CCM 3 - 203 PDF

Unit 3 Basics of Radio Programming & Production
Unit 3 BA (JMC) 203 L: 12

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Radio Production and Transmission Process

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Lesson 1 2
Elements of Radio Programme
Lesson 2 7
Radio Production Process
Lesson 3 10
Equipment used in Radio Production: Types of Microphones, Headphones
and Talk Backs, Audio Mixers and Transmitters
Lesson 4 28
Recording, Broadcasting and Troubleshooting
Indoor: Studio, Acoustics and Perspective
Outdoor: Ambience and Noise
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Unit 3, Lesson 1 Basics of Radio Programming & Production
Lesson 1
Introduction
Planning a programme requires an understanding of the requisites of the medium. Radio is an
aural medium and as such emphasis in planning and production must be on voice and sound
which would enable listeners to appreciate or understand the message the programme seeks to
convey.
Radio production comprises of some main elements which are central to all formats. The
combination of them makes or breaks a programme.

The elements of radio programme are:
Human voice or spoken word
The main stay in any radio programme is the human voice. Think of the voice of an announcer or
newsreader on radio. You often find them very pleasant and nice to listen to. That is because of
the quality of their voice and the proper use of it. There are two aspects of the use of human voice
in radio production. Firstly, there has to be a well written script to be spoken and then someone
has to speak or read it before a microphone in a studio
Music
Music is the soul of radio. It is used in different ways on radio. Film songs and classical music
programmes are independent programmes on radio. Music is also used as signature tunes or
theme music of various radio programmes.
Let us see what music does to any programme.
a. Music adds colour and life to any spoken word programme.
b. Music can break monotony.
c. Music is used to give the desired effect of happy or unhappy situations, fear or joy.
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d. Music can suggest scenes and locations. For example, you have to create a bright early
morning situation. This can be done by playing a pleasing note on the flute along with the sound of
chirping of birds.
Sound effects
Sound effects in a radio programme give meaning and sense of location. It adds realism to a
programme and helps a listener to use imagination. Think of a crowded market or temple. If you
are creating that scene in a radio programme, you do not have to go to a crowded market or
temple to record. Well, you can record those sounds and use them. But in most cases, you use
sound effects which are already recorded. Sound effects can be used in two ways:
(a) Spot effects or effects that are created as we speak and
(b) Recorded sound effects.
If you are recording a radio programme in which someone knocks at the door, you can make a
knocking sound either on a door or a wooden partition. Or you want to show that someone is
pouring water from a bottle into a glass; here again you can use the actual sounds produced on
the spot. But if you want a lion roaring or a dog barking, you probably cannot bring a lion or a dog
to the studios! Here we use recorded sounds which are kept on tapes or discs. Almost all sounds
are available on CDs which you can try and use. There are also certain types of computer
software available for this.
You can also create sound effects. You can use two coconut shells to produce the sound effects
of the sounds of horses’ hooves. Take a piece of cellophane paper or aluminium wrapper and
crush them in front of a microphone. Record the sound and hear. It will sound as if fire is raging.
You can think and create many such sound effects.
However, there is a word of caution. If you record an actual door opening, you may not get the real
feeling of a door opening when you record it. What matters is what it sounds like and not what it is.
Silence
The most interesting element of radio is silence. Like there is no light without the dark, there is no
audio without the sound. The various elements of radio production flow from the above ingredients
of a radio format.
The various elements of radio production flow from the above ingredients of a radio format.
So let us look at the main elements of radio production.

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(i) Studio: In the previous lesson, you have learnt that the radio studio is a room where radio
programmes are recorded. For producing a radio programme, you need a ‘sound proof’ studio
where human voice can be recorded or broadcast in the best manner.
(ii) Microphones: For our voice to be recorded in a studio, we use a microphone. You might have
used or at least seen microphones. They amplify or in other words, increase the volume of your
voice. When you speak before a microphone, you don’t have to shout. You speak normally and it
will be made louder if you use a loudspeaker to listen to. When we think of radio, the microphone
is the most important element using which you present your programme.
There are basically three types of microphones and they are known by their directivity.
As you go through the following text, you will understand the term ‘directivity’.
(a) Uni-directional microphone: As the name suggests, this microphone picks up sound from
one direction. As you speak in front of it, your voice is picked up. If you speak from the other side
of the microphone, your voice will not be picked up properly. In a radio studio, the announcers,
presenters and newsreaders use this type of a microphone.
A microphone is very sensitive and you need to use it carefully. You should be at the right distance
from it when you speak. Otherwise, your voice will not sound good. Even if you turn a paper or
breathe heavily, the microphone will pick up that sound and your programme or your voice will be
affected.
(b) Bi-directional microphone:- Here again as the name (bi) suggests, the voice or sound is
picked up from two directions. If you are recording an interview in a radio studio, you may use this
type of a microphone.
(c) Omni-directional microphone: You may be familiar with the word Omni. We say god is
omnipresent, which means ‘present everywhere’. In the case of an Omni-directional microphone, it
picks up sound from all directions. This type of microphone is used when a number of voices are
used in a single programme like a radio discussion or a radio drama.
There are many other types of microphones which come in different sizes and lengths. If you
watch television programmes, you may find a small microphone clipped on the collar. This is
called a lapel microphone which is actually a uni-directional microphone. These microphones are
not normally used in radio.
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Then there are long microphones called gun microphones used in sports production. These
microphones are often Omni directional ones. There are also cordless microphones. You might
have seen them being used in stage shows. They do not have any cables or wires attached to
them. They have a small transmitter in them which can send the sounds to an amplifier.
(iii) Sound effects: Sound effects in a radio programme give meaning and sense of location. It
adds realism to a programme and helps a listener to use imagination.
Think of a crowded market or temple. If you are creating that scene in a radio programme, you do
not have to go to a crowded market or temple to record. Well, you can record those sounds and
use them. But in most cases, you use sound effects which are already recorded. Sound effects
can be used in two ways:
(a) Spot effects or effects that are created as we speak and
(b) Recorded sound effects.
If you are recording a radio programme in which someone knocks at the door, you can make a
knocking sound either on a door or a wooden partition. Or you want to show that someone is
pouring water from a bottle into a glass; here again you can use the actual sounds produced on
the spot. But if you want a lion roaring or a dog barking, you probably cannot bring a lion or a dog
to the studios! Here we use recorded sounds which are kept on tapes or discs. Almost all sounds
are available on CDs which you can try and use.
There are also certain types of computer software available for this.
You can also create sound effects. You can use two coconut shells to produce the sound effects
of the sounds of horses’ hooves.
Take a piece of cellophine paper or aluminium wrapper and crush them in front of a microphone.
Record the sound and hear. It will sound as if fire is raging. You can think and create many such
sound effects.
However, there is a word of caution. If you record an actual door opening, you may not get the real
feeling of a door opening when you record it. What matters is what it sounds like and not what it is.
(iv) Music: Music is the soul of radio. It is used in different ways on radio as already discussed in
the earlier lesson. Film songs and classical music programmes are independent programmes on
radio. Music is also used as signature tunes or theme music of various radio programmes.
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Let us see what music does to any programme.
a. Music adds colour and life to any spoken word programme.
b. Music can break monotony.
c. Music is used to give the desired effect of happy or unhappy situations, fear or joy.
d. Music can suggest scenes and locations. For example, you have to create a bright early
morning situation. This can be done by playing a pleasing note on the flute along with the sound of
chirping birds.
(v) Artificial echo: - If you enter an empty building or fort and shout, your voice will come back to
you. This is called on echo. An echo is used in radio programmes. This is a technical input.
(vi) Filter or distort: If you listen to someone speaking to you on phone, the voice would not
sound normal. This sort of effect called distort is produced using technology. Sometimes distort is
used along with echo. Think of someone speaking from a mine 100 feet below the earth. To make
it realistic, distort and echo are used.
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Lesson 2
Radio Production Process
Introduction
Planning a programme requires an understanding of the requisites of the medium. Radio is an
aural medium and as such emphasis in planning and production must be on voice and sound
which would enable listeners to appreciate or understand the message the programme seeks to
convey.
The language used in the programme must be the 'spoken language' with an informal and natural
style. It should be simple and understandable, having short and simple sentences.
The ultimate goal of a good radio programme is to disseminate appropriate information on a

