyrite-
arsenopyrite ores, there is a tendency for some mineralogists to
assume that the gold is associated with arsenopyrite. If not
readil y located by a microscope study, there is then a tendency
to assume that the gold is in solid solution. Neither assumption
is true. Gold may occur associated with either or both
minerals. When with the arsenopyrite, gold form s very similar
associations to those shown for the pyrite (Plate 4).
Chalcopyrite. Gold-chalcopyrite associations occur, but are
not very common. Where in a pyrite-chalcopyrite ore, gold is
generally either totally enclosed in the pyrite or distributed at
the border between pyrite and chalcopyrite (Plate 5). In many
such instances. particularly for ore s in which the pyrite-to-
chalcopyrite ratio is large, the chalcopyrite grains are in turn
completely enclosed in the pyrite (Plate 6). If the chalcopyrite
grain s associated with the gold are too fine to become liberated
aft er the grinding process, this type of gold-chalcopyrite-pyrite
association becomes essentially a gold-pyrite association for
metallurgical purposes. Gold totally enclosed in chalcopyrite,
as well as chalcopyrite enclosed in gold (Plate 3B), even if not
common, do occur.
Other Sulphides and Sulphosalts. A comprehensive descrip-
tion of the manner of occurrence of the gold in other sulphides
and sulphosalts such as chalcocite-covellite, pyrrhotite,
galena , sph alerite , nickel sulphides, arsenides and sulpho-
arsenides, antimonite and antimony-arsenic-bismuth-lead
sulphosalts is given by Boyle (1979). The manner of occurrence
of the gold in these minerals is similar to that described and
illustrated for the pyrite and arsenopyrite and is largely depen-
dent on the general textural features of the ore. Plate 7 shows
gold occurrences and associations with some of the more com-
mon sulphide-sulphosalt minerals.
Iron Oxides. Magnetite and secondary iron oxides are relative-
ly common hosts for gold in oxidized environments. The type
of assembl age is again varied (Plates 8A to D) and includes
grains of native gold coated by fine rims of secondary iron ox-
ide (Plate 8D).
Uranium Minerals. Occurrences of gold in uranium minerals
are common in South Africa (Jochens and Laxen 1975). These
consist of fine grains of native gold tot ally enclosed in uranium
minerals. Plate 9 show s a gold occurrence in North Ameri ca
where the native gold is distributed along the outside of, as
well as between, the uraninite grain s in the silicate gangue.
Silicates and Carbonates. Gold enclosed in silicate and car-
bonate miner als or distributed along grain boundaries can be
Volume 76, No. 851
 PLATE 4: Gold-arsenopyrite associations, along the outside of the grain (A), in medium and fine fractures (8 and C), and totally enclos-
ed with larger (D) and finer (E) grains. The manner of occurrence of gold in arsenopyrite is very similar to that shown for the pyrite (com-
pare this plate with Plate 2).

PLATE 5. Nalive gold distributed at the border between pyrite

and chalcopyrite (as well as in fine fractures in the pyrite).
When in a pyrite-chalcopyrite ore, if not with the pyrite, gold
shows a tendency to be associated with the two minerals, as
shown in the two photomicrographs.

