16-03-2023

BBA
(2023-2024)
Semester: II

Fundamental Business Statistics

(OPTS 1101)

Dr. Y L P THORANI

UNIT 1

Introduction to Statistics

Meaning, Definition, and Need - Techniques of

Conducting Surveys - Survey Design - Sources of Data -
Methods of Primary Data Collection - Sampling -
Different types of Sample Design - Data Analysis and
Presentation.

SESSION PLAN
• Attendance – 5min
• Meaning, Definition, and Need of
the Statistics – 40 min
• Introduction to the next class –
5min

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Statistics is a branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis,

interpretation, and presentation of the many of numerical data.

Data can be a collection of facts, such as numbers, words, measurements,

observations, quantities etc.

A population is any specific collection of objects of interest.

Sample is any subset of the population. The sample size is always less than the total
size of the population.

A parameter is a statistical measure based on all the units (or observations). of a

population.

A statistic is a statistical measure based only on all the units selected in a sample.

Methods in Statistics
• The statistical process involves collecting, summarizing, analyzing, and
interpreting variable numerical data. Some methods of statistics are given
below.
• Data collection
• Data summarization
• Statistical analysis

Types of Statistical methods

• Descriptive statistics
• Inferential statistics

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Descriptive statistics is the branch of statistics that involves organizing,

displaying, and describing data.
e.g., Bar charts, Line graphs, and pie charts comprise the graphic methods,
whereas numeric measures include measures of central tendency, and
dispersion.

Inferential statistics is the branch of statistics that involves conclusions about

a population based on information contained in a sample taken from the
population
e.g., Employees in a company, students in a university/college, companies,
voters, households, manufactured items, births and deaths, road accidents,
etc..

Quantitative data- it is in the form of numerical information.

e.g., An elephant has four legs.

Types of quantitative (Numerical )data

• Discrete data
• Continuous data

Discrete data- it has a fixed value that can be counted.

e.g., The number of students in a class, The number of chips in a bag, The number
of stars in the sky.

Continuous data- it has no fixed value but has a range that can be measured.
e.g., Height and weight of a student, Voltage, Temperature, Length.

Variable: This is a characteristic of a population which can take different

values. Basically, we have two types, namely: continuous variable and
discrete variable.

A continuous variable is a variable which may take all values within a given
range. Its values are obtained by measurements
e.g. height, volume, time, exam score etc.

A discrete variable is one whose value change by steps. Its value may be
obtained by counting. It normally takes integer values.
e.g. number of cars, number of chairs.

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 16-03-2023

BBA
(2023-2024)
Semester: II

Fundamental Business Statistics

(OPTS 1101)

Dr. Y L P THORANI

UNIT 1

Introduction to Statistics

Meaning, Definition, and Need - Techniques of

Conducting Surveys - Survey Design - Sources of Data -
Methods of Primary Data Collection - Sampling -
Different types of Sample Design - Data Analysis and
Presentation.

SESSION PLAN
• Attendance – 5min
• Techniques of Conducting Surveys
- Survey Design – 40 min
• Introduction to the next class – 5min

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Purpose and Scope of Survey

The purpose and scope of data collection or survey should be clearly set out at the
very beginning.

It requires the clear statement of the problem indicating the type of information which
is needed and the use for which it is needed.

For example: The researcher is interested in knowing the nature of price change over
a period of time, it would be necessary to collect data of commodity prices.

It must be decided whether it would be helpful to study wholesale or retail prices and
the possible uses to which such information could be put.

The objective of an survey may be either to collect specific information relating to a

problem or adequate data to test a hypothesis.

Failure to set out clearly the purpose of survey is bound to lead to confusion
and waste of resources.

After the purpose of enquiry has been clearly defined, the next step is to
decide about the scope of the survey.

Scope of the survey means the coverage with regard to the type of
information, the subject-matter and geographical area.

For instance, an enquiry may relate to India as a whole or a state or an

industrial town wherein a particular problem related to a particular industry
can be studied.

