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Stand-Alone Photovoltaic System

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 5

Stand-Alone Photovoltaic System

SAMEER SAADOON AL-JUBOORI1*

ABSTRACT
In a stand-alone system, the system is designed to operate independent of
the electric utility grid and is generally designed and sized to supply certain
dc and/or ac electrical loads. A bank of batteries is used to store the energy
in the form of dc power that is produced by the photovoltaic (PV) modules
to be used at night or in the no sun days. The dc output of the batteries can
be used immediately to run certain low dc voltage loads such as lighting
bulbs or refrigerators or it can be converted by an inverter to ac voltage to
run ac loads that constitute most appliances. As output power of a solar
array deviates with weather conditions, the rewarding activity of the stand-
alone system is to find out the optimal size of a solar array and battery to
meet load demand. The reliability of power supply to the load is described
by the loss of power supply probability (LPSP). LPSP is the ratio of the
number of hours that the system fails to supply a load to the total number
of hours required by the load. Stand-alone PV systems should provide a
good quality electricity service to be considered as an alternative to
conventional grid extension, for places with no access to electricity. In this
way it is promoted in most PV and rural electrification programmes and
forums.
Key words: Reliability, Dependability, Stand-alone, Photovoltaic power
systems, Loss of load probability.

1. INTRODUCTION

A Stand-alone Power System (SPS) is a system which supplies electric power

to a user and is not connected to the power distribution system of an

1
Kirkuk Technical College, Iraq
*Corresponding author: E-mail: Samir19592003@ieee.org
142 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 6: Solar Engg.-II (Photovoltaics and Solar Cells)

electricity supply authority. SPSs are supplied with power from one or more
of a number of sources including but not limited to a photovoltaic (PV)
array, a wind turbine generator, a micro-hydro generator or engine
generator set.

SPSs are also known as Remote Area Power Systems (RAPS), but since
they are used in places which are not necessarily remote, the term SPS is
preferred. A typical stand-alone PV power system is illustrated in Fig. 1.
The operation of the system is as follows:

Fig. 1: A typical stand-alone PV power system

 Power is supplied from the renewable energy source, through the

regulator, to the d.c. control board.
 Some power is used by the d.c. loads and the inverter and the
remainder then flows to the battery.
 When there is insufficient power from the renewable energy source
to meet the loads (e.g., a PV system at night), the battery supplies
power to make up the difference.
Stand-Alone Photovoltaic System 143

 When the backup generator is operating, power flows through the

battery charger to the d.c. bus, in effect adding to the power from the
renewable energy source.
 The power flow between the battery and the d.c. control board can be
in either direction, depending on the balance between supply and
demand for power.

The optimum design of an electricity supply system depends primarily

on the following five factors:

 Required connection power

 Energy consumption
 Type of power consumers
 Period of use
 Meteorological constraints.

2. SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS

The most abundant fuel source in the realm of renewable energy is the
sun. Solar panels produce electricity through individual PV cells connected
in series. This form of energy collection is viable in regions of the world
where the sun is plentiful and can be used in isolated regions or on houses
to supplement the rising cost of electricity from a power grid. To convert
the sun’s energy, the cells capture photons to create freed electrons that
flow across the cells to produce usable current. The efficiency of the panel
is determined by the semiconductor material that the cells are made from
as well as the process used to construct the cells.

Solar panels come in three types: amorphous, monocrystalline and

polycrystalline. The more efficient the material the panel is constructed
from, the greater the cost. To maximize results, there are many features
that can be used to control the output of the PV panels. The power needs
determine what components are used to produce the desired voltage and
current for the project such as converters, solar trackers and the size of
the panel. Converters transform the variable output from solar panels to
constant voltages to maximize the continuous supply of usable power for
either present needs or stored for future use. The output power of the panel
is affected by many variables that continually changes throughout the day.
This produces fluctuations in voltage and current that makes the panel
inefficient unless the outputs are constantly adjusted to maximize the power
output. The oscillating conditions are determined by environmental factors,
chemical composition of the panel and the angular position of the sun. Since
solar energy is only produced during the day, requiring an energy storage
application by either a battery or connecting to the power grid to provide
power during the night.
144 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 6: Solar Engg.-II (Photovoltaics and Solar Cells)