expect ed in ores where sulp hides are absent or sca rce . In many
such instances, the nat ive gold is very fine, in the few-micron-
dia meter range (Plates lOA a nd B).
Carbonaceous Material. Gold is found associated with
gra p hite and other carbonaceous matter , form ing fine
disseminated particles of native gold.
Sands and Gravels (Placer Deposits). In this association, the
gold occurs as loose detrit al grains in sediments of variable
mineralogical composition (Pl ate II). The grain size is normal-
ly coarse, ranging from a few 100 microns to a few mm.
Mineral Associations
As described and shown in the photomicrographs, the manner
of occurrence of the gold in the host mineral is very varied. For
met allurgical purposes, thi s can be summarized as follows:
Gold distributed injractures or at the border between grains oj
the same mineral (Plates 2B and C and 4B and C) ;
Gold distributed along the border between grains oj lwo dif-
ferent minerals, jar example two sulphides (Plate 5), a
sulphide and a silicate (Plates 2A and 4A) or a sulphide and an
oxide (Pl ate SA);
Gold totally enclosed in the host mineral (Plates 2D a nd E and
4D a nd E).
Plate 12 shows grains of native gold totally enclosed in chal-
copyrite, galena, arsenopyrite and pyrite. The grains have
euhedral , su bhed ral and anhedral shapes, depending on the
mineral in which they are enclosed.
PLATE 6. Native gold on the outside of a chalcopy-
rite grain and totally enclosed in pyrite. For very fine
native gold-chalcopyrite grains, this is essentially a
native gold-pyrite association for metallurgical pur-
poses.
An explanation for different manners of oc currence of gold
in pyr ite and arsenopyrite is provided by Boyle (1979, p. 32):
"One ca n postulate that early formed high temperature pyrite
and arsenopyrite probably take up gold and silver largely in
solid so lutio n, or as atomic layers on the growing face s of the
sulphide minerals, features th at a ppea r to be common in some
of the deposit s stud ied by the writer . . . At lower temperatures,
the pre sence of foreign constituents such as gold and silver,
distort the pyrite and ar senopyrite lattices, with a co nseq uent
rise in the free energy of the cry st als. In order to reduce the
free energy of the system to a minimum under the prevailing
conditions, gold and silver migrate to nearby low chemical
potential sites such as fractures and grain boundaries where
they crystalliz e as native gold (and electrum). This appears to
explain the frequent occurrence of much invisible gold and
silver in relatively unfractured and unrecrystallized pyrite a nd

e l M Bull etin, Mar ch 1983 147

 PLATE 7. Gold occurs as discrete particles of native gold in many sulphide-sulphosall assemblages: sphalerite-marcasite-
chalcopyrite (A); linnaeite-chalcocite (B); molybdenite (C); chalcopyrite-bornite-wittichenite-gratonite (0); bismuth
sulphosalls (E); tetrahedrite (F).

PLATE 8. Native gold associated with magnetite (A) and secondary iron oxides (B, C and 0). The grain of native gold in Plate 0 is
coated by a fine rim of oxide which may affect the process of recovery if not eliminated.