Availability of Time
The investigation should be carried out within a reasonable period of
time, failing which the information collected may become outdated, and
would have no meaning at all.
For instance, if a producer wants to know the expected demand for a
product newly launched by him and the result of the enquiry that the
demand would be meager takes two years to reach him, then the whole
purpose of enquiry would become useless because by that time he would
have already incurred a huge loss. Thus, in this respect the information
is quickly required and hence the researcher has to choose the type of
survey accordingly.

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Availability of Resources

The investigation will greatly depend on the resources available

like number of skilled personnel, the financial position etc. If the
number of skilled personnel who will carry out the enquiry is quite
sufficient and the availability of funds is not a problem, then
enquiry can be conducted over a big area covering a good number
of samples, otherwise a small sample size will do.

The Degree of Accuracy Desired

Deciding the degree of accuracy required is a must for the investigator, because
absolute accuracy in statistical work is seldom achieved. This is so because (i)
statistics are based on estimates, (ii) tools of measurement are not always perfect
and (iii) there may be unintentional bias on the part of the investigator, enumerator
or informant. Therefore, a desire of 100% accuracy is bound to remain unfulfilled.
Degree of accuracy desired primarily depends upon the object of enquiry.

For example, when we buy gold, even a difference of 1/10th gram in its weight is
significant, whereas the same will not be the case when we buy rice or wheat.
However, the researcher must aim at attaining a higher degree of accuracy,
otherwise the whole purpose of research would become meaningless.

Statistical Tools to Be Used

A well defined and identifiable object or a group of objects with which the measurements
or counts in any statistical investigation are associated is called a statistical unit.

For example, in socio-economic survey the unit may be an individual, a family, a

household or a block of locality. A very important step before the collection of data begins
is to define clearly the statistical units on which the data are to be collected.

In number of situations the units are conventionally fixed like the physical units of
measurement, such as meters, kilometers, quintals, hours, days, weeks etc., which are well
defined and do not need any elaboration or explanation.

However, in many statistical investigations, particularly relating to socio-economic

studies, arbitrary units are used which must be clearly defined.

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This is a must because in the absence of a clear cut and precise

definition of the statistical units, serious errors in the data
collection may be committed in the sense that we may collect
irrelevant data on the items, which should have, in fact, been
excluded and omit data on certain items which should have been
included. This will ultimately lead to fallacious conclusions.

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THANK YOU

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BBA
(2023-2024)
Semester: II

Fundamental Business Statistics

(OPTS 1101)

Dr. Y L P THORANI

UNIT 1

Introduction to Statistics

Meaning, Definition, and Need - Techniques of

Conducting Surveys - Survey Design - Sources of Data -
Methods of Primary Data Collection - Sampling -
Different types of Sample Design - Data Analysis and
Presentation.

SESSION PLAN
• Attendance – 5min
• Sources of Data - Methods of
Primary Data Collection – 40 min
• Introduction to the next class –
5min

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Sources of Data

After deciding about the unit, a researcher has to decide about the
source from which the information can be obtained or collected. For
any statistical inquiry, the investigator may collect the data first hand
or he may use the data from other published sources, such as
publications of the government/semi-government organizations or
journals and magazines etc.

Methods of Collecting Primary Data

Primary data may be obtained by applying any of the following

methods:
1. Direct Personal Interviews.
2. Indirect Oral Interviews.
3. Information from Correspondents.
4. Mailed Questionnaire Methods.
5. Schedule Sent Through Enumerators.

1. Direct Personal Interviews

A face to face contact is made with the informants (persons from whom
the information is to be obtained) under this method of collecting data.
The interviewer asks them questions pertaining to the survey and
collects the desired information. Thus, if a person wants to collect data
about the working conditions of the workers of the Tata Iron and Steel
Company, Jamshedpur, he would go to the factory, contact the workers
and obtain the desired information.

The information collected in this manner is first hand and also original
in character.