3. TYPES OF PV SYSTEMS

PV systems can be very simple, just a PV module and load, as in the

direct powering of a water pump motor, or more complex, as in a system
to power a house. While a water pump may only need to operate when
the sun shines, the house system will need to operate day and night. It
also may have to run both AC and DC loads, have reserve power and may
include a back-up generator. Depending on the system configuration, we
can distinguish three main types of PV systems: stand-alone, grid-
connected and hybrid. In either case, basic PV system principles and
elements remain the same. Systems are adapted to meet particular energy
requirements by varying the type and quantity of the basic elements.
Ads as systems are modular; they can always be expanded, as power
demands increases.

3.1. Stand-alone Systems

Stand-alone systems rely on PV power only. These systems can comprise
only PV modules and a load or can include batteries for energy storage.
When using batteries, charge regulators are included, which switch off the
PV modules when batteries are fully charged and switch off the load in
case batteries become discharged below a limit. The batteries must have
enough capacity to store the energy produced during the day to be used at
night and during periods of poor weather. Fig. 2 shows schematically
examples of stand-alone systems: (a) a simple DC PV system without a
battery and (b) a large PV system with both DC and AC loads.

Fig. 2: Schematic representation of (a) a simple DC PV system to power a water

pump with no energy storage, (b) a complex PV system including batteries,
power conditioners and both DC and AC loads.
Stand-Alone Photovoltaic System 145

3.2. Grid-connected Systems

Grid-connected PV systems have become increasingly popular as building

integrated application. They are connected to the grid through
inverters and do not require batteries because the grid can accept all of the
electricity that a PV generator can supply. Alternatively they are used as
power stations. A grid-connected PV system is schematically presented in
Fig. 3a.

Fig. 3: Schematic representation of (a) a grid-connected PV system, (b) a hybrid

system.

3.3. Hybrid Systems

Hybrid systems consist of combination of PV modules and a complementary
means of electricity generation such as a diesel, gas or wind generator.
Schematic representation of a hybrid system is shown in Fig. 3b. In order
to optimize the operations of the two generators, hybrid systems typically
require more sophisticated controls than stand-alone PV systems. For
example, in the case of PV/diesel systems, the diesel engine must be started
when battery reaches a given discharge level and stopped again when
battery reaches an adequate state of charge. The back-up generator can be
used to recharge batteries only or to supply the load as well.

4. SYSTEM COMPONENTS

The PV generator as the source of renewable energy is the crucial component

of the SPS. Other available generators include those with combustion
engines (e.g., diesel generators or cogeneration plants), as well as water
and wind turbines. SPSs are generally differentiated according to their
146 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 6: Solar Engg.-II (Photovoltaics and Solar Cells)

type of voltage (DC or AC). In DC coupled systems, the PV generator is

connected via a special DC/DC charge controller (Fig. 4).

In AC coupled systems, a conventional PV inverter is used for feeding

power into the grid. The battery or stand-alone power inverter is the heart
of the AC coupled system. It ensures that generated and load power are
balanced at all times. If too much energy is generated, the inverter stores
this surplus energy in the batteries. If energy demand exceeds supply, the
inverter discharges energy from the batteries. The main differences between
PV inverters and stand-alone inverters are given in Table 1.

Table 1: Comparison of PV and stand-alone power inverters

PV inverters Stand-alone power inverters

Direction of energy flow Unidirectional Bidirectional
Functions MPP Tracking sinusoidal Management of batteries,
grid current generators and loads;
sinusoidal grid voltage
Overload capacity Approx. 110% Approx. 300% (short-circuit-
proof)
Active/reactive power Feed-in of active power Loads with any power factor
Typical DC voltage 125-750 V (string technology) 12 V, 24 V, 48 V

5. SYSTEM DESIGN

Apart from power consumers such as lamps, radios, TVs and refrigerators,
a stand-alone PV system is made up of four basic components: a power
generator (e.g., PV generator), a storage battery, a charge controller and
an inverter. These components can be coupled at various system levels, on
the DC side, on the AC side, or in hybrid systems. Solar home system is
shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4: Solar home system capable of providing alternating current

Stand-Alone Photovoltaic System 147

6. AC-DC SYSTEMS

Hybrid AC-DC systems are especially suitable for connecting mid-range

AC power consumers with DC generators. With such systems, the
battery on the DC side can be simultaneously charged via a combustion
unit (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5: Hybrid system with DC coupled components

The demands on a hybrid system differ from those on a solar home

system. Hybrid systems are used to supply remote power consumers and
are able to handle higher energy requirements. Accordingly, such AC-DC
systems are typically used in farmhouses, small businesses and
farmsteads.