relevant theme. The planning efforts must be directed towards this so that the message conveyed
produces the desired impact.
Stages of Radio Programme Production
There are three stages in programme production process, i.e., pre-production, production and
post-production. While planning is required at every stage, extensive planning is required at the
pre-production stage when the programme is conceived and all the necessary preparations made.
Without proper planning, any interesting theme or creative idea may not make the desired impact.
Planning is an on-going activity.
Now let us study about different stages of radio programme production. Whatever we do, there
has to be a clear plan. In the case of radio production also, there is a well-accepted process of
production which is carried out in three stages. Let us list them out.
a) Pre-production
b) Production and
c) Post-production
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Pre-production
As the title suggests, this is the first stage before the actual production.
i) An idea is born: This phase includes how a programme is born as an idea and its
conceptualization. The topic or subject matter is decided.
ii) Plan of action: After the topic is decided, a plan of action is worked out. Here the format of the
programme is determined i.e. whether the programme is a talk, discussion, interview, drama,
documentary etc. Once that is clear, the right person for writing the script and the performers are
decided. The plan of action would also determine the equipment for outside recordings that are
required. The time and venue of the recording are also worked out.
iii) The script is examined to make it suitable for broadcast: It is examined according to the
principles of writing for radio or in other words ‘for the ear’.
iv) Paper work: If people who are not working in the radio station are involved for writing or
providing voice for the programmes, they have to be invited with an agreement to accept the job or
assignment. This type of agreement is referred to as a contract. Similarly, permission is often
required to interview certain people if the programme is based on such interviews. Therefore, as
you can see, there is a lot of paper work at the pre-production stage.
v) Rehearsing the voices of speakers is also part of this stage.
Production
This is the actual process of recording and editing a radio programme. Proper studios,
microphones and computers are required to record and edit the programme. Most of the radio
stations have a separate room in the studio complex for rehearsal known as Reader over Room
(ROR). This is the first stage of rehearsal without microphone. The second stage of rehearsal is
inside the studios with microphones. The demand for ROR and the stud10 is usually during
working days, particularly during daytime is high.
The producer has to plan the ROR studio bookings in such a way that she has adequate time to
do the rehearsals and recordings. Recording during non-peak hours and holidays will enable the
producer to devote more time to rehearsals and recording. There would be no need for
postproduction, if the producer and the artistes devote adequate time and attention to these two
aspects of production.
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Recording is the responsibility of the producer. It is, therefore, necessary for him/ her to check the
studio recorder, studio clock, the magnetic tape to be used sufficiently in advance so that there is
no hassle at the time of recording.
Post production:
Writing to inform people involved in the production is a major activity during this phase. The
programme has to be given publicity both on radio and in other media. This is done to ensure that
people know about the programmes and also listen to them. The announcements for the
presentation of the programme are also written and provided for the actual broadcast of the
programme. There are many things, which can happen in post-production. Common tasks include:
 Editing recorded audio clip
 Adding sound effects, music, etc.
 Adding filter if required
 Mixing of all tracks
 exporting file
In most cases however, post-production is a time-consuming job taking longer than the actual
production.
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Lesson 3
Equipment used in Radio Production: Types of Microphones,
Headphones and Talk Backs, Audio Mixers and Transmitters
Microphone
A microphone is basically a transducer that converts sound waves into electrical waves. The
electrical waves can then be either amplified using loudspeakers, or recorded and stored.
Microphones are either built-in— as in computers, telephones, or mobile phones—or free-standing
devices, like those you use in an auditorium or in a studio. They come in various sizes and
shapes. It must be remembered that no one microphone serves all purposes.
In fact, it is the purpose that decides what kind of microphone one should use.
Microphones are classified into two main types namely classification by the type of transducers
and classification by pickup, that is, directional properties. It is important to know the different
kinds of microphones available in the market so that one can put them to appropriate use.
The purpose could be recording just speech or music, or even bird and animal calls.
Microphone Diaphragm
The diaphragm is a thin piece of material (such as paper, plastic or aluminium) which vibrates
when it is struck by sound waves. In a typical hand-held mic like the one below, the diaphragm is
located in the head of the microphone. When the diaphragm vibrates, it causes other components
in the microphone to vibrate. These vibrations are converted into an electrical current which
becomes the audio signal.
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Different types of microphone
There are a number of different types of microphone in common use. The differences can be
divided into two areas:
Cross Section of a microphone
The type of conversion technology they use
This refers to the technical method the mic uses to convert sound into electricity. The most
common technologies are dynamic, condenser, ribbon and crystal. Each has advantages and
disadvantages, and each is generally more suited to certain types of application.
Dynamic Microphones
Dynamic microphones are versatile and ideal for general-purpose use. They use a simple design
with few moving parts. They are relatively sturdy and resilient to rough handling. They are also
better suited to handling high volume levels, such as from certain musical instruments or
amplifiers. They have no internal amplifier and do not require batteries or external power.
Also called moving coil microphones, dynamic microphones are rugged and robust and are mostly
used in field situations. They are more resistant to unwanted vibration and wind rumble. The
microphones that are used by rock stars are normally of the dynamic type. Typically, their
frequency range lies between 40 and 18,000 Hz.
How Dynamic Microphones Work
The diaphragm is attached to the coil. When the diaphragm vibrates in response to incoming
sound waves, the coil moves backwards and forwards past the magnet. This creates a current in
the coil which is channelled from the microphone along wires. A common configuration is shown
below.
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Loudspeakers perform the opposite function of microphones by converting electrical energy into
sound waves. This is demonstrated perfectly in the dynamic microphone which is basically a
loudspeaker in reverse. When you see a cross-section of a speaker you'll see the similarity with
the diagram above. If fact, some intercom systems use the speaker as a microphone.
Condenser Microphones
Condenser means capacitor, an electronic component which stores energy in the form of an
electrostatic field. The term condenser is actually obsolete but has stuck as the name for this type
of microphone, which uses a capacitor to convert acoustical energy into electrical energy.
Condenser microphones require power from a battery or external source. The resulting audio
signal is stronger signal than that from a dynamic. Condensers also tend to be more sensitive and
responsive than dynamics, making them well-suited to capturing subtle nuances in a sound. They
are not ideal for high-volume work, as their sensitivity makes them prone to distort.
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Condensor microphones are much more sensitive microphones, and are generally used for studio
applications. Typically, their frequency range covers the entire human hearing range from 20–
20,000 Hz. Unlike dynamic microphones, condenser microphones need an external power supply.
Some condenser microphones have a battery attachment within the body of the microphone itself.
Batteries are usually replaceable, as required. Others need power delivered to them through the
microphone cable itself, an arrangement called Phantom power, and often denoted by the symbol
+48V or P48.
How Condenser Microphones Work
A capacitor has two plates with a voltage between them. In the condenser mic, one of these plates
is made of very light material and acts as the diaphragm. The diaphragm vibrates when struck by
sound waves, changing the distance between the two plates and therefore changing the
capacitance. Specifically, when the plates are closer together, capacitance increases and a
charge current occurs. When the plates are further apart, capacitance decreases and a discharge
current occurs. A voltage is required across the capacitor for this to work. This voltage is supplied
either by a battery in the mic or by external phantom power.
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The type of application they are designed for
Some mics are designed for general use and can be used effectively in many different situations.