148 Volume 76, No. 851

 PLATE 9. Grains of native gold associated with uraninite.
PLATE 10. Native gold in a silicate matrix (A) and in a car-
bonate matrix (8). The gold in the silicate matrix is distributed
along the border between grains, forming a fine veinlet as well
as a larger rounded grain.
arsenopyrite; where reworking, recrystallization and fractur-
ing are evident the gold is largely present in the native
form ... The exsolution phenomenon described above is prob-
ably largely the result of diffusion processes, a conclusion sup-
ported by the experimental work of Clark (1969) who found
that gold diffused rapidly through arsenopyrite at
temperatures of 660°C and higher."
Gold Metallurgy
Metallurgical techniques for gold recovery (Rose 1906,
Hamilton 1920, Taggart 1953, Hedley and Tabachnick 1968)
have remained practically unchanged since the introduction of
the cyanide proces s (cyanide leaching) by McArthur and For-
rester in 1887. The process involves the dissolution of gold in a
dilute cyanide solution and in the presence of air according to
the reaction:
4Au + 8NaCN + O 2 + 2H 20 = 4NaAu(CNh + 4NaOH
and its precipitation with zinc dust according to the reaction:
2NaAu(CNh + Zn = Na2Zn(CN)4 = 2Au
Amalgamation, involving dissolution of gold particles in
metallic mercury to form amalgam, is normally used for the
treatment of coarse gold (50 microns in diameter or greater).
Corduroy concentrations (Richards and Locke 1925), and
elM BUlletin, March 1983
PLATE 1 I. Native gold in a placer deposit, the major consti-
tuents of which are magnetite and other iron minerals (Fe),
cassiterite (Cs) and ilmenite (1m).
other techniques such as the use of jigs (Gaudin 1939) and unit
cells (Pryor 1965) separating gold mechanically based on its
greater specific gravity than that of its gangue, are also applied
to coarse grains of native gold. Mechanical separation mostly
applies to high-grade gold ores and may not be as much in use
in the future as cyanide leaching.
Cyanide leaching is successful for recovery of native gold
and electrum where these two minerals occur in coarse-enough
grains to be liberated by fine grinding (Plates 2D and 4D), but
not so coarse as to slow down the process and consume ex-
cessive cyanide. This size ranges between 5 and 50 microns.
Amenable hosts are pyrite, arsenopyrite and quartz because
they are stable during cyanidation. On the other hand, hosts
such as chalcopyrite, secondary copper minerals, chaicocite-
covellite, pyrrhotite and most oxidized phases require special
attention because they tend to dissolve in the cyanide solution.
Cyanide leaching is also successful for the recovery of native
gold and electrum, even if finer grained than the finest to
which the ore can be ground when associated with their host
mineral in a manner which will favour exposure, even if not
liberation, after the grinding process. Such associations in-
clude distribution in fractures (Plates 28 and C and 48 and C)
and distribution at the border between grains of the same
mineral. In situations such as these, the cyanide solution
149
 PLATE 12. Grains of native gold totally enclosed in chalcopyrite (A), galena (8), arsenopyrite (C) and pyrite (0). The grains show eu,
sub and anhedral shapes, depending on their host mineral.
PLATE 13. Veinlets of native gold attached to chalcopyrite
(A) and pyrite (B) grains in a copper concentrate derived from
an ore in which the gold was distributed along the border be-
tween pyrite and chalcopyrite. In assemblages such as this,
much of the gold attached to the pyrite is likely to be lost with
the pyrite tailings.
comes into contact and dissolves the gold particles even if still
attached to their ho st. On the other hand, an ore in which the
gold is distributed at the border between grains of two dif-
ferent minerals, for example pyrite-chalcopyrite (Plate 5), may
not be as easy to treat. In a situation such as this, it may hap-
pen that, after the grinding process, part of the gold remains
attached to the pyrite and part remains attached to the
chalco pyrite (Plate 13), resulting in gold losses in the pyrite
tailings when concentrating the chalcopyrite. Improved
recoveries will be obtained once the problem has been defined
by the mineralogical studies, by differentially floating and
leaching the pyrite product or by leaching all of the pyritic tail-
ings.
An interesting situation is that of a high-grade ore in which
the gold is within the sulphide, along the silicate-sulphide
border and in the silicate in close proximity of the sulphide. An
efficient recovery process could involve the following treat-
ment flowsheet:
• the ore is coarsely ground and a rougher sulphide concen-
trate is floated containing sulphide-silicate middlings;
• the silicate-sulphide middlings are finely ground and the
gold is exposed for subsequent cyanide dissolution .
Cyanide leaching is not successful where dealing with the
following:
• Electrum, rich in silver. In many such instances, the
150
liberated particle of electrum tarnishes (Plate 14A) and subse-
quently develops a coating of secondary silver sulphide (Plate
14B and Gasparrini 1980) up to I to 2 microns thick. Such
coating appears to attract and mix with the finer particles in the
metallurgical product, thus enclosing the electrum and keeping
out the cyanide solution (Plate 14C). The particles over the
electrum appear to be selected on the basis of their size of I to
2 microns, rather than their chemical and mineralogical com -
positions, as both pyrite and other sulphides and silicates have
been observed. Where the silicate component is predominant,
this encasement gives the electrum grain a non-metallic
character which will keep it from floating, if physical separa-
tion is attempted. A similar problem was described by Head
(1936), who discovered such coatings on gold -bearing grains
by using the microscope alone . He referred to the se grains as
oxidized gold.
The speed at which the refractory coatings develop depends
probably on the silver content of the electrum particle for
similar atmospheric conditions. If this is so, where dealing
with grains of elect rum and native gold of comparable sizes,
there may be a partial loss of precious metals following the
cyanide leaching. A technique to identify and to eliminate or
prevent such coatings will lead to improved recoveries.
A similar problem may pre sent itself where dealing with par-
ticles of native gold coated by a fine rim of a secondary
mineral such as an iron oxide (Plate 80) or a secondary copper
mineral such as chalcocite or covellite. Mineralogical studies
will locate these coatings for treatment and elimination.
• Tellurides. Gold tellurides with and without silver dissolve
very slowly (Johnston 1933) or do not dissolve at all in the
cyanide solution, and a technique to oxidize the se minerals
prior to the cyanide dissolution step is necessary . A paper on
the treatment of gold tellurides has been publi shed by Corn-
well and Hisshion (1976). To the author' s knowledge,
however, the metallurgy of the individual gold tellurides is
poorly known. We may expect that more techniques will be
developed, once the mineralogical studies have located and
identified the various gold-bearing tellurides in the ores to be
treated and defined their physical and chemical properties.
• Fine grain sizes of gold and electrum, where these two
minerals are totally enclosed in their host. As noted, leaching
is only partly successful where dealing with finer grain sizes
than the finest to which the ore can be ground (Plates 2E and
4E). In situations such as these, a large amount of the gold-
bearing particles remain locked in the host mineral and are
therefore never in contact with the cyanide solutio n. Iden-
tification of the host mineral, determination of the exact size
of the gold particles and knowledge of their manner of distri-
bution in the host therefore become essential for an indication
of the quality of recovery to be expected from the ore . Poorest
Volume 76, No. 851
 PLATE 14. Grains of electrum showing: surface tarnishing (A), a coating of secondary silver sulphide (8) and a casing
consisting of a mixture of secondary silver sulphide and fine particles of pyrite.