7. AC COUPLING

The connection of all power consumers and generators on the AC side (Fig. 6)
offers a decisive advantage: it enables systems to be built up or expanded
with standardized components on a flexible, modular basis.

Fig. 6: Hybrid system with AC coupled components

148 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 6: Solar Engg.-II (Photovoltaics and Solar Cells)

Renewable and conventional power sources can be combined, depending

on the application and the available energy carrier. This is a particular
advantage in situations where the grid structure is weak.

The connected energy sources charge the batteries and supply energy
when it is needed. If inverters and combustion units are intended for that
purpose, a connection to the public grid is possible. The system can easily
be expanded by adding further generators, thus enabling it to handle a
rising energy demand. Additionally connected AC sources result in a real
increase in capacity on the AC side. AC coupled systems can be used to
supply all power consumers. Hence, they are ideally suited for applications
in rural areas of developing and newly industrialized countries.

In the medium power range (2–100 kW), the structure of such supply
systems does not require any additional control or monitoring unit. Battery
inverters automatically check the availability of the grid and the system
components.

From an economic perspective, SPSs with a storage battery in the kW

power range are considerably more cost-effective than systems which use
diesel generators only. Even larger hybrid systems which use a diesel
generator to avoid long-term battery storage can be operated at lower cost
than stations working exclusively with diesel units. This can be attributed
to the high cost of maintenance, short service life and very poor partial
load efficiency of diesel generators.

8. FUNCTIONALITY

Stand-alone power inverters are connected to a battery bank and form the AC
grid of the SPS. At the same time, they control the voltage and frequency on
the AC side. Generators as well as power consumers are connected directly to
the AC grid. Whenever there is a surplus of energy (e.g., when solar irradiation
is high and consumption low), the stand-alone power inverter draws energy
from the AC grid and uses it to charge the batteries. When there is an energy
shortage (little or no solar irradiation and high consumption), the batteries
are used to supply the grid (Fig. 7). Various power generators can be connected
to the stand-alone power grid: PV plants with inverters, wind turbines with
wind inverters, hydroelectric power stations and diesel generators. The latter
can step in when the battery charge is low and there is not enough solar
irradiation available for recharging.

9. GROWTH AND CONNECTING OF STAND-ALONE POWER

SYSTEMS

Stand-alone power grids with Sunny Island can be gradually expanded

into large-scale systems as a result of the parallel connectibility of all energy
Stand-Alone Photovoltaic System 149

Fig. 7: PV energy yield and load demand

suppliers and consumers. They are particularly well suited for the supply
of grid-isolated areas such as remote villages. Fig. 8 shows the layout and
the expansion possibilities for an AC coupled village power supply.

Fig. 8: Expansion options of an AC coupled hybrid system for a village electricity

supply 1: PV generator, 2: PV inverter, 3: Battery inverter Sunny Island, 4:
Storage battery, 5: Generator and 6: Wind turbine.
150 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 6: Solar Engg.-II (Photovoltaics and Solar Cells)

The autonomous energy system can easily be expanded by further power

generators when the power demand rises. One further advantage of the
SPS is that the energy not needed during the day will be available at night
in storage battery, e.g., for street lighting.

In order to ensure a maximum level of system stability in larger systems,

inverters are installed in so-called clusters. Here, up to three devices (as a
three-phase system) or even four devices (single-phase, operated in parallel)
together with the battery comprise a unit. In order to achieve the desired
output, several units can be connected in parallel (thus forming a cluster).
If one battery fails, it does not affect the entire system (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9: AC coupled hybrid system with four clusters connected to a multi cluster box.