Others are very specialized and are only really useful for their intended purpose. Characteristics to
look for include directional properties, frequency response and impedance. For eg. Lapel, mics are
specifically used for wearing on lapel while appearing on TV.
Directional Properties
Every microphone has a property known as directionality. This describes the microphone's
sensitivity to sound from various directions. Some microphones pick up sound equally from all
directions, others pick up sound only from one direction or a particular combination of directions.
The types of directionality are divided into three main categories:
Microphones Categorized by Directionality
Omni-directional microphones
An Omni-directional microphone can pick up sound from all directions. They are very easy to use
and most of the basic microphones found in the market are of this type. These microphones are
normally the ones that a tentwallah (a person who rents out tents) uses during community
functions.
Uses: Capturing ambient noise; Situations where sound is coming from many directions;
Situations where the mic position must remain fixed while the sound source is moving.
Although omnidirectional mics are very useful in the right situation, picking up sound from every
direction is not usually what you need. Omni sound is very general and unfocused - if you are
trying to capture sound from a particular subject or area it is likely to be overwhelmed by other
noise.
Uni-directional microphones
You may have noticed in music shows that even though instruments are placed close to each
other, the microphone placed above one instrument does not pick up sound from another. These
microphones preferentially pick up sound from one direction, while rejecting sounds from other
directions. Such microphones are called uni-directional microphones.
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They are widely used for recording in outdoor interviews (where unwanted ambient noise levels
are high), and in panel discussions in studio situations. From a pickup pattern point of view, their
patterns look like an inverted heart, which is why they are sometimes also called cardioid
microphones. Some cardioid microphones are designed to be more directional than others, which
are called super- and hyper-cardioid microphones. These are used for recording sounds from far
away. Some hyper cardioid microphones can pick up sound from as far as 300–500 metres!
Bi-directional microphones
A bi-directional microphone can pick up sounds from the front or the rear of the microphone, but
not from the sides. Their polar patterns are usually in the shape of a figure-8. Bi-directional
microphones are very sensitive by construction, and need to be handled carefully. When not
placed carefully, they can produce pops, and are best avoided for fieldwork. They are very useful
for discussions when two persons are seated across a table for an interview.
Cardioid: Cardioid means "heart-shaped", which is the type of pick-up pattern these mics use.
Sound is picked up mostly from the front, but to a lesser extent the sides as well.
Uses: Emphasising sound from the direction the mic is pointed whilst leaving some latitude for mic
movement and ambient noise.
The cardioid is a very versatile microphone, ideal for general use. Handheld mics are usually
cardioid. There are many variations of the cardioid pattern.
Hyper cardioid: This is exaggerated version of the cardioid pattern. It is very directional and
eliminates most sound from the sides and rear. Due to the long thin design of hyper cardioids, they
are often referred to as shotgun microphones.
Uses: Isolating the sound from a subject or direction when there is a lot of ambient noise; Picking
up sound from a subject at a distance.
By removing all the ambient noise, unidirectional sound can sometimes be a little unnatural. It may
help to add a discreet audio bed from another mic (i.e. constant background noise at a low level).
You need to be careful to keep the sound consistent. If the mic doesn't stay pointed at the subject
you will lose the audio. Shotguns can have an area of increased sensitivity directly to the rear.
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Stereo microphone
Simply stated, the stereo microphone gives two electrical outputs instead of one. These relate to
sounds arriving from its left and its right. This ‘positional information’ is carried through the entire
system via two transmission channels arriving at the stereo receiver to be heard on left and right
loudspeakers.
The left channel is generally referred to as the ‘A’ (red) output and the right channel is the ‘B’
(green) output. The meter monitoring the electrical levels may have two needles (red and green)
or there may be two meters (left and right). The signal sent to a mono transmitter (the ‘M’ signal) is
the combination of both left and right, i.e. A + B, while the stereo information (the ‘S’ signal)
consists of the differences between what is happening on the left and on the right, i.e. ‘A - B’.
Sometimes a second monitoring meter is available to look at the ‘M’ and ‘S’ signals. Again, it has
two needles conventionally coloured respectively white and yellow. Vertical columns of LEDs are
an alternative way of indicating the signal level. What does the producer need to know about all
this?
First, that if a programme is to be carried by both monaural and stereo transmitters, some thought
has to be given to the question of compatibility. Material designed for stereo can sound pointless
in mono, or even technically bad. For example, speech and music together can be distinguished in
stereo purely because of their positional difference; in mono the same mix may be unacceptable,
since a difference in level is needed. The producer will optimize the programme for the primary
audience, but also ensure it is compatible for both. It is all too easy to fall in love with the stereo
sound in the studio and forget the needs of the mono listener.
Second, that stereo mics are fairly uncommon and it is not necessary to use one to generate a
stereo signal. Two directional mono mics (or ‘coincident pair’) connected to a stereo mixer in such
a way as to simulate left and right signals – for example, through ‘pan-pots’ – will give excellent
results. This technique is useful in an interview or phone-in, when the voices can be given some
additional left/right separation for the stereo listener.
Third, that a pan-pot can give a mono source both size and position. For example, a mono
recording of a sound effect can be placed across part, or all, of the sound picture. Two mono
recordings – for example, of rain – can give a convincing stereo picture if one is panned to the left
and the other to the right, with some overlap in the middle.
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When recording music, special effects can be obtained by the deliberate misallocation of a
particular source – hence the piano 10 metres wide at the front of the orchestra, or the trumpeter
whose fanfare flies around the sound stage simply by a twirl of the pan-pot!
And fourth, that working in stereo is a challenge to the producer’s creativity. To establish distance
and effect movement in something as simple as a station promo gives it impact. To play three
tracks simultaneously – one left, one centre and one right – as a ‘guess the title’ competition is
intriguing. A spatial round-table discussion which really separates the speakers has a much more
live feel than its mono counterpart. The drama – or commercial – in which voices can be made to
appear from anywhere, dart around or ‘float’, literally adds another dimension. For the listener, a
stereo station should do more than keep the stereo indicator light on.
Headphones
Headphones are devices that are used to listen to audio, a process also known as monitoring
audio. Typically, most units are like small speaker units mounted on a headband that allows them
to be worn comfortably on the user’s head. Like connectors, there are a variety of headphones,
with a number of different uses.
Ear bud headphones
These are probably the most common types of headphones, as they are used with all kinds of
portable music players and mobile phones. Also called earphones, they are often provided as free
accessories with these devices. While some low quality ear bud headphones fit loosely within the
external ear, there are some that fit into the ear canal itself. While earphones are good for listening
to music, they are best avoided to monitor audio while recording.
On-ear headphones
These are headphones that sit on the ears rather than over them. As a result, they are usually a
bit smaller and lighter than over-the-ear models. They tend to have foam or sometimes leatherette
pads for extra comfort, and usually have adjustable headbands for a snug fit. These headphones
are normally good on treble but not on bass. Since they don’t cover the ears, ambient noise tends
to enter the ears, making it difficult to monitor audio in critical conditions. They are therefore best
used in office situations, for simple listening purposes, or for conducting voice chats over the
Internet.
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Over-the-ear headphones
These are traditional-looking headphones, with cushioned pads that enclose and cover the whole
ear. This makes them more comfortable to wear over long periods, and they generally deliver
good sound quality. Bulkier than other types of headphones, these are best suited for audio
monitoring purposes in the studio as well as in the field. Some varieties also cancel out noise,
making it easier for the producer/technical personnel to monitor audio. The balanced headphone
variety under this category provides the same impression as the sound you would be hearing from
two or more speakers.
Talkback
A talkback is a microphone-and-receiver system installed in a recording/mixing console for