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2. Indirect Oral Interviews

Under this method of data collection, the investigator contacts third parties
generally called ‘witnesses’ who are capable of supplying necessary information.
This method is generally adopted when the information to be obtained is of a
complex nature and informants are not inclined to respond if approached directly.
For example, when the researcher is trying to obtain data on drug addiction or the
habit of taking liquor, there is high probability that the addicted person will not
provide the desired data and hence will disturb the whole research process. In this
situation taking the help of such persons or agencies or the neighbours who know
them well becomes necessary. Since these people know the person well, they can
provide the desired data.
Enquiry Committees and Commissions appointed by the Government generally
adopt this method to get people’s views and all possible details of the facts related
to the enquiry.

3. Information from Correspondents

The investigator appoints local agents or correspondents in different
places to collect information under this method. These correspondents
collect and transmit the information to the central office where data
are processed. This method is generally adopted by news paper
agencies. Correspondents who are posted at different places supply
information relating to such events as accidents, riots, strikes, etc., to
the head office. The correspondents are generally paid staff or
sometimes they may be honorary correspondents also.

This method is also adopted generally by the government departments

in such cases where regular information is to be collected from a wide
area.

For example, in the construction of a wholesale price index numbers

regular information is obtained from correspondents appointed in
different areas. The biggest advantage of this method is that, it is cheap
and appropriate for extensive investigation. But a word of caution is
that it may not always ensure accurate results because of the personal
prejudice and bias of the correspondents. As stated earlier, this method
is suitable and adopted in those cases where the information is to be
obtained at regular intervals from a wide area.

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4. Mailed Questionnaire Method

Under this method, a list of questions pertaining to the survey which is known
as ‘Questionnaire’ is prepared and sent to the various informants by post.
Sometimes the researcher himself too contacts the respondents and gets the
responses related to various questions in the questionnaire. The questionnaire
contains questions and provides space for answers. A request is made to the
informants through a covering letter to fill up the questionnaire and send it
back within a specified time. The questionnaire studies can be classified on
the basis of:
i. The degree to which the questionnaire is formalized or structured.
ii. The disguise or lack of disguise of the questionnaire and
iii. The communication method used.

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When no formal questionnaire is used, interviewers adapt their questioning to each

interview as it progresses. They might even try to elicit responses by indirect
methods, such as showing pictures on which the respondent comments. When a
researcher follows a prescribed sequence of questions, it is referred to as structured
study. On the other hand, when no prescribed sequence of questions exists, the
study is non-structured.
When questionnaires are constructed in such a way that the objective is clear to the
respondents then these questionnaires are known as non- disguised; on the other
hand, when the objective is not clear, the questionnaire is a disguised one. On the
basis of these two classifications, four types of studies can be distinguished:
1. Non-disguised structured,
2. Non-disguised non-structured,
3. Disguised structured and
4. Disguised non-structured.

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5. Schedules Sent Through Enumerators

Another method of data collection is sending schedules through the enumerators or
interviewers. The enumerators contact the informants, get replies to the questions
contained in a schedule and fill them in their own handwriting in the questionnaire
form. There is difference between questionnaire and schedule.

Questionnaire refers to a device for securing answers to questions by using a form

which the respondent fills in him self, whereas schedule is the name usually applied
to a set of questions which are asked in a face-to face situation with another person.
This method is free from most of the limitations of the mailed questionnaire
method.

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THANK YOU

13

5
 16-03-2023

BBA
(2023-2024)
Semester: II

Fundamental Business Statistics

(OPTS 1101)

Dr. Y L P THORANI

UNIT 1

Introduction to Statistics

Meaning, Definition, and Need - Techniques of

Conducting Surveys - Survey Design - Sources of Data -
Methods of Primary Data Collection - Sampling -
Different types of Sample Design - Data Analysis and
Presentation.

SESSION PLAN
• Attendance – 5min
• Sampling - Different types of
Sample Design– 40 min
• Introduction to the next class –
5min

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Classification of Sampling Techniques

Sampling Techniques

Nonprobability Probability
Sampling Techniques Sampling Techniques

Convenience Judgmental Quota Snowball

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling

Simple Random Systematic Stratified Cluster Other Sampling

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling Techniques

Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling attempts to obtain a sample of convenient elements.
Often, respondents are selected because they happen to be in the right place at the
right time.