10. DESIGNING A STAND-ALONE POWER SYSTEM

A professional system design, including dimensioning of PV generator and

battery, is of prime importance for the efficiency and operational reliability
of SPSs. It must take into account not only the energy consumption profile,
but in particular the fluctuations in availability when using renewable
power sources. The following examples of simulation software are available
for the support of the plant designer: HOMER, HYBRID2, PV SOL, PVS
and Anesys.

Designing the layout of a system is comparable to the work of an architect

who must first draw up a plan of the house on paper before having it built.
The design basically involves adapting a system to specific energetic and
geographical conditions, as well as to the energy behaviour of the system
user. These conditions are influenced by:

 Solar fraction
 Autonomy time
 Energetic behaviour
Stand-Alone Photovoltaic System 151

 Component manufacturer
 Geographical location

11. POWER CONSUMERS AND HOURS OF USE

The nominal power and power consumption of the loads play a fundamental
role in a SPS. Table 2 shows an overview of standard loads, their nominal
power and typical operating times per day.

Table 2: Overview of standard loads

Power consumers Nominal Typical Energy

Power [W] Operating [hr] [kWh]
Energy-saving lamp 15 2 0.03
Heating circulation pump 70 2 0.14
Water pump 200 3 0.6
Refrigerator 90 5 0.45
Freezer 23001 100 5 0.5
Cooker (hob + oven) 2,300 0.75 1.7
Microwave 1,200 0.25 0.3
Electric kettle 1,800 0.25 0.45
Toaster 1,200 0.25 0.3
Mixer 200 0.25 0.05
Dishwasher 1,300 1 13
Vacuum cleaner 1,800 0.25 0.43
Iron 1,000 0.25 0.24
Sewing machine 80 0.25 0.02
Washing machin 2,000 1 2
Dryer 1,000 4 4
Radio 5 3 0.015
DVD player 15 2 0.03
Amplifier 100 2 0.2
TV (70 cm diagonal) 100 4 0.4
Satellite receiver 18 3 0.054
Video recorder 20 1 0.2
Computer 250 2 0.
Thermal fax machine 10 0.25 0.0025
Laser printer 100 2 0.52
Air conditioner (room) 3,000 2 6
Hair dryer 1,000 0.25 0.25
Electric razor 15 2 0.03

The more information about the SPS can be compiled, the more it will
contribute to an optimum system design. In any case, the following
questions from six different areas should be answered.

1. The areas of application of the planned system

 Is the system to serve as a stand-alone system or a grid-backup
system?
 Is the system to be installed in single- or three-phase operation?
152 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 6: Solar Engg.-II (Photovoltaics and Solar Cells)

2. Geographic characteristics
 In which country is the system to be installed?
 What are the solar irradiation and temperature levels?
 What is the average wind speed on site?
3. Power generators
 Which power generators are to be used? PV, diesel, wind, water,
or other?
4. Renewable fraction
 How high should the renewable fraction using renewable
energies be (ratio, e.g., of PV energy to diesel energy)?
5. Current consumption
 How much current is consumed per year or per day?
6. Power demand
 What is the peak power demand in a day?

On the basis of the data requested here, it is possible to compile an

initial design which provides information on the scale, suitable power
sources and components of the plant.

The total radiant energy that hits a certain area is measured by a

quantity known as Irradiance (G) and it is measured in watt per square
metre (W/m²). The instantaneous values are normally averaged during a
certain period of time, so it is common to talk about total irradiance per
hour, day or month.

Due to the random nature of the solar energy, the radiation that arrives
at the surface of the Earth cannot be predicted with high precision. It is
necessary to work with statistical data based on the “solar history” of the
place, data that is normally gathered in weather station. When available
these values can be retrieved from databases or data tables with digested
values. In most of the cases, you will find it difficult to find detailed
information and you will be forced to work with approximate values.

A few organizations have produced maps that include average values of

daily global irradiation for different regions. These values are known as
peak sun hours (PSHs); the PSH that are posted in global solar power
maps are a mechanism to simplify our calculations.