communication between people in the control room and performers in the recording studio. Most
semi-professional and professional consoles include such a system.
The typical setup includes an internal microphone built directly into the console, and a series of
switches. The switches allow the recording engineer to route the microphone signal to a variety of
audio paths in the studio, such as the performer's headphones, a set of speakers in the recording
area, or directly to a tape recorder.
Using this tool, the engineer can communicate with a performer with headphones while they are
performing in the studio without interfering with the recording. Another use is to announce the title
or other relevant information at the beginning of a recording. A communication system in a radio or
television studio that allows people to speak to each other without the audience hearing what they
say
Audio mixer
An audio mixer is a device that helps connect multiple audio sources to a recorder, while also
helping you to refine and improve the quality of the sound. Mixers are often used to individually
control the sound from each source independently, in order to achieve a good balance between
the various sources.
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Audio mixers come in handy both in live and post-production situations. In a live situation, audio
inputs are first balanced and equalized and the recording done. Professional audio mixers also
have a provision to connect a headphone or a pair of speakers to monitor the output. Some audio
mixers are also capable of providing the phantom power supply to microphones when needed. It is
always better to purchase audio mixers that can provide phantom power supply.
Portable audio mixers come in handy for use in the field when there is more than one source of
sound. It allows one to combine the signals from multiple audio sources, be it microphones or
other audio players, and mix them all. They work either on direct power supply or batteries. The
output from the field audio mixer is then connected to the input of an audio recorder. The audio
recorder then records the mixed audio from various sources.
An Audio Mixer
Sound mixer is a device which takes two or more audio signals, mixes them together and provides
one or more output signals. The diagram above shows a simple mixer with six inputs and two
outputs. As well as combining signals, mixers allow you to adjust levels, enhance sound with
equalization and effects, create monitor feeds, record various mixes, etc.
Mixers come in a wide variety of sizes and designs, from small portable units to massive studio
consoles. The term mixer can refer to any type of sound mixer; the terms sound desk and sound
console refer to mixers which sit on a desk surface as in a studio setting.
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Parts of Sound Mixer
Channels
Each input source comes into the mixer through a channel. The more channels a mixer has, the
more sources it can accept. The following examples show some common ways to describe a
mixer's compliment of channels:
Input Channels
The first point of each channel's pathway is the input socket, where the sound source plugs into
the mixer. It is important to note what type of input sockets are available — the most common
types are XLR, 6.5mm Jack and RCA. Input sockets are usually located either on the rear panel of
the mixer or on the top above each channel.
Input Gain
When a signal enters the mixer, one of the first controls is the input gain. This is a knob which
adjusts the signal level before it continues to the main parts of the channel. The input gain is
usually set once when the source is plugged in and left at the same level — any volume
adjustments are made by the channel fader rather than the gain control. Set the gain control so
that when the fader is at 0dB the signal is peaking around 0dB on the VU meters.
Phasing: Some equipment and cables are wired with different phasing, that is, the wires in the
cable which carry the signal are arranged differently. This will kill any sound from that source. To
fix this problem, some mixers have a phase selector which will change the phasing at the input
stage.
Phantom Power: Some mixers have the option to provide a small voltage back up the input cable
to power a microphone or other device.
Channel Equalization: Most mixers have some of sort equalization controls for each channel.
Channel equalizers use knobs (rather than sliders), and can be anything from simple tone controls
to multiple parametric controls.
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Channel Assigning & Panning
Pan: Almost all stereo mixers allow you to assign the amount of panning. This is a knob which
goes from full left to full right. This is where the channel signal appears on the master mix (or
across two subgroups if this is how the channel is assigned). If the knob is turned fully left, the
channel audio will only come through the left speaker in the final mix. Turn the knob right to place
the channel on the right side of the mix
Assign: This option may be absent on smaller mixers but is quite important on large consoles.
The assign buttons determine where the channel signal is sent.
PFL: PFL means Pre-Fade Listen. Its function is to do exactly that — listen to the channel's audio
at a point before the fader takes effect. The PFL button is usually located just above the channel
fader. In the example on the right, it's the red button (the red LED lights when PFL is engaged).
Channel Faders: Each channel has its own fader (slider) to adjust the volume of the channel's
signal before it is sent to the next stage (subgroup or master mix).
A slider is a potentiometer, or variable resistor. This is a simple control which varies the amount of
resistance and therefore the signal level. Remember that there are two ways to adjust a channel's
level the input gain and the output fader. Make sure the input gain provides a strong signal level to
the channel without clipping and leave it at that level — use the fader for ongoing adjustments
Outputs
The main output from most mixing devices is a stereo output, using two output sockets which
should be fairly obvious and easy to locate. The connectors are usually 3-pin XLRs on larger
consoles, but can also be 6.5mm TR (jack) sockets or RCA sockets.
The level of the output signal is monitored on the mixer's VU meters. The ideal is for the level to
peak at around 0dB or just below. However you should note that the dB scale is relative and 0dB
on one mixer may not be the same as 0dB on another mixer or audio device.
21
Audio Cables and Connectors:
There are two main types of audio cable we will look at: Single core / shielded (unbalanced) and
One pair / shielded (balanced).
Single Core / Shielded Cable:
In a single core / shielded cable, the single core is used for the +ve, or 'hot', and the shield is used
for the -ve, or 'cold'. This type of cable is used for unbalanced audio signals.
One Pair / Shielded Cable:
A one pair / shielded cable has one core as the +ve, and the other core is -ve. The shield is
earthed. This type of cable is used for balanced audio signals.
Audio Connectors:
There are a variety of different audio connectors available. The most common types are 3-pin
XLR, RCA, and 6.5mm jacks (also known as ¼" jacks).
3-pin XLR:
3-pin XLR Male
3-pin XLR Female
3-pin XLR connectors are mainly used for balanced audio signals. Using a balanced signal
reduces the risk of inference.
Pin 1 is the earth (or shield)
Pin 2 is the +ve (or 'hot')
Pin 3 is the -ve (or 'cold).
¼ " Jack (6.5mm Jack): There are two types of 6.5mm Jacks: Mono and stereo. The mono jack
has a tip and a sleeve, the stereo jack has ring, a tip and a sleeve.
On the mono jack the tip is the +ve, and the sleeve is the -ve or shield.
22
On a stereo jack being used for a balanced signal, the tip is the +ve, the ring is the -ve, and the
sleeve is the shield.
On a stereo jack being used for a stereo signal (left and right), the tip is the left, the ring is the
right, and the sleeve is the shield.
1/4’’ Mono Jack
1/4’’ Stereo Jack
Jacks also come in various sizes - 6.5mm (¼"), 3.5mm, 2.5mm. The wiring for all of them is the
same.
There are a number of different XLR's - 3-pin, 4-pin, 5-pin etc
RCA (Radio Corporation of America)
RCAs are used a lot for home stereos, videos, DVDs etc.
The RCA can carry either audio or video. It is wired the same way as a mono jack:
The centre pin is the +ve, and the outer ring is the -ve or shield.
RCA Male
Functions performed by audio mixers:
• Control the volume of signals coming from various inputs (microphones, audio players, etc.)
using faders. The faders help in regulating the input levels of sound coming from various sources.
23
• Combine and balance the inputs coming from various sources, by sliding the faders up and
down. For example, in an audio mixer with six inputs, you connect six microphones to record a
musical score. Controlling each source by way of its dedicated fader helps one in balancing the
input of each instrument, so that we make the combined output pleasant to hear.
• Equalize the audio, that is, manipulate the frequency characteristics of the input sound.
Equalizing involves controlling the audio signal by increasing some wanted frequencies and
decreasing the unwanted ones. For example, you can reduce hiss in speech by equalizing the
input.
• Auxiliary Send (“Aux Send”) is used to send the output to other external devices like an effects
generator. The output from the Aux Send is again taken back into the audio mixer, mixed and
routed through the final output.
• Route the mixed and equalized audio signals to a specific output
• Enable monitoring of all the functions mentioned above through speakers/headphones as