• Use of students, and members of social organizations

• Mall intercept interviews without qualifying the respondents
• Department stores using charge account lists
• “People on the street” interviews

A Graphical Illustration of Convenience

Sampling
A B C D E
Group D happens to
assemble at a
1 6 11 16 21 convenient time and
place. So all the
elements in this
2 7 12 17 22 Group are selected.
The resulting sample
consists of elements
3 8 13 18 23
16, 17, 18, 19 and 20.
Note, no elements are
4 9 14 19 24
selected from group
A, B, C and E.

5 10 15 20 25

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Judgmental Sampling
Judgmental sampling is a form of convenience sampling in which the
population elements are selected based on the judgment of the researcher.

• Test markets
• Purchase engineers selected in industrial marketing research
• Expert witnesses used in court

Graphical Illustration of Judgmental

Sampling
A B C D E

The researcher considers

1 6 11 16 21 groups B, C and E to be
typical and convenient.
Within each of these
2 7 12 17 22 groups one or two
elements are selected
based on typicality and
3 8 13 18 23 convenience. The
resulting sample
consists of elements 8,
10, 11, 13, and 24. Note,
4 9 14 19 24
no elements are selected
from groups A and D.

5 10 15 20 25

Quota Sampling
Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted judgmental sampling.

• The first stage consists of developing control categories, or quotas, of

population elements.
• In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on convenience or
judgment.

Control Population Sample

Variable composition composition
Sex Percentage Percentage Number
Male 48 48 480
Female 52 52 520
____ ____ ____
100 100 1000

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A Graphical Illustration of Quota

Sampling
A B C D E
A quota of one element
from each group, A to E,
1 6 11 16 21 is imposed. Within each
group, one element is
selected based on
judgment or
2 7 12 17 22
convenience. The
resulting sample
consists of elements 3, 6,
3 8 13 18 23
13, 20 and 22. Note, one
element is selected from
each column or group.
4 9 14 19 24

5 10 15 20 25

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Snowball Sampling

In snowball sampling, an initial group of respondents is selected, usually at

random.

• After being interviewed, these respondents are asked to identify others

who belong to the target population of interest.

• Subsequent respondents are selected based on the referrals.

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A Graphical Illustration of Snowball

Random Sampling
Selection Referrals
A B C D E

1 6 11 16 21

Elements 2 and 9 are selected

randomly from groups A and B.
2 7 12 17 22
Element 2 refers elements 12
and 13. Element 9 refers
element 18. The resulting
3 8 13 18 23 sample consists of elements 2,
9, 12, 13, and 18. Note, there are
no elements from group E.
4 9 14 19 24

5 10 15 20 25

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Simple Random Sampling

• Each element in the population has a known and equal probability of
selection.

• Each possible sample of a given size (n) has a known and equal
probability of being the sample actually selected.

• This implies that every element is selected independently of every other

element.

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A Graphical Illustration of Simple Random

Sampling
A B C D E

1 6 11 16 21 Select five random

numbers from 1 to 25. The
resulting sample consists
of population elements 3,
2 7 12 17 22 7, 9, 16, and 24. Note,
there is no element from
Group C.
3 8 13 18 23

4 9 14 19 24

5 10 15 20 25

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Systematic Sampling

• The sample is chosen by selecting a random starting point and then

picking every ith element in succession from the sampling frame.

• The sampling interval, i, is determined by dividing the population size N

by the sample size n and rounding to the nearest integer.

• When the ordering of the elements is related to the characteristic of

interest, systematic sampling increases the representativeness of the
sample.

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Systematic Sampling
• If the ordering of the elements produces a cyclical pattern, systematic
sampling may decrease the representativeness of the sample.

For example, there are 100,000 elements in the population and a sample
of 1,000 is desired. In this case the sampling interval, i, is 100. A random
number between 1 and 100 is selected. If, for example, this number is 23,
the sample consists of elements 23, 123, 223, 323, 423, 523, and so on.

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A Graphical Illustration of Systematic

Sampling
A B C D E
Select a random number
between 1 and 5, say 2.
1 6 11 16 21 The resulting sample consists
of population 2,
(2+5=) 7, (2+5x2=) 12,
(2+5x3=)17, and (2+5x4=) 22.
2 7 12 17 22 Note, all the elements are
selected from a single row.