A PV system as shown in Fig. 10 consists of three main components, the

panel or array of panels, the regulator and the batteries. The panels are
responsible for collecting the energy of the sun and generate electricity,
the battery for storing it and the regulator for ensuring that panel and
battery are working together in an optimal fashion. The panels and the
batteries of a PV system work in DC. When the range of operational voltage
Stand-Alone Photovoltaic System 153

of your equipment does not fit the voltage supplied by our battery, it will
be necessary to include some type of “converter”. If the equipment that we
want to feed uses a different DC voltage than the one supplied by the battery
we will need to use a DC/DC converter and if some of our equipment (loads)
requires AC we will need to use a DC/AC converter, also known as inverter.

Fig. 10: General diagram of a solar installation with DC and AC loads.

Other important elements in PV system are the thermomagnetic

circuit breakers that need to be included to protect different electrical
circuits, surge protectors, fuses, proper size wiring, ground rods, lighting
arrestors, etc.

12. THE PV GENERATOR OR SOLAR PANELS ARRAY

The electrical current supplied by an array of solar panels varies

proportionally to the solar radiation. As the solar energy changes in time
due to the climatological conditions, the hour of the day, etc., we must count
with an energy storage to supply energy when the sunlight is lacking: the
batteries.
Several technologies exist to build solar cells. The most used actually is
crystalline silicon, either monocrystaline or polycrystaline. A less efficient
is the amorphous silicon. With a reduced life expectancy and a 6 to 8%
transformation efficiency amorphous silicon is only used for low power
equipments as portable calculators. New technologies such as silicon ribbon
or thin films are developed but are actually marginal.

13. THE BATTERY OR ACCUMULATOR

The battery or batteries are in charge of storing the energy produced by

the panels that is not consumed immediately to use it during the periods of
low or null solar irradiation. The storage is in form of chemical energy and
the most common type in solar applications are the maintenance-free lead-
acid batteries also called recombinant or VRLA (valve regulated lead acid).

For small power installation and where space constraints are important,
other types of batteries like NiCd, or NiMh (used in cellular phone) can be
154 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 6: Solar Engg.-II (Photovoltaics and Solar Cells)

used. Such type of batteries needs a specialized charger/regulator and

cannot directly replace lead-acid batteries.

14. THE REGULATOR

The mechanism to ensure a correct charging and discharging of the battery

requires the knowledge of the state of charge (SoC) of the battery. The SoC
is obtained based on the voltage of the battery. Using the battery voltage
as an indicator and knowing the type of technology of the battery, allows
the regulators to know the exact voltage points where the battery is getting
overcharged or excessively discharged.

The regulator can include other elements that, although are not
essential, add valuable information and security control to the equipment:
ammeters, voltmeters, measurement of ampere-hour, timers, alarms, etc.
(Fig. 11).

Fig. 11: Solar charge controller or regulator of 30 A

15. THE CONVERTER

The electricity that provides the panel array-battery is DC and forces the
loads to work to a certain voltage level, which might not be the same level
that loads need (Fig. 12).

16. THE EQUIPMENT OR THE CONSUMPTION LOADS

Although it is not possible to have an absolute certainty of what is going to

be the exact total consumption of the equipment, it is vital to make a good
estimate. In this type of systems it is absolutely necessary to take into
Stand-Alone Photovoltaic System 155

Fig. 12: The DC/AC Converter or power inverter. Maximum power 800 W

consideration the need of efficient and low power equipment to avoid

wasting energy. For example, if we are going to use communication
equipment that is going to operate 24/7 we must consider those that are
based on computer architectures specially designed for low power
consumption.

17. THE SOLAR PANEL

Based on the size of the cells, the area of the module varies between 0.1
and 0.5 m². Panels have two electrical contacts, one positive and one
negative, although sometimes we will find some extra contacts to allow the
installation of bypass diodes. The object of these bypass diodes is to protect
the panel against a phenomenon that is known as “hot-spot”. The hot-spot
takes places when some of the cells are in shadow and they start to behave
as a load that dissipates energy. In those situations the solar cell can
increase its temperature to values between 85 and 100ºC.

The electrical performance of a solar module is represented by the I-V

characteristic curve, which represents the current that it provides based
on the voltage that “sees” for a certain solar radiation (Fig. 13).