they are being recorded/broadcast.
Professional portable field mixers have the following features:
• Can take in any number of audio inputs from 2 to 6
• Provide phantom power for condenser microphones
• Gain and level controls
• Monitor headphones
• Can be low cut filters by cutting out low frequencies while recording outdoors
• Can act as limiters by preventing distortion of audio even when it is very high
• Provide balanced outputs to connect to a recorder
If you have to work with portable audio mixers, ensure the following:
• It has enough audio inputs.
• It has a warning signal for signal overloads.
• Don’t mix or overlap audio and power cables. Keep them as far as possible from each other.
24
Sound Cards
A sound card is a peripheral that is connected to a computer. It is sometimes also called a sound
board or an audio card. Most computers come with some form of a basic sound card to edit and
playback audio. So how does one identify if a computer has a sound card? If your computer has
inputs for a microphone and a headphone on the back of the CPU (Central Processing Unit),
which is the box that houses your computer’s hardware, your computer has a sound card. It must
be noted that while some cards only playback audio, duplex sound cards enable simultaneous
input and output of audio, and also enable audio recording.
Some of the motherboards used in computers have good sound cards that are integrated into the
motherboards themselves. However, most computers used for professional audio usually need an
independent sound card. These are usually plugged into the Peripheral Component Interconnect
(PCI) slot on the motherboard.
A sound card also acts as an analogue to digital convertor (ADC). In other words, it converts
analogue signals coming from your microphone to digital bits that can be recorded/stored on the
computer. It also has a digital to analogue convertor (DAC) to output the digital signal through
speakers, which need an analogue signal.
The purchase of the sound card will depend on your requirement and budget. Budget sound cards
can cost anywhere between INR 1,000–5,000. A professional high-end sound card could cost
INR 1, 00,000 or more! For purposes of editing audio, a sound card that is in the range of
INR 2,000–3,000 should be quite adequate.
Digital Audio Workstations (DAWs)

