TEE 4430- Renewable Energy Technology

Lecture 8 Notes
Introduction
The suns great energy release is the result of an elaborate chemical process in the suns
core, a process of thermonuclear fusion like the reaction in a massive hydrogen bomb
achieving heat at more than 9980.3 0F or 5800 Kelvin in the core of the sun. This energy is
radiated away from the sun uniformly in all directions, in close agreement with Plank’s
blackbody radiation. This energy can be harnessed as heat (solar thermal power) or solar
photovoltaic energy.
8.1 Solar Photovoltaic Generating Systems
It is possible to convert solar energy directly into electric energy by photo-voltaic process.
The photo-voltaic effect is the generation of electromotive force (EMF) as a result of the
absorption of ionizing radiation. The energy conversion devices that are used to convert
sunlight to electricity by photo-voltaic effect are known as photo voltaic cells or solar
cells. A solar cell is basically a semi-conductor diode capable of developing a voltage of
0.5 -0.7 volt and a current density of 20 to 40mA per cm2 depending on the material and
the sun light conditions.
Many types of solar cells have been proposed four types are common commercially; the
single crystal silicon, cadmium sulphide/cuprous sulphide cells, cadmium telluride
(CdTe) and copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS).
The equivalent circuit of a solar cell has a current source (Iph) in parallel with a diode and
a variable resistor R forms the load. When the terminals are short circuited, the output
voltage is zero and a short circuit Isc equal to Iph flows into the load. When terminals are
open circuited, the output current is zero and source current Iph is equal to diode current
Id. The maximum load current is equal to short circuit current Isc.

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Figure 8.1 Solar cell equivalent circuits

Figure 8.2 Solar Cell I-V Curve

The I-V curve shows three very important points of solar cell characteristics’; the short
circuit current at 1 kW/m2 of irradiance, the open circuit voltage and the maximum
power point of the solar cell. The Isc is 5.8Amperes, while the Voc is 0.64 volts and the
maximum power point power output is 2.75 watts. To make a solar PV module, 36 such

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cells are connected in series formation and the Voc will then be approximately 23.04 volts,
Isc will be 5.8 amperes and the maximum power point will produce approximately 108.9
watts. This module will be used for a 12volts nominal voltage system

8.2 Photovoltaic Power Generation

Generally, 36 solar cells are connected in series to form a module of 12 volts DC nominal
voltage. Depending on the size of the solar cells, the amount of current can be determined
and subsequently the power rating of the module. To obtain higher voltages and currents,
the modules are connected into a series/parallel formation for the required voltage and
power of the system. It is important to note that care must be observed when handling
higher DC voltages to avoid fatal accidents and fire outbreaks in the systems. Proper
protection devices must be incorporated in these systems also.
When modules are interconnected in the above-mentioned arrangement, a solar PV array
is formed. An array can be as large as the space can allow. Most large arrays commonly
referred as solar farms are ground mounted on large tracks of land.
The basic components that form a solar PV power generation system are
1. The modules; that convert solar irradiance into electrical power
2. The charging control units: This is common in standalone solar PV systems
3. The battery storage system: Also common in standalone solar PV systems
4. The power conditioning units commonly referred to as inverters.

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Figure 8.3 Standalone solar PV power plant.
8.3 Types of Solar Photovoltaic Power Generation Systems
Photovoltaic generation systems can be classified as;
 Standalone systems
 Hybrid systems
 Grid connected systems
 Consumer application

8.3.1 Standalone Systems: Standalone systems are ideal for remote areas where grid
power transmission network cannot be justified for economic reasons. Such systems are
commonly used to supply lighting, battery charging and water pumping systems from
bore holes. The ratings for such systems range between 10kWp and 100kWp. In these
systems a combination of both AC and DC loads can be supplied. For example, the water
pump could be DC while the rest of the appliances are AC supplied from the Inverter.
8.3.2 Hybrid Systems
These are systems where solar/ wind or solar/diesel power systems are combined to
complement one another because solar power is intermittent. The solar/diesel hybrid
systems are more popular than solar/wind systems. The hybrid systems can be in three

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different configurations; series, switched and parallel. The configuration is chosen
depending on the system load demand and the required flexibility and reliability.
8.3.2.1 Series Configuration: In a series configuration, there is a common DC bus and
one inverter that supplies the consumer needs. When the generator is running, it also
charges the battery bank. Both the energy sources can be used concurrently.

Figure 8.4 Series Configuration

8.3.2.2 Switched Configuration: In this configuration only the solar PV or the diesel
generator can supply the load at any one time. The generator is connected to the load at
the output of the inverter through a changeover switch. However, as the diesel generator
runs, it also charges the battery bank to maintain it state of charge high or fully charged.

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Figure 8.5 Switched Configuration
8.3.2.3 Parallel Configuration: In a parallel hybrid system, there is a common DC bus
and also a common AC bus. The system uses a bi-directional inverter that can be used to
Charge the battery when the generator is running. Current flow in the inverter is
determined by the demand. When the battery bank is fully charged and the generator is
running, there will be no charging current flowing.

Figure 8.6 Parallel Configuration

The bi-directional inverter operates in two modes; the rectifier mode when charging the
battery bank from the generator and on inverter mode when supplying the loads from
the solar PV system.
8.3.3 Grid Connected Systems: In these systems, the solar power plant output from the
inverter is connected and synchronized to the grid power. Power flow will depend on
where the demand is. These systems can only be applied where utility power distribution
lines are available, and the solar PV owner agrees to sell power to the grid at an agreed
power purchase agreement (PPA). The main advantage with this system is that the solar
PV owner is assured of availability of power at all times. Sometimes battery storage is
used to increase the reliability of the system. The ratings of such systems range between
5kWp to 100MWp.
8.3.4 Consumer Applications:

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Consumer application systems are very small systems mainly electronic devices like
watches clocks, calculator, electronic games and even lately solar bollards for outdoor
lighting. Lately there have been high demands for solar lanterns that have become
common in remote and rural areas.
8.4 The Kenyan Solar Power Generation scenario
Solar PV power generation was introduced in Kenya in 1981 as solar home systems and
it was embraced very well it the tea and coffee growing zones of the country. Due to lack
of adequately trained personnel to maintain the plants, the plants failed one by one to the
disappointments of the pioneers. Efforts are underway to re-vamp the solar home
systems to be used by the rural folk who are too far from the grid power.
In 2010, the first grid connected solar power plant was developed at the Mombasa SOS
village to supply power to the entire village and school. The plant has generation capacity
of 60kWp. The next grid connected system was developed by the UNEP at Gigiri in
Nairobi. The UNEP plant has a generation capacity of 550kWp. The latest development
is the Strathmore University grid connected system that will have a capacity of 600kWp
at completion. The largest solar PV power plant in Kenya is in Garissa having a peak
power output of 50MW

GGK/1/3/2024