PLA TE 15. Minor minerals (for example chalcopyrite) show a similar manner of occurrence to that of the gold and may help to give an
indication of the type of recovery to be expected from the ore, when gold is present in too low amounts to be direelly located. In the
photomicrographs, grains of native gold and chalcopyrite are shown distributed on the outside (A) and between grains (B) of
arsenopyrite. Native gold and chalcopyrite were phtographed in different areas of the same polished mount.

recovery will result when most of the particles of gold remain
totally enclosed in the host after the finest grinding, unless
techniques for the chemical breakdown of the host are
developed. Outlined below are some of the treatments applied
to the more common host minerals.
Pyrite. Pyrite is a stable mineral under most conditions of
temperature and pressure, as well as in most chemical en-
vironments. An advantage, where dealing with coarser gold
grains, pyrite is a difficult mineral to handle where host to fine
gold, due to the difficulty in breaking down its structure by
chemical methods . Environmental restrictions controlling the
amount of sulphur dioxide allowed into the air contribute to
the difficulty in treating the mineral.
Positive results in the liberation of fine gold from pyrite are
obtained by roasting the product in furnaces under a variety of
temperatures and environment conditions. The purpose of the
roasting process is to transform the mineral into a less stable
phase from which the gold can then be separated by the usual
techniques . Pyrite can be roasted in a furnace under oxidizing
conditions to produce iron oxides and under neutral condi-
tions (in air) to produce troilite (Freeman et al., 1981). A
method of oxidizing pyrite without roasting involves hot
aqueous digestion and chlorination (Hausen 1981). Oxidation
of the pyrite is also naturally produced by the weathering pro-
cess, resulting in gold recoveries from tailings after six months
to one year of their disposal. The oxidation time depends in
this instance on the atmospheric conditions as well as on the
textural features of the pyrite. Fractures and porosity expedite
the process proportionally to their frequency.
Arsenopyrite. Arsenopyrite is a very stable mineral and
therefore similar to pyrite in gold metallurgy. Environmental
restrictions controlling arsenic release into the air (as well as
sulphur dioxide) contribute to the difficulty in treating the
mineral when host to very fine gold.