3 8 13 18 23

4 9 14 19 24

5 10 15 20 25

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Stratified Sampling
• A two-step process in which the population is partitioned into subpopulations,
or strata.

• The strata should be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive in that every
population element should be assigned to one and only one stratum and no
population elements should be omitted.

• Next, elements are selected from each stratum by a random procedure, usually
SRS.

• A major objective of stratified sampling is to increase precision without

increasing cost.

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Stratified Sampling

• The elements within a stratum should be as homogeneous as possible,

but the elements in different strata should be as heterogeneous as
possible.

• The stratification variables should also be closely related to the

characteristic of interest.

• Finally, the variables should decrease the cost of the stratification process
by being easy to measure and apply.

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Stratified Sampling
• In proportionate stratified sampling, the size of the sample drawn from
each stratum is proportionate to the relative size of that stratum in the total
population.

• In disproportionate stratified sampling, the size of the sample from

each stratum is proportionate to the relative size of that stratum and to the
standard deviation of the distribution of the characteristic of interest
among all the elements in that stratum.

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A Graphical Illustration of Stratified

Sampling
A B C D E

Randomly select a number from

1 to 5
1 6 11 16 21 for each stratum, A to E. The
resulting
sample consists of population
2 7 12 17 22 elements
4, 7, 13, 19 and 21. Note, one
element
is selected from each column.
3 8 13 18 23

4 9 14 19 24

5 10 15 20 25

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Cluster Sampling
• The target population is first divided into mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive subpopulations, or clusters.

• Then a random sample of clusters is selected, based on a probability

sampling technique such as SRS.

• For each selected cluster, either all the elements are included in the
sample (one-stage) or a sample of elements is drawn probabilistically
(two-stage).

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Cluster Sampling

• Elements within a cluster should be as heterogeneous as possible, but

clusters themselves should be as homogeneous as possible. Ideally, each
cluster should be a small-scale representation of the population.

• In probability proportionate to size sampling, the clusters are sampled

with probability proportional to size. In the second stage, the probability
of selecting a sampling unit in a selected cluster varies inversely with the
size of the cluster.

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A Graphical Illustration of Cluster Sampling (2-

Stage)
A B C D E

1 6 11 16 21 Randomly select 3 clusters, B,

D and E.
Within each cluster, randomly
2 7 12 17 22 select one
or two elements. The resulting
sample
consists of population
3 8 13 18 23 elements 7, 18, 20, 21, and 23.
Note, no elements are selected
from clusters A and C.
4 9 14 19 24

5 10 15 20 25

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Types of Cluster Sampling

Cluster Sampling

One-Stage Two-Stage Multistage

Sampling Sampling Sampling

Simple Cluster Probability

Sampling Proportionate
to Size Sampling

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Strengths and Weaknesses of Basic Sampling

Techniques
Technique
Nonprobability Sampling
Convenience sampling
Judgmental sampling
Quota sampling
Snowball sampling
Strengths
Least expensive, least
time-consuming, most
convenient
Low cost, convenient,
not time-consuming
Sample can be controlled
for certain characteristics
Can estimate rare
characteristics
Weaknesses
Selection bias, sample not
representative, not recommended for
descriptive or causal research
Does not allow generalization,
subjective
Selection bias, no assurance of
representativeness
Time-consuming

Probability sampling Easily understood, Difficult to construct sampling

Simple random sampling
(SRS)
Systematic sampling
Stratified sampling
Cluster sampling
results projectable
Can increase
representativeness,
easier to implement than
SRS, sampling frame not
necessary
Include all important
subpopulations,
precision
Easy to implement, cost
effective
frame, expensive, lower precision,
no assurance of representativeness
Can decrease representativeness
Difficult to select relevant
stratification variables, not feasible to
stratify on many variables, expensive
Imprecise, difficult to compute and
interpret results

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A Classification of Internet Sampling

Internet Sampling

Online Intercept Recruited Online Other Techniques

Sampling Sampling

Nonrandom Random Panel Nonpanel

Recruited Opt-in Opt-in List

Panels Panels Rentals

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Procedures for Drawing Probability Samples

Simple Random
Sampling

Simple Random Sampling

1. Select a suitable sampling frame.

2. Each element is assigned a number from 1 to N
(pop. size).
3. Generate n (sample size) different random numbers
between 1 and N.
4. The numbers generated denote the elements that
should be included in the sample.