A digital audio workstation (DAW) is nothing but a computer one can use to record audio in a
studio or even use for the post-production work of radio programmes.
In the early days of digital audio editing on a computer, one would have to connect hardware like
an audio mixer or effects generator to the computer. While the software would help in merely
editing together all the audio, all sweetening of audio (including balancing, equalizing, and
applying audio effects) would have to be done by the external hardware. Of late, however,
computers above a certain grade, with even moderate sound cards, are capable of doing
everything from assembly of the programme through to the mixing, balancing, equalization and
effects works within the computer’s software interface itself.
25
Today’s computer and audio recording/editing software often come with built-in software-based
mixing consoles, plugins and effects, which help in completing everything from recording to post-
production work right on the computer.
The key things to look for in a computer to be used as a DAW are as follows:
• A high-end processor (the Intel i-series processors work well)
• A power supply (SMPS) of 400W or greater
• Random Access Memory (RAM) anywhere between 2–4GB (more is better)
• A hard disk of a minimum 500 GB capacity, with 1 TB preferred
• As many USB 2.0 (Universal Serial Bus) ports as possible to import and export audio from the
system
• A good sound card—one with an external breakout and multiple connector options is always
preferred
• A pair of good speakers to monitor audio
There are several choices for digital audio processing software available in the market, ranging
from Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) options to proprietary solutions.
Transmitters
In the control room, technical people control the whole process and immediately send these waves
to the transmitter.
• The transmitter sends these sound waves to the listeners’ radio sets which convert them into
sounds. There is no time gap in the whole process.
Studio Control Room (CR) Transmitter (XTR) Listener
• Transmitters are generally located outside the city boundaries.
• The transmitters are of different capacities such as 1 KW to 100 KW, 200 KW or 250 KW or
above.
• Their locations are decided according to their capacity.
• A 1 KW transmitter is normally installed in the vicinity of the studio/control room whereas the high
power transmitters are installed outside the city. Transmitter
A transmitter is the equipment through which we receive the radio broadcast on our sets. This is
big equipment in comparison to other equipment installed in the studio or control room.
26
– The strength and type of the transmitter determines the coverage area of broadcast.
– There are two types of transmitters.
� Low Power Transmitter (LPT) and
� High Power Transmitter (HPT)
– Likewise, there are:

� Medium Wave (MW) radio broadcast transmitters and
� Short Wave (SW) radio broadcast transmitters
27
Lesson 4
Recording, Broadcasting and Troubleshooting
Indoor: Studio, Acoustics and Perspective
Outdoor: Ambience and Noise
Introduction
Recording is the process of saving data, and audio in this case, for future references and use.
Signal processors: devices and software which allow the manipulation of the signal in various
ways. The most common processors are tonal adjusters such as bass and treble controls.
Record and playback section: devices which convert a signal to a storage format for later
reproduction. Recorders are available in many different forms, including magnetic tape, optical
CD, computer hard drive, etc.
Process of Recording
The audio signal from the transducer (microphone) is passed through one or more processing
units, which prepare it for recording (or directly for amplification).
The signal is fed to a recording device for storage. The stored signal is played back and fed to
more processors. The signal is amplified and fed to a loudspeaker.
Sound recording and reproduction is an electrical or mechanical inscription and recreation of

sound waves, such as spoken voice, singing, instrumental music, or sound effects. The two main
classes of sound recording technology are analog recording and digital recording.
28
Sound mixer is a device which takes two or more audio signals, mixes them together and provides
one or more output signals. As well as combining signals, mixers allow you to adjust levels,
enhance sound with equalization and effects, create monitor feeds, record various mixes, etc.
Mixers come in a wide variety of sizes and designs, from small portable units to massive studio
consoles. The term mixer can refer to any type of sound mixer; the terms sound desk and sound
console refer to mixers which sit on a desk surface as in a studio setting.
Studio
However good or experienced a presenter is, he or she can always benefit from being studio
produced by another person. The studio producer can be the person who wrote the script and put
the programme together if the presenter(s) did not write it. Or, the studio producer can be a
colleague who has gone through the script and assisted in putting the audio and script together.
Much of what is said here is relevant to producing or directing live programmes, but with live
programmes there are other considerations to do with timing and moving stories.
Seven tips for preparing to go into the studio to produce:

1. Available studio: Book the studio, or make sure it is free when you want it.
2. Clean studio: The sound technician should have made sure that the studio is clean and has a
table, chairs and the right microphones in place. If this is not the case then get what you need!
3. Rehearse before going in: Do all rehearsing and script discussions before you go into the
studio – it’s a waste of the sound technician’s time to listen to endless discussions about the
wording in the script.
29
4. Make arrangements for the studio guest: If there is a studio guest then make sure transport
has been arranged and directions to the studio are clear. Time the guest's arrival to coincide with
the actual start of the recording session; guests don’t want to sit around while presenter(s) and
studio producer discuss the script's finer points.
5. Scripts available: Make sure that there are scripts printed out for:
a. Self (studio producer)
b. Sound technician
c. Presenter(s)
6. Water: Make sure that there is water available for the presenter(s) and guest(s) – broadcasting
can be thirsty work!
7. Audio ready: Make sure the playlist is ready – in other words, all audio is ready and numbered
in order.
Six tips for running a good recording session

Monitoring. Remember that the role of the studio producer is to monitor the presenters’
performance and to stop them if it falls below what is needed. The standards for good presentation
have been laid out in the previous section (section 17, Script reading). Here’s a summary of what
the studio producer should be doing in the studio session:
1. Levels: Make sure that the sound technician starts by taking sound levels of the presenter(s)
and any guests. With BBC Media Action, levels should be peaking at 6 on the meter in the desk.
Don’t go ahead with recording until you and the sound technician are happy with levels and
presenter(s) is/are happy with their position at the microphone and studio table.
2. Energy: Monitor the presenter(s) for fluctuations in energy. Energy levels can be low if
presenters are tired, distracted (for instance, by personal problems) or if they are recording at the
end of the day/in the evening. Be encouraging if presenters are losing energy.
3. Structure of the programme is clear: Ensure that the presentation reflects the different
sections of the programmes, for example:
tion in the programme, or summing up the whole programme (in a

