Chapter -2

Solar Energy

Bewnet Getachew
University Of Hargeisa
2.1 Introduction To Solar Energy
2.1.1 Applications and systems
2.1.2 Solar Radiation
2.2 Solar Energy Benefits
2.3 Solar Power Technology
2.3.1 PV Fundamentals
2.3.2 PV Technology
2.3.3 PV Systems
2.4 Solar Power SYSTEM DESIGN AND INSTALLATION
2.4.1 PV Scaling and Materials Use
2.4.2 Solar power generation project implementation
2.1 Introduction To Solar Energy
In today's climate of growing energy needs and increasing
environmental concern, alternatives to the use of non-
renewable and polluting fossil fuels have to be investigated.
One such alternative is solar energy.
Solar energy is quite simply the energy produced directly by
the sun and collected elsewhere, normally the Earth.
Only a very small fraction of the total radiation produced
reaches the Earth. The radiation that does reach the Earth is
the indirect source of nearly every type of energy used today.
The exceptions are geothermal energy, and nuclear fission
and fusion.
The amount of the sun's energy that reaches the surface of the Earth
every hour is greater than the total amount of energy that the world's
human population uses in a year.
As of February 2017, Photovoltaic technology accounted for less than
13% of worldwide electricity generation.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
environmentally friendly
• no noise, no moving parts
• no emissions
• no use of fuels and water
• minimal maintenance requirements
• long lifetime, up to 30 years
• electricity is generated wherever there is light, solar or artificial
• PV operates even in cloudy weather conditions
• modular or “custom-made” energy, can be designed for any
application from watch to a multi-megawatt power plant Are modular
permitting a wide range of solar-electric applications such as
 Small scale for remote applications and residential use
 Intermediate scale for business and neighborhood
supplementary power
 Large scale for centralized energy farms of square kilometers
size
• Have a high power-to-weight ratio making them suitable for roof
application
Disadvantages
• PV cannot operate without light
• high initial costs that overshadow the low maintenance costs and
lack of fuel costs
• large area needed for large scale applications
• PV generates direct current: special DC appliances or inverters are
needed in off-grid applications energy storage is needed, such as
batteries

Price Reductions
Solar Radiation
Insolation map of the world. Solar radiation per day on a
surface of 1m2 in kilojoules averaged over a year. As shown,
large areas in Northern Africa have the highest insolation.
Area of
1000 X 1000 km.
In the Sahara!

Insolation is the amount of solar

radiation reaching the earth. Also
called Incident Solar Radiation.
 Solar Technology
The two solar-to-electricity (solar power) technologies
1. Photovoltaic (PV) and
2. Concentrated solar power (CSP).
Solar PV is the leading solar electric technology today, constituting
98% of global solar generation capacity in 2016; the remainder is
CSP.
PV cells convert sunlight directly into electricity, whereas CSP
technologies convert sunlight first to heat and then to electricity.

Photovoltaic Technology
Solar photovoltaic are the most widely deployed solar electric
technology in the world today.
A solar PV array consists of one or more electrically connected PV
modules — each containing many individual solar cells —
integrated with balance-of-system (BOS) hardware components,
such as
Combiner boxes, inverters, transformers, racking, wiring,
disconnects, and enclosures.
Fig. Concentrated solar power (CSP)
PV Solar System
The PV solar system
consists of three
parts:
i) solar panels or
solar arrays,
ii) balance of
system,
iii) load.

The solar panels are part of a complete PV solar system, which,

depending on the application, comprises batteries for electricity
storage, dc/ac inverters that connect a PV solar system to the
electrical grid, and other miscellaneous electrical components or
mounting elements. These additional parts of the PV solar system
form a second part of the system that is called balance of system
(BOS). Finally, the solar system includes products such as household
appliances; radio or TV set that use the solar electricity for their
operation. We refer to these products as a load.
Solar cells produce direct current (DC), therefore they are only
directly used for DC equipment. If alternating current (AC) is needed
for AC equipment or backup energy is needed, PV systems require
other components in addition to solar modules. These components are
specially designed to integrate into solar PV systems. The components
of a system are:

1.Solar Module or Array -- the essential component of any solar PV

system that converts sunlight directly into DC electricity.

2. Charge Controller -- regulates voltage and current from solar

arrays, charges the battery, prevents the battery from overcharging
and also performs controlled over discharges.