OlM Bulletin, March 1983 151

 Oxidation of arsenopyrite is achieved by roasting to produce
arsenic oxides. Important in the roasting of arsenopyrite are
the air supply, which should be limited, and the temperature,
which must be kept lower than that used for pyrite (450°C).
Quick temperature increases will produce undecomposable
arsenates over the gold particles, which will prevent their con-
tact with the cyanide solution. Weathering may again prove ef-
fective on tailings, roasted residues and leach residues, as in
the case of the pyrite .
Chalcopyrite. Separation of fine gold particles from
chalcopyrite is not as difficult as from pyrite or arsenopyrite.
A copper product can be concentrated by flotation and the
gold then be separated by smelting and refining . The presence
of the mineral, however, and particularly the presence of
secondary soluble copper phases such as chalcocite and covel-
lite, complicates the process of cyanidation because of their
tendency to consume cyanide and to form copper ions in solu-
tion along with the gold . The process not only causes excessive
cyanide consumption, but also results in high copper content
in the pregnant solutions. Where the amount of copper soluble
in cyanide is great, the cyanidation process may precipitate
considerable quantities of copper. This will involve the need
for frequent clean-ups and the use of expensive acid washes of
the precipitate to dissolve away the excess copper. Soluble cop-
per will also precipitate on zinc dust, forming a coating which
retards the effective deposition of the gold.
Pyrrhotite. Pyrrhotite reacts in the cyanide solution, resulting
the consumption of large amounts of both cyanide and ox-
ygen. An effective treatment of pyrrhotite includes aereation
in alkaline solution, running off after thickening or filtering of
the solution and subsequent cyanidation.
Galena and Other Lead Minerals. Galena can be stable during
cyanidation, depending on the alkalinity of the solutio n. Ores
containing oxides of lead can be advantageous in some in-
stances, especially if the pulp contains soluble sulphide ions.
Large amounts of alkaline plum bite will interact to form very
basic insoluble lead cyanide.
A particularly troublesome type of ore is one containing
galena with refractory pyrite or arsenopyrite. In a situation
such as this, the roasting process applied to the pyrite or
arsenopyrite may produce refractory coatings of oxidized lead
on the gold particles, resulting in poorer recoveries than from
an unroasted product.
Sphalerite. Sphalerite is normally stable in the cyanide solution
Antimonite and Antimony Sulphosalts. These minerals give
similar problems as those described for roasted arsenopyrite.
Refractory antimonates develop over the gold particles, thus
preventing their contact with the cyanide solution. Where
hosts to fine gold, they are treated in a similar manner to that
described for the arsenopyrite; that is, they are roasted under
low-temperature conditions with limited amounts of air.
Oxides of Iron and Other Oxidized Minerals. Most of these
minerals dissolve rapidly in the cyanide solution, and their
elimination prior to cyanidation is recommended for an effi-
cient gold recovery.
Uranium Minerals. Separation of fine gold from some of the
uranium minerals (uraninite and thucholite) is practised at the
National Institute for Metallurgy in South Africa by a reverse
leach process. This process involves an acid treatment for the
extraction of the uranium prior to the cyanidation step. The
acid and conditions used depend on the nature of the uranium
mineral hosting the gold (Gasparrini and Williamson 1981).
Silicates and Carbonates. When host to very fine gold, these
minerals are leached by using solvents and techniques which
will depend on the nature of the predominant mineral.
Graphite. The cyanidation of gold -graphite ores is normally
accompanied by erratic results because the graphite absorbs
gold from the cyanide solution. Elimination of the graphite
prior to cyanidation is accomplished by roasting or flotation,
depending on its abundance, gold grain size and mineral as-
sociations.
It should be apparent from the above considerations that, al-
152
though the presence of stable minerals such as pyrite and
arsenopyrite as hosts to the gold is advantageous where dealing
with coarser gold grain sizes, the situation is reversed where