The curve represents all the possible values of voltage-current. The

curves depend on two main factors: the temperature and the solar radiation
received by the cells. For a given solar cell area, the current generated is
directly proportional to solar irradiance (G) and the voltage reduces slightly
with an increase of temperature. The point of operation of solar panel is
determined by the “load” that is present between its electrical contacts. A
156 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 6: Solar Engg.-II (Photovoltaics and Solar Cells)

Fig. 13: Different I-V curves. The current (A) changes with the irradiance, the voltage
(V) changes with the temperature

good regulator will try to maximize the amount of energy that a panel
provides by tracking the point that provides maximum power (V×I). The
maximum power corresponds to the knee of the I-V curve.

17.1. Solar Panel Parameters

The main parameters that characterize a photovoltaic panel are:

1. Short circuit current ISC: It is the maximum current that the panel
provides and corresponds to the current produced when connectors
are short circuited.
2. Open circuit voltage VOC: It is the maximum voltage that provides
the panel, it corresponds to the case where the terminals are not
connected to any load or the circuit is open. This value is normally 22
V for panels that are going to work in 12 V systems and is directly
proportional to the number of series connected cells.
3. Maximum power point: There is an operation point where the power
supplied by the panel is maximum (IPmax, VPmax) as Pmax = IPmax . VPmax.
The maximum power point of a panel is measured in Watts (W) or
peak Watts (Wp). In normal conditions the panel will not work at
peak conditions as the voltage of operation is fixed by the “loads” or
the regulator. The typical values of VPmax and IPmax should be a bit
smaller than the ISC and VOC.
Stand-Alone Photovoltaic System 157

4. Fill Factor FF: The fill factor is the relation between the maximum
power that the panel can give and the product ISC.VOC. It gives an idea
of the quality of the panel because it is an indication of the type of I-V
characteristic curve. The closer the FF is to 1, the greater the power a
panel can provide. The common values usually are between 0.7 and 0.8.
5. Efficiency µ: It is the ratio between the maximum electrical power
that the panel can give to the load and the power of the solar radiation
(PL) incident on the panel, normally around 10–12%, but depending
on the type of cells (monocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous or
thin film). Considering the definitions of point of maximum power
and the fill factor we have that:
Pm V
  FF .I SC . OC
PL PL
The values of ISC, VOC, IPmax and VPmax are provided by the manufacturer
and they refer to a standard condition of measure-ment of:
 Irradiance G = 1000 W/m2.
 At sea-level.
 For a cell temperature of Tc = 25ºC.

Be aware that two panels can have the same Wp but very different
behaviour in operational conditions. When acquiring a panel, it is important
to verify, if possible, that their parameters (at least, ISC and VOC) match
with the values promised by the manufacturer.

17.2. Panel Parameters for System Sizing

For the calculation of the number of panels that we are going to need to
cover our energy needs you just need to know the current and voltage at
the point of maximum power: IPmax and VPmax.

We should always be aware that the panel is not going to work in the
perfect conditions as the “loads” or regulation system are not going to work
always at the point of maximum power of the panel. In any case, we can assume
a loss of efficiency of 5% in our calculations to compensate this assumption.

17.3. Interconnection of Panels

The array of solar panels is composed by the number of necessary panels
interconnected electrically and installed with the help of some type of
support structure.

It is very important that all the panels of our array are identical (same
brand and same characteristics), because any dispersion in their operation
158 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 6: Solar Engg.-II (Photovoltaics and Solar Cells)

values have a big impact in the operation and performance of our system.
Even in case the panels are nominally equal, they will display some
dispersion in their characteristics due to the very same process of
manufacturing (normally ±10%).

The process of interconnection takes place by associating panels in a

series, until the suitable voltage level is reached and by grouping several
associated series until we can reach the level of desired current.

17.4. Batteries in PV Systems

In stand-alone PV systems, the electrical energy produced by the PV array
cannot always be used when it is produced. Because the demand for energy
does not always coincide with its production, electrical storage batteries
are commonly used in PV systems. The primary functions of a storage
battery in a PV system are as follow:

1. Energy storage capacity and autonomy: To store electrical energy

when it is produced by the PV array and to supply energy to electrical
loads as needed or on demand.
2. Voltage and current stabilization: To supply power to electrical
loads at stable voltages and currents, by suppressing or ‘smoothing
out’ transients that may occur in PV systems.
3. Supply surge currents: To supply surge or high peak operating
currents to electrical loads or appliances.