3.Battery -- stores current electricity produced from solar arrays for

use when sunlight is not available.

4. Inverter -- a critical component of any solar PV system that

converts DC power into AC power.

5. Lightning protection -- prevents electrical equipment from

damage caused by lightning or induction of high voltage surge. It is
required for large size and critical solar PV systems, which include
grounding.
  PV Cells
 Modules One PV cell only produces 1 or
 Arrays 2 watts of electricity, which
isn't enough power for most
applications

To increase power, groups of

solar cells are electrically
connected and packaged into
weather-tight modules and
arrays to provide useful
output voltages and currents
for a specific power output.

A PV System typically consists of 3 basic components.

•PV cells - Electricity is generated by PV cells, the smallest unit of a
PV system.
•Modules - PV cells are wired together to form modules, or panels,
which are usually a sealed unit of convenient size for handling.
•Arrays – Groups of panels or modules make up an array.
(a) Illustration of grid-connected PV system
(b) Breakout view of PV module
(c) Cross section of silicon solar cell showing PV mechanism
 A solar cell is the basic
building block of a PV system.
 A typical cell produces .5 to 1V
of electricity.
 Solar cells are combined
together to become modules
or if large enough, known as
an array.
 A structure to point the
modules towards the sun is
necessary, as well as
electricity converters, which
convert DC power to AC.
 All of these components allow
the system to power a water
pump, appliances, commercial
sites, or even a whole
community.
A typical silicon (Si) PV module consists of a glass sheet for
mechanical support and protection, laminated encapsulation layers
of ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) for ultraviolet (UV) and moisture
protection; 60 to 96 individual 6-inch-square (15-cm-square) solar
cells, each capable of producing 4–5 watts under peak illumination
(Wp); a fluoropolymer back sheet for further environmental
protection; and an aluminum frame for mounting. Common module
dimensions are 1 meter by 1.5 meters by 4 centimeters, and peak
power ratings range from 260 W to 320 W.
Photoelectric Effect
Basic process by which a photovoltaic cell converts absorbed
sunlight into electricity
During operation, the front surface of the PV module is illuminated by
sunlight. Solar photons are transmitted into each cell, and those
photons with sufficiently high energy (i.e., higher than the material-
dependent energy bandgap) are absorbed. An absorbed photon
transfers its energy to an electron and its positively charged
counterpart (a hole). An internal electric field pulls electrons toward
one electrode and holes toward the other, resulting in a dc electric
current.
“Photons” knock electrons free
from the silicon structure,
freeing them to enter electric
current and power a “load” (like
a light bulb)
The photoelectric effect relies
on the principle that whenever
light strikes the surface of
certain metals electrons are
released
PV TECHNOLOGY CLASSIFICATION BY MATERIAL COMPLEXITY
1. First generation (G1) technologies consist of wafer-based cells
of c-Si and GaAs.
2. Second generation (G2) technologies consist of thin-fi lm cells,
including a-Si:H, CdTe, and CIGS.
3. Third generation (G3) technologies include novel thin-fi lm
devices, such as dye-sensitized, organic, and quantum dot (QD)
solar cells, along with a variety of “exotic” concepts and strategies,
including spectral-splitting devices (e.g., MJ cells), hot-carrier
collection, carrier multiplication, and thermo photovoltaics.
MEASURING PV MODULE AND SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
The dc peak power rating of a PV module or system (in Wp) reflects
its efficiency under standard test conditions (STC):
- 1000 W/m2 irradiance,
- 25oC operating temperature, and
- air mass 1.5 (AM1.5)b spectrum.