dealing with finer gold grain sizes: a less stable mineral such as
pyrrhotite, chalcocite, covellite, etc., will lend itself more
readily to chemical attack and breakdown for liberation of the
gold particle. Such a situation calls for revised techniques for
gold extraction once lower-grade deposits, characterized by
fine gold grain sizes, become the most common available
sources of the precious metal.
Discussion and Conclusions
Based on the information given in the previous pages, a plan
for the study of refractory and other difficult ores can be con-
structed. The plan is outlined in Figure I and can be summariz-
ed as follows:
• The first step in the development of a technique for gold
recovery should always be a preliminary conventional leach
test. If this is successful, there is no need for detailed
mineralogical studies.
• If the test work does not lead to satisfactory recoveries, the
next step toward an efficient study of the ore sho uld be the
determination of the presence or absence of tellurium in the
ore by wet chemistry. A negative analysis of the element at this
stage will narrow down the causes for poor recovery to either
refractory coatings over electrum particles or to fine grain
sizes. A mineralogical study at this point, if the tellurium
analysis is positive, will determine if all, part or none of the
gold is present as one or more tellurides. A partial recovery
may be due to part of the gold being combined with the tellu-
rium, the rest being in native gold.
• If the analysis for tellurium is positive, but the
mineralogical study fails to locate any gold tellurides, or if the
analysis for tellurium is negative, the gold and silver contents
of the ore should be examined. Large silver-to-gold ratios and
strong correlations between silver and gold may indicate the
presence of electrum. This again will be confirmed by the
mineralogical studies.
• On the other hand, very small silver-to-gold ratios, poor
correlations between silver and gold and the absence of elec-
trum in the polished mounts indicate that the poor recovery is
almost certainly caused by fine grain sizes.
The observation of the chemical analyses of the various
metallurgical products at this point, showing gold enrichments
and losses, will give a good indication of the host mineral.
Iron-sulphur and gold correlations will indicate a pyrite-gold
association; arsenic and gold correlations will indicate an
arsenopyrite-gold association. The mineralogical studies will
then be conducted on the pyrite or arsenopyrite concentrates,
with very good chances of locating the precious metal without
excessive effort.
Comparisons of the mineralogy of products giving accept-
able and poor recoveries will also provide clues to the gold
association and explanations for gold losses.
If the ore has too Iowa grade to be able to locate enough
gold particles to draw general conclusions as to its manner of
occurrence, or if expertise, time or proper equipment are not
available, a way around these problems may be found by
determining the general features of the minerals in the ore or
metallurgical product other than gold. In such a situation, the
study of the ore can be conducted as follows:
• After following the steps outlined in Figure I, and if the
possibility of the presence of tellurides and electrum is
eliminated by negative chemical analyses, instead of trying to
locate, identify and determine directly the manner of occur-
rence of the native gold, an indication of the distribution of
the precious metal can be obtained by looking at the manner of
occurrence and distribution of the other minor minerals . For
example, chalcopyrite or galena distributed between grains or
in fractures in an essentially pyritic or arsenopyritic ore in
which it has been established that the gold is associated with
the pyrite or arsenopyrite almost certainly indicate that the
Volume 76, No. 851
precious metal is distributed between grains (Plate l5B) or in
fractures. By the same token, chalcopyrite or galena totally
enclosed in the pyrite or arsenopyrite in the form of very fine
grains indicates that the gold is most likely totally enclosed in
the pyrite or arsenopyrite in a similar manner. Chalcopyrite
distributed along the border between silicate and sulphide in-
dicates that such is probably the manner of occurrence of the ANAlY H FQ I\ T EL L'J Al tl M