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Procedures for Drawing Probability Samples

Systematic
Sampling

1. Select a suitable sampling frame.

2. Each element is assigned a number from 1 to N (pop. size).
3. Determine the sampling interval i:i=N/n. If i is a fraction,
round to the nearest integer.
4. Select a random number, r, between 1 and i, as explained in
simple random sampling.
5. The elements with the following numbers will comprise the
systematic random sample: r, r+i,r+2i,r+3i,r+4i,...,r+(n-1)i.

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Procedures for Drawing Probability Samples

Stratified
Sampling
1. Select a suitable frame.
2. Select the stratification variable(s) and the number of strata, H.
3. Divide the entire population into H strata. Based on the
classification variable, each element of the population is assigned
to one of the H strata.
4. In each stratum, number the elements from 1 to Nh (the pop.
size of stratum h).
5. Determine the sample size of each stratum, nh, based on
proportionate or disproportionate stratified sampling, where
H
nh = n
h=1
6. In each stratum, select a simple random sample of size nh

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Cluster
Procedures for Drawing Probability Samples Sampling

1. Assign a number from 1 to N to each element in the population.

2. Divide the population into C clusters of which c will be included in the sample.
3. Calculate the sampling interval i, i=N/c (round to nearest integer).
4. Select a random number r between 1 and i, as explained in simple random
sampling.
5. Identify elements with the following numbers:
r,r+i,r+2i,... r+(c-1)i.
6. Select the clusters that contain the identified elements.
7. Select sampling units within each selected cluster based on SRS
or systematic sampling.
8. Remove clusters exceeding sampling interval i. Calculate new
population size N*, number of clusters to be selected c*= c-1,
and new sampling interval i*.

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Procedures for Drawing Probability

Samples
Cluster Sampling

Repeat the process until each of the remaining clusters has a

population less than the sampling interval. If b clusters have
been selected with certainty, select the remaining c-b clusters
according to steps 1 through 7. The fraction of units to be
sampled with certainty is the overall sampling fraction = n/N.
Thus, for clusters selected with certainty, we would select
ns=(n/N)(N1+N2+...+Nb) units. The units selected from clusters
selected under two-stage sampling will therefore be n*=n-ns.

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Choosing Nonprobability Vs. Probability Sampling

Conditions Favoring the Use of

Factors Nonprobability Probability
sampling sampling

Nature of research Exploratory Conclusive

Relative magnitude of sampling Nonsampling Sampling

and nonsampling errors errors are errors are
larger larger

Variability in the population Homogeneous Heterogeneous

(low) (high)

Statistical considerations Unfavorable Favorable

Operational considerations Favorable Unfavorable

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THANK YOU

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BBA
(2023-2024)
Semester: II

Fundamental Business Statistics

(OPTS 1101)

Dr. Y L P THORANI

UNIT 1

Introduction to Statistics

Meaning, Definition, and Need - Techniques of

Conducting Surveys - Survey Design - Sources of Data -
Methods of Primary Data Collection - Sampling -
Different types of Sample Design - Data Analysis and
Presentation.

SESSION PLAN
• Attendance – 5min
• Data Analysis – 20 min
• Presentation. – 20 min
• Introduction to the next class –
5min

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THANK YOU

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BBA
(2023-2024)
Semester: II

Fundamental Business Statistics

(OPTS 1101)

Dr. Y L P THORANI

UNIT 1

Introduction to Statistics

Meaning, Definition, and Need - Techniques of

Conducting Surveys - Survey Design - Sources of Data -
Methods of Primary Data Collection - Sampling -
Different types of Sample Design - Data Analysis and
Presentation.

SESSION PLAN
• Attendance – 5min
• Presentation. – 40 min
• Introduction to the next class –
5min

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THANK YOU

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