Rated Output Specifications and Solar Panels

Rated output for solar panels at
different light intensities (W/m2).
The “knee” of the curves is where
the most power is produced, and
the voltage & current is optimized.
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc)
Open circuit voltage is how many volts the solar panel outputs with no load on
it. If you just measure with a voltmeter across the plus and minus leads, you
will read Voc. Since the solar panel isn’t connected to anything, there is no
load on it, and it is producing no current.
This is a very important number, as it is the maximum voltage that the solar
panel can produce under standard test conditions, so this is the number to use
when determining how many solar panels you can wire in series going into
your inverter or charge controller.
Short Circuit Current (Isc)
Short Circuit Current is how many amps (i.e. current) the solar panels are
producing when not connected to a load but when the plus and minus of the
panels wires are directly connected to each other. If you just measure with an
ammeter across the plus and minus leads, you will read Isc. This is the highest
current the solar panels will produce under standard test conditions.
When determining how many amps a connected device can handle, like a solar
charge controller or inverter, the Isc is used, generally multiplied by 1.25 for
National Electrical Code (NEC) 80% requirements.
Maximum Power Point (Pmax)
The Pmax is the sweet spot of the solar panel power output, located at the “knee”
of the curves in the graph above. It is where the combination of the volts and
amps results in the highest wattage (Volts x Amps = Watts).
When you use a Maximum Power Point Tracking MPPT) charge controller or
inverter, this is the point that the MPPT electronics tries to keep the volts and
amps at to maximize the power output. The wattage that a solar panel is listed
as is the Pmax where Pmax = Vmpp x Impp

Maximum Power Point Voltage (Vmpp)

The Vmpp is the voltage when the power output is the greatest. It is the actual
voltage you want to see when it is connected to the MPPT solar equipment (like
an MPPT solar charge controller or a grid-tie inverter) under standard test
conditions
Maximum Power Point Current (Impp)
The Impp is the current (amps) when the power output is the greatest. It is the
actual amperage you want to see when it is connected to the MPPT solar
equipment under standard test conditions.
Example of SolarWorld SunModule solar panels Standard Test Conditions
(STC) and Normal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT) ratings.
Nominal Voltage
Nominal voltage is the one that confuses a lot of people. It’s not a
real voltage that you will actually measure. Nominal voltage is a
category.
For example, a nominal 12V solar panel has a Voc of about 22V and a
Vmp of about 17V. It is used to charge a 12V battery (which is
actually around 14V).
Nominal voltages let people know what equipment goes together.

A 12V solar panel is used with a 12V charge controller, a 12V battery
bank, and a 12V inverter. You can make a 24V solar array by wiring
two 12V solar panels together in series
 A 20V nominal solar panel goes
through an MPPT solar charge
controller so it can efficiently
charge a 12V battery.

Nominal 12V 20V 24V

Number of cells 36 60 72

Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) 22V 38V 46V

Max Power Volts (Vmp) 18V 31V 36V

 But the actual ac energy output depends strongly on
- actual insolation, shading losses , module efficiency losses (e.g.,
at elevated temperatures or low insolation), and system losses (e.g.,
module mismatch, wire resistance, inverter and transformer losses,
tracking inaccuracy, and age-related degradation).
Module Efficiency
Efficiency is the measure of electrical power output divided by solar input. At
STC, power in is equal to 1,000 W per m2 and power out is the rated Pmax
point. Assuming a module sized at exactly 1 square meter, and rated at 150 W
Pmax, module efficiency would be 150 W per m2 ÷ 1,000 W per m2, which
equals 15%. The typical crystalline efficiency range spans 12% to 15%, but
there are high-efficiency modules over 19%, and amorphous silicon modules
on the low end with efficiencies around 6% or 7%.
TemperatureCoefficients
Modules are directly affected by both irradiance and temperature, and because
of environmental fluctuations, also experience power output fluctuations.
When exposed to full sun, the cells will reach temperatures above the STC
temperature of 25°C. And sometimes cell temperatures are lower than 25°C,
Temperature
such as on coldcoefficients
winter days.are used to mathematically determine the power,
current, or voltage a module will produce at various temperatures deviating
from the STC values.
The performance of a deployed PV system is typically characterized by
its actual ac energy output per year, relative to the expected dc
output
The expected output can be calculated in terms of either ideal or actual insolation,
yielding two different metrics:
The capacity factor (CF) compares system output to the performance of an ideal
(lossless) system with identical nameplate capacity under constant peak (1000 W/m2)
irradiance.
The performance ratio (PR) or quality factor (Q) instead compares system output to
that of an ideal system in the same location.