The battery “hosts” a certain reversible chemical reaction that make

possible that electrical energy can be stored and later retrieved when
needed. Electrical energy is transformed into chemical energy and vice
versa.

The most common batteries in PV solar applications have a nominal

tension of 12 or 24 V. A battery of 12 V will contain 6 cells in series.

The fundamental mission of the battery is the supply of electrical energy

to the system when this energy is not supplied by the array of solar panels.
The battery experiments a cyclical process of charging and discharging of
energy depending on the presence or absence of sun light.

During the hours that there is sun, the array of panels produces electrical
energy. The energy that is not consumed immediately, it is used to charge
the battery. During the hours of absence of sun, any demand of electrical
energy is taken care of by the battery that, therefore, discharges.

If the battery does not store enough energy so as to face the demand
during the periods without sun, the system will exhaust and become
unavailable for the consumption. On the contrary, the system over sizing
Stand-Alone Photovoltaic System 159

is expensive and inefficient. When designing stand-alone system we need

to reach a compromise between cost and availability of the system. To be
able to do that we introduce the concept of number of days of autonomy. If
we take the case of a telecommunications system the number of days of
autonomy depends on its critical function within our network design. If
the equipment is going to serve as repeater and is part of the backbone of
our network, we must design our PV system with autonomy of up to 5-7
days. If on the contrary the solar system is responsible for providing energy
to a client equipment you can probably reduce by half the number of days
of autonomy. In any case, you will always have to look for a commitment
between cost and reliability.

17.5. Converters
DC/DC converters transform a continuous voltage to another continuous
voltage with a different value. The efficiency of a linear regulator decreases
when the difference between the input voltage and the output voltage
increase. For example, if we want to convert from 12 V to 6 V, the linear
regulator will have an efficiency of only 50%. A standard switching regulator
has an efficiency of at least 80%.

17.6. DC/AC Converter or Inverter

They are used when the equipment needs AC power. The inverters chop
and invert the DC current to generate a square wave that is later filtered
to eliminate the undesired harmonics. In fact, there are very few inverters
that supply a pure sine wave as output. Most of the models available in the
market are known as “modified sine wave” as their voltage output is not a
pure sinusoid. When it comes to efficiency, modified sine wave inverters
perform better than pure sinusoidal inverters.

18. HOME APPLIANCES

The use of PV solar energy is not recommended for heat-exchange type of

applications (electrical heating, refrigerators, etc.). In fact, PV energy needs
to be deployed with lots of care and looking into low power appliances.
Some hints follows:

 The PV solar energy is suitable for illumination. In this case, the use
of halogen light bulbs or fluorescent lamps is mandatory. Although
these lamps are more expensive they have much better energy
efficiency than incandescent light bulbs. Nowadays LED lamps which
are very efficient and are DC fed, are the best choice.
 It is possible to use it for low and constant consumption house
appliances (the most typical case, the TV).
160 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 6: Solar Engg.-II (Photovoltaics and Solar Cells)

 The PV solar energy is not recommended for any application that

transforms energy into heat (thermal energy).
 In the case of installation of washing machines, it is recommended to
use conventional automatic washing machines avoiding the use of
any washing programs that include centrifuged water heating.
 The refrigerators must be of low consumption. There are specialized
refrigerators that work in DC although their consumption is high
(around 1000 Wh/day).

19. PV ELECTRICITY COST

A simple estimate of the cost of electricity produced by a PV system may be

determined from:

 Installed system price [$],

 Total operating and maintenance (O&M) costs over the system
lifetime [$].
 Installed system nominal power output [Wp]
 Annual yield [kWh/(year × kWp)]
 Payback period [years].

The required payback period will depend on the rate of return, which is
expected by the investor and the predicted lifetime of the system. When
comparing the cost of electricity generated by PV systems with that from
other sources, it is common to assume lifetimes of 20-30 years for all PV
system components except for the batteries, which typically have lifetimes
of only 5-7 years.