health programme this might mean giving a basic message such as "space out the birth of your
children", or "make sure that mothers have a minimum of 4 antenatal check-ups when pregnant")
30
4. Engagement with audio: Ensure that presenters sound really engaged with the audio they are
presenting. Disengaged presentation can be the result of the presenter not really understanding
the programme's point. But as said above, lack of engagement can be to do with tiredness.
5. Feedback: Finally, always give feedback to the presenter(s). You can do this on the talkback
button, by moving from the cubicle into the studio or by smiling and giving a "thumbs-up" through
the glass. There’s nothing more depressing for a presenter than a studio producer who shows no
reaction to the presentation or, even worse, looks fed up and grumpy.
Introduction: Acoustics
The term “acoustics” describes how sound behaves in an enclosed space and one could devote a
lifetime to its study. On the surface, it considers the direct sound, reflections and reverberation.
The sound waves travel out and strike a multitude of surfaces the floor, ceiling, walls, chairs or
pews, windows, people, and so on.
Acoustic Characteristic sound of any enclosed space due to the amount of sound reflected from its
wall surfaces and the way in which this amount alters at different frequencies.
A recording studio is a facility for sound recording and mixing. Ideally, the space is specially
designed by an acoustician to achieve the desired acoustic properties (sound diffusion, low level
of reflections, adequate reverberation time for the size of the ambient, etc.).
Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of all mechanical waves in
gases, liquids, and solids including vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound. The application of
acoustics can be seen in almost all aspects of modern studios with the most obvious being the
audio and noise control industries.
Acoustic screen Free-standing movable screen designed to create special acoustic effects or
prevent unwanted sound reaching a particular microphone. One side is soft and absorbent, the
other is hard and reflective.
31
Depending on the makeup of each surface being struck, a portion of that sound will be reflected
back into the room, a portion will be absorbed by the material, and some of the sound may even
travel through that material.
Types of surfaces
There are three types of surfaces which come into play while talking about acoustics
1. Reflective
2. Absorbing
3. Diffusing
Fine-tuning sound quality inside a studio setting requires strategic placement of sound absorption
surfaces to control reverb time and diffusion materials to control "placement" of the sound energy.
Today’s state of the art acoustic materials include fibre based (fibre glass, Cotton /Polyester),
foams and a variety of alternative resin-based products. Selection of the proper materials is
dependent on room size, composition, building codes and desired finished appearance.
32
Sound Perspective
The sense of a sound's position in space, yielded by volume, timbre, pitch, and, in stereophonic
reproduction systems, binaural information. And the perspective refers to the apparent distance of
a sound. Clues to the distance of the source include the volume of the sound, the balance with
other sounds, the frequency range (high frequencies may be lost at a distance), and the amount of
echo and reverberation.
A closer sound perspective may sometimes be simulated by recording with a directional
microphone which rejects sound from other directions. A more distant perspective may sometimes
be simulated in post-production by processing the sound and mixing in other sounds.
In recording sound for film, you usually select a sound perspective to match the picture with which
it will be used.
Direct sound: Direct sound issues from the source itself, such as those frequencies coming from
an actor’s mouth. When a person is close to us, we hear essentially direct sound including low-
frequency chest tones. As the person moves farther away, we hear more of the reflected sound.
Close perspective sound contains a high ratio of direct sound to reflected sound.
Reflected sound: Reflected sound is produced by the direct sound bouncing off the walls, floor
etc. Reflected sounds much more complex in character than direct sound because the surfaces
are at different distances from the source and have widely varying reflective properties.
Sound Balance
Balance is the relative volume of different sound elements in a scene. Since background sound
effects can usually be added separately in post-production, the best original recording of dialogue
or sound effects is often the cleanest recording, with the least background noise and
reverberation.
Placing the microphone close to the sound source is the best way of reducing the relative amount
of reverberation in an interior recording. Quilts or other absorbent material will also help reduce
reverberation off hard surfaces. Interiors that contains a lot of hard surfaces - glass, stone, metal,
etc. - are said to be "live" because their high reflectivity.
33
Soft or porous materials, like carpeting, draperies and upholstered furniture, are sound deadening.
As furniture is moved into a empty room, the acoustics became "dead". Distant perspective sound
contains a high ratio of reflected sound to direct sound.
Outdoors, the relative level of wind and other background noise can also be reduced by close mic
placement, even when a more distant sound perspective might be preferable. (Note: the mic must
also be protected from direct wind pressure.) So the sound editor might prefer to use wild sound
recorded in closer perspective or recorded somewhere else.
Ambience
Ambient sound in relation to audio refers to the background noise present at a given scene or a
location. This can include noises such as rain, traffic, crickets, birds, et cetera. In audio recording
sometimes there are unwanted ambient sounds in the background that you might want to remove
from the recording, such as a hiss, tapping, or some other unwanted noise.
Ambience is referred to as the atmosphere associated with a particular environment. From music
to film ambient sound is something that creates an atmospheric setting and engages the
viewer/listener into the surroundings of said environment. Ambient sound is used not only to
correlate a particular setting to the story, but to also transition into other parts of a specific setting
in film, maintaining the current flow the film proceeds to take when moving from one scene or cut
to another.
Ambiences (atmospheres or backgrounds) - Provide a sense of place where, and perhaps of time
when, events occur. Background sounds which identify location, setting, or historical time. "Every
place on the planet has its own voice. And that voice changes with the time of day and time of the
year."
Interiors are usually reverberant ("wet") to some degree, indicating the size of an enclosed space.
Exteriors are usually flat, layered elements of sound in a non-reverberant ("dry") space.
Even voice characteristics are different outside. A good unedited background can cover a choppily
edited dialogue, making it sound real and continuous. Ambiences can be done with continuous
tape carts, tape loops, long recordings, or other means.
34
Ambient sound can be defined as the site-specific background sound component that provides
locational atmosphere and spatial information in both film and sound art production; generally, it is
the primary material in the hand of the sound artist and practitioners to sculpt the sense of
presence and embodied experience of a site within the interior world of a sound work.
Noise
Ambient noise, sometimes called “background noise,” refers to all noise present in a given
environment, with the exclusion of the primary sound that an individual is monitoring or directly
producing as a result of his or her work activities.
Noise is usually defined as unwanted sound pollutant which produces undesirable physiological
and psychological effects in an individual, by interfering with one’s social activities like work, rest,
recreation, sleep etc. A sound might be unwanted because it is:
Usually the sound of a violin is referred to as music - is something pleasing. Depending on other
factors, the sound may be perceived as noise. Noise perception is subjective. Factors such as the
magnitude, characteristics, duration, and time of occurrence may affect one's subjective
impression of the noise. Noise is also considered a mixture of many different sound frequencies at
high decibel levels.
35

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Unit 3 Basics of Radio Programming & Production

Unit 3 BA (JMC) 203 L: 12

Radio Production and Transmission Process

Elements of Radio Programme

Let us see what music does to any programme.

a. Music adds colour and life to any spoken word programme.

b. Music can break monotony.

(a) Spot effects or effects that are created as we speak and

(b) Recorded sound effects.

So let us look at the main elements of radio production.

(a) Spot effects or effects that are created as we speak and

(b) Recorded sound effects.

Let us see what music does to any programme.

a. Music adds colour and life to any spoken word programme.

b. Music can break monotony.

The ultimate goal of a good radio programme is to disseminate appropriate information on a

Stages of Radio Programme Production

v) Rehearsing the voices of speakers is also part of this stage.

 Editing recorded audio clip

 Adding sound effects, music, etc.

 Adding filter if required

 Mixing of all tracks

Different types of microphone

Cross Section of a microphone

The type of conversion technology they use

How Dynamic Microphones Work

How Condenser Microphones Work

The type of application they are designed for

Microphones Categorized by Directionality

Ear bud headphones

A talkback is a microphone-and-receiver system installed in a recording/mixing console for

Parts of Sound Mixer

Channel Assigning & Panning

Audio Cables and Connectors:

Single Core / Shielded Cable:

3-pin XLR Male

3-pin XLR Female

1/4’’ Mono Jack

1/4’’ Stereo Jack

There are a number of different XLR's - 3-pin, 4-pin, 5-pin etc

RCA (Radio Corporation of America)

Functions performed by audio mixers:

• Route the mixed and equalized audio signals to a specific output

• Enable monitoring of all the functions mentioned above through speakers/headphones as

Professional portable field mixers have the following features:

• Can take in any number of audio inputs from 2 to 6

• Provide phantom power for condenser microphones

• Gain and level controls

• Provide balanced outputs to connect to a recorder

• It has enough audio inputs.

• It has a warning signal for signal overloads.

Digital Audio Workstations (DAWs)

– Likewise, there are:

Sound recording and reproduction is an electrical or mechanical inscription and recreation of

Seven tips for preparing to go into the studio to produce:

Six tips for running a good recording session

tion in the programme, or summing up the whole programme (in a

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