Capacity factors are commonly used to compare power generation systems. The annual
capacity factor for a typical utility-scale solar PV system is around 20%, compared to
22% for solar thermal, 31% for wind, 40% for hydropower, 44% for natural gas
combined cycle, 64% for coal, and 90% for nuclear plants.44 Solar power systems
without storage can operate only when sunlight is available; this constraint alone limits
the capacity factor to the fraction of daylight hours.
Three Types of Solar Photovoltaic Systems: Which One Is the
Best Option for You?
When you request a solar quote, your installer will first ask you to choose
between three main types: grid-tied, off-grid or hybrid systems.
The type of your chosen solar system will affect what components will be
needed, how the system will operate and the overall costs of your PV system.
Therefore, it is crucial to understand the advantages and disadvantages as well
as the reasons for choosing one or another type.
The decision takes into account several variables:
utility grid service and reliability
importance of the load to feed
available policy and revenue schemes
desired autonomy
balance of system costs
size of the system
solar radiation
type of load to be served
the requirements of the customer
1. Stand-Alone(Off-grid) PV Systems
 Stand-alone PV systems are designed to operate independent of
the electric utility grid.
 Supply DC and/or AC electrical loads.
 The simplest type of stand-alone PV system is a direct-coupled
system, where the DC output of a PV module or array is directly
connected to a DC load
 Since there are no batteries involved in direct load systems, stand-
alone PV systems are suitable for such processes as heating and
pumping water, ventilation fans, etc…Although they can only
work in the day.
 Stand-Alone systems may also power AC loads such as batteries.
Like the AC adapter which powers your laptop.

Off-grid systems are indeed the most expensive ones. They are only profitable
and necessary when no grid is available in the place or when there is the need
to feed only small loads (electronics or cars for example).
These systems are by definition isolated from the grid and must work on their
own for a number of days – typically installed in rural areas, islands or for
small lighting purposes.
completely independent of
other power sources. They are
usually used to power remote
homes, cottages or lodges
as well as in applications such
as remote monitoring and
water pumping. In most
cases, an autonomous system
will require batteries for
storage.
DIRECTLY CONNECTED DC SOLAR POWER SYSTEM
Solar power photovoltaic (PV) modules are constructed from a series
of cross-welded solar cells, each typically producing a specific wattage
with an output of 0.5 V.
Effectively, each solar cell could be considered as a 0.5-V battery that
produces current under adequate solar ray conditions. To obtain a
desired voltage output from a PV panel assembly, the cells, similar to
batteries, are connected in series to obtain a required output.

For instance, to obtain a 12-V output, 24 cell modules in an assembly

are connected in tandem. Likewise, for a 24-V output, 48 modules in
an assembly are connected in series. To obtain a desired wattage, a
group of several series-connected solar cells are connected in parallel.

As shown in Figure 13, the solar system configuration consists of a

required number of solar photovoltaic cells, commonly referred to as
PV modules, connected in series or in parallel to attain the required
voltage output.
Figure 13 A three-panel solar array diagram.
Figure 14 A directly connected solar power dc pump diagram.
Figure 14 shows four PV modules that have been connected in parallel.
The positive output of each module is protected by an appropriate over
current device, such as a fuse. Paralleled output of the solar array is in
turn connected to a dc motor via a two-pole single throw switch. In
some instances, each individual PV module is also protected with a
forward-biased diode connected to the positive output of individual solar
panels

An appropriate surge protector connected between the positive and

negative supply provides protection against lightning surges, which
could damage the solar array system components.

In order to provide equipment-grounding bias, the chassis or

enclosures of all PV modules and the dc motor pump are tied together
by means of grounding clamps. The system ground is in turn
connected to an appropriate grounding rod.

All PV interconnecting wires are sized and the proper type selected to
prevent power losses caused by a number of factors, such as
exposure to the sun, excessive wire resistance.
STAND-ALONE DC SOLAR POWER SYSTEM WITH BATTERY
BACKUP

Figure 15 Battery-backed solar power–driven dc pump.

The solar power photovoltaic array configuration shown in Figure 15, a
dc system with battery backup, is essentially the same as the one
without the battery except that there are a few additional components
that are required to provide battery charge stability.
Stand-alone PV system arrays are connected in series to obtain the
desired dc voltage, such as 12, 24, or 48 V; outputs of that are in
turn connected to a dc collector panel equipped with specially rated
over current devices, such as ceramic-type fuses.