The cost of electricity unit [$/kWh] is calculated:

Electricity cost = Cost (System + O&M)/(Yield × Installed power ×

Payback period)

The energy costs of stand-alone systems depend strongly on the

application. Experience learns that when only a small amount of electricity
is needed, then PV systems can be cost competitive compared to grid
extensions for distances of less than one kilometre in many parts of Europe.
This type of PV system is particularly attractive in remote mountainous
terrain, where grid extensions are very expensive. In circumstances where
grid connection costs are particularly high (e.g., where power lines must
cross a road or railway line), or where the load is likely to be moved (e.g.,
lights for urban bus shelters) then small PV systems may be the most cost
effective option even if the load is located no more than a few 100 metres
from the grid. Sometimes the choice of power supplies is severely limited,
e.g., in protected regions such as national parks, the installation of grid
extensions is often prohibited for environmental reasons.
Stand-Alone Photovoltaic System 161

20. SYSTEM SIZING

System sizing is the process of evaluating the adequate voltage and current
ratings for each component of the PV system to meet the electric demand
at the facility and at the same time calculating the total price of the entire
system from the design phase to the fully functional system including,
shipment and labour.

20.1. Factors Affecting System Sizing

 The average power demand in Watt-hour per day that can be obtained
by itemizing all appliances and their hours of use each day which is
referred to as the load profile.
 Geographical location that dictates the tilt angel, panel orientation
and the average sun hours per day.
 Home design, which plays a major role in maximizing the amount of
the generated power by considering the following points: keeping the
southern area free from any barrier that prevents the sun-ray from
reaching the panels, windows should be designed to face the south to
keep the house as warm as possible and insulation can be used to
minimize the amount of heat losses.
 Using energy-efficient equipments such as compact fluorescent lamps
(CFL) for illumination to reduce energy requirements. Moreover, hot
water and cooking should not be parts of the residence PV system.
Natural gas for instance can be used for cooking and a separate
thermal solar energy system can be employed to obtain the hot water
directly to avoid the need for changing a part of the solar energy into
electricity via the PV system and then using it to obtain hot water.
 The use of low-voltage DC powered electrical appliances, nowadays
available in the market, is also an important factor in minimizing
the PV system cost. This will reduce significantly the power rating of
the inverter that is used to change the DC power of the batteries into
AC power adequate for the ordinary appliances.
 Frequency of switching which determines how often major rotationary
loads are switched on and off such as refrigerators and water pumps.
Such loads draw high currents every time they start and these loads
must be accounted for.

20.2. Sizing of the Solar Array

Before sizing the array, the total daily energy in Watt-hours (E), the average
sun hour per day Tmin and the dc-voltage of the system (VDC) must be
determined. Once these factors are made available we move to the sizing
process. To avoid under sizing, losses must be considered by dividing the
total power demand in Wh/day by the product of efficiencies of all
components in the system to get the required energy Er.
162 Energy Sci. & Tech. Vol. 6: Solar Engg.-II (Photovoltaics and Solar Cells)

20.3. Sizing of the Battery Bank

According to the number obtained for the capacity of the battery bank,
another decision has to be made regarding the capacity Cb of each of the
batteries of that bank. The battery bank is composed of batteries that are
connected in series and in parallel according to the selected battery voltage
rating and the system requirements. The total number of batteries is
obtained by dividing the capacity C of the battery bank in ampere-hours
by the capacity of one of the battery Cb selected in ampere-hours.

20.4. Sizing of the Voltage Regulator

According to its function it controls the flow of current. A good voltage
regulator must be able to withstand the maximum current produced by
the array as well as the maximum load current.

Sizing of the voltage regulator can be obtained by multiplying the short

circuit current of the modules connected in parallel by a safety factor Fsafe.
The result gives the rated current of the voltage regulator I:

I = parallel modules short circuit current × safety factor = Np × ISC ×

Fsafe

The factor of safety is employed to make sure that the regulator handles
maximum current produced by the array that could exceed the tabulated
value and to handle a load current more than that planned due to addition
of equipment, for instance. In other words, this safety factor allows the
system to expand slightly.

20.5. Sizing of the Inverter

When sizing the inverter, the actual power drawn from the appliances that
will run at the same time must be determined as a first step. Secondly, we
must consider the starting current of large motors by multiplying their
power by a factor of 3. Also to allow the system to expand, we multiply the
sum of the two previous values by 1.25 as a safety factor.

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