gold (Plate 16A). A compact pyrite, free of fractures or inclu-

sions, may indicate a gold solid solution in pyrite or ju st
absence of gold in that particular section of the deposit. Based
on these observations, conclusions can be drawn on the type of
recover y to be expected . fI(l ' i l i ",,,

A gold-pyrite association in which framboidal and compact

types of pyrite have different qualities of recoveries despite th e
similarities in ore grades has been described in a study done by
Hausen (1981), unsupported by detailed mineralogical descrip-
tions of the gold occurrence. L OOK f Olt (L( (TR UI'I

The above considerations may be applied to tellurides and
electrum, if chemical anal yses indicate that these minerals may
be present. In such instances, however, direct identification of
the mineral s is recommended .
Acknowledgments
The author expresses her appreciat ion to J . Bailey McCrea,
consultant in Toronto, and to R.G . William son of Lakefield
Research of Canada Ltd., both of whom were extremely help-
ful in providing advice and references on the metallurgy of
gold.
The author is also grateful to D.A. Pretorius of the Eco-
nomic Geology Research Unit of the University of the Wit-
watersrand for providing some of the references.
The National Institute for Metallurgy in Johannesburg pro-
vided many references, including South African publi cations
not derived from their scientific staff or press.
REFERENCES
BOYLE, R.W., 1979, The geochemistry of gold and its dep osits :
Geological Survey of Canada Bulletin no. 210.
CABRI, L.J., 1976, Glossary of platinum group minerals: Econ omi c
Geology, vol, 71, pp. 1476-1480.
CLARK, L.A., 1960, The Fe-As-S system: pha se relations and applica-
tions: Economic Geology, vol. 55, pp, 1345-1381.
CORNWELL, W.G., and HISSHlON, R.J., 1976, Leaching of
telluride concentrates for gold, silver and tellurium . Emperor
process: Transactions of the Society of Mining Engin eers, vol.
260, pp. 108-JJ2.
FREEMAN, H.D., HARTLEY, J.N., and WI CK, O .J ., 1981, Scan-
ning electron microscopy and microprobe analysis of refractory
gold ores and process implications of the analysis : in AIME sym-
po sium volume, Process Mineralogy in Metal Extraction,
Mineral Exploration and Energy Materials, pp . 305-323 .
GASPA RRINI, CLAUDIA, 1980, The role of the ore micro scope and
electron microprobe in the mining indu str y: CIM Bull., vol. 73
(817), pp . 73-85.
GASPARRINI , CLAUDIA, and WILLIAMSON, R.G ., 1981, The
mineralogy of the uranium ore s with so me considerations on
their significa nce in metal extraction and min eral explo ratio n: in
AIME symposium volume, Process Mineralogy in Metal Extrac-
tion, Mineral Exploration and Energy Materials, pp . 325-337 .
GAUDIN , A .M ., 1939, Principles of Mineral Dressing: McGraw-Hili
Book Compan y, New York .
HALLBAUER, D.K., and JOUGHIN , N.C. , 1972, An investigatio n
into the distribution , size and sha pe of go ld part icles in some
II ~ ~ S lC O" IJ!\ Il Y
roar U l (, 5 0 1'" ''\ 9 aS
------ - -- - -- - ~-
FIGURE I. An efficienl plan for studying gold ores can be
developed if the steps recommended in the flowsheet are followed .
The dashed lines enclose the boxes indicaling the stage of lhe pro-
ject where the mineralogical work is more effective.
Wit water srand reefs and their effects on sampling procedures:
Research report no. 43172, Chamber of Mines of South Af rica
Research Organization, Johannesburg.
HAMILTON, E.M., 1920, Manual of Cyanidation, McGraw-Hili
Book Company, New York.
HAUSEN, D., 1981, Process mineralogy of auriferous pyritic ore s at
Carlin, Nevada: in AIME symposium volume, Process Minera-
logy in Metal Extraction, Mineral Exploration and Energy
Mat erials, pp. 271-289.
HEAD , R.E ., 1936, Physical characteristics of gold lost in tailings:
Proceedings of AIME meeting, New York, pp. 256-262.
HEDLEY , R.E ., and TABACHNICK, H., 1968, (revised, The Chem-
istry of Cyanidation: American Cyanamid Company.
JOCHENS, P .R., and LAXEN, P.A., 1975, Some developments in
the extraction of gold from Witwatersrand Ores: NIM
unrestricted report no. 1768.
JOHNSTON, W.E., 1933, Gold tellurides are soluble in cyanide:
Mining Metall. Bull. , Vol. 26 (254), pp. 224-225.
KUHNEL , R.A ., PRINS, J.J., and ROODA, H.J., 1980 The
" Delft" System for Mineral Identification, 1. Opaque Minerals;
Delft Univ ersity Press.
PRYOR, E.J ., 1965, Mineral Processing: Elsevier Publishing Com-
pany, Ltd ., London .
. RICHARDS, R.H ., and LOCKE, C.E., 1925, Textbook of Ore
Dressing: McGraw-H ilI Book Company, New York .
ROSE , T .K ., 1906, Metallurgy of Gold: Charles Griffin and Com-
pany Ltd., London.
TAGGART, A.F. , 1953, Handbook oj Mineral Dressing, Ores and
Industrial Minerals: John Wile y and Sons Publishing Co mpany,
New York.

Symposium on heap and dump leaching

The Solution Mining Committee of the
Society of Mining Engineers of AIME will
sponsor a symposium on heap and dump
leaching at the 1983 SME -AIM E Fa ll
Meeting and Exhibit in Salt Lake City,
Utah, October 19-21, 1983.
Th e symposium will co ver various
aspects of hea p a nd dump leachin g,
includ ing topi cs relat ed to fundam ent al
pri nciples and plant o pera tio ns. Papers
dealin g with design a nd con stru ction,
flui d flow, so lutio n chemistry, new plant
pra ct ices, and pro cess selection an d eco n-
omics will be emphasized.
For information on th e pa pers to be
presented, contact: J . Brent Hiskey,
Kennecott Minerals company, P .O. Box
11248, Salt Lake City, UT. 84147, U. S.A .

elM Bulletin, March 1983 153