The positive lead of each PV array conductor is connected to a

dedicated fuse, and the negative lead is connected to a common
neutral bus. All fuses as well are connected to a common positive
bus. The output of the dc collector bus, which represents the
collective amperes and voltages of the overall array group, is
connected to a dc charge controller, which regulates the current
output and prevents the voltage level from exceeding the maximum
needed for charging the batteries.
The output of the charge controller is connected to the battery bank
by means of a dual dc cutoff disconnect. As depicted in Figure 15,
the cutoff switch, when turned off for safety measures, disconnects
the load and the PV arrays simultaneously.
When sizing the solar power system, take into account that the dc
power output from the PV arrays should be adequate to sustain the
connected load and the battery trickle charge requirements.
Battery storage sizing depends on a number of factors such as the
duration of an uninterrupted power supply to the load when the solar
power system is inoperative, which occurs at nighttime or during
cloudy days.
Note that battery banks inherently, when in operation, produce a 20
to 30 percent power loss due to heat, which also must be taken into
consideration.

STAND-ALONE HYBRID AC SOLAR POWER SYSTEM WITH

GENERATOR AND BATTERY BACKUP

A stand-alone hybrid solar power configuration is essentially identical

to the dc solar power system just discussed, except that it
incorporates two additional components, as shown in Figure 16. The
first component is an inverter.

Inverters are electronic power equipment designed to convert

direct current into alternating current. The second component is a
standby emergency dc generator.
Figure 16 STAND-ALONE HYBRID AC SOLAR POWER SYSTEM WITH
GENERATOR AND BATTERY BACKUP
Reliability of the grid
By definition, the off-grid system assumes that there is no grid available in the
area and that the system must be able to work on its own, therefore, the
reliability of the grid is zero.
Power load and autonomy
This is a crucial aspect of the off-grid system. The importance of the load will
determine the autonomy of the system. If the load is to feed a rural or isolated
house then the typical autonomy is two to three days.
Revenues and costs
No revenue
Battery banks are a very expensive part of the system, selection and
dimensioning of the batteries will deeply influence the initial costs of the
system and they may even require to be changed during the life span of the
panels
2. Grid-connected (Grid-tied) PV System
 Grid-connected or utility-interactive PV systems are designed
to operate in parallel with and interconnected with the electric
utility grid.
 These system contain an inverter, called a power conditioning unit
(PCU) which converts the DC power produced by the PV array into
AC power consistent with the voltage and power quality
requirements of the utility grid.
 A bi-directional interface allows the AC power produced by the PV
system to either supply personal electrical loads, or return power
back to the grid when the PV system output is greater than the
personal demand.
Grid tied configurations consists
on interconnecting the PV module
to the grid with no backup. This
means that if the grid goes off, the
PV system goes off as well.
 The main components of
grid-tied system are:
solar panels
mounting system
wiring, circuit breakers
grounding system
a grid-tied inverter that
will transform the direct
current (DC) power from
the panels into alternating
current (AC) power –
used by the most
appliances
The main purpose of using grid-tied system is to reduce the
consumption of electricity from the grid and
save your costs in the long term
Grid-connected systems allow you to reduce your consumption
from the electricity grid and, in some instances, to feed the surplus
energy back into the grid. In some cases, your utility may give you
credit for the energy returned to the grid.
Grid-tied systems typically consist on the following scheme of
operation:
1.Solar panels convert solar radiation into DC electricity
2.Electricity flows through the DC wiring and goes into a combiner box
3.The combiner box contains fuses and circuit breakers that protect the modules
and the loads from over voltages or short-circuits
4.From the combiner box, a higher wire gauge cable goes to the inverter
containing all the DC power from the modules
5.Inverter transforms DC into AC current
6.AC current is fed into the AC loads of the house
7.Excess energy is fed into the grid through a utility meter
Analysis how the variables influence the decision of using a
grid-tied system or not:
Reliability of the grid
Choosing a grid-tied system is closely related to the reliability of
your power grid. For this system, the power grid should be
reliable.
In countries where the electricity system is not reliable, it is good to consider
another type of PV system, as the grid could continuously shut down your PV
array.
Power load and autonomy
If you need to be absolutely dependent upon the power load your solar panels
generate, then you should consider the option with the battery backup.
Generally, grid-tied systems are configured to be fed directly to the main panel
of the house and there is no way to control which appliances are fed by solar
energy and which ones are powered from the grid. If you want to control and
backup certain electrical loads, then you need to consider other type of a
system.
The type of load that you want to feed in is also important factor to consider.
If the load works with DC you don’t need the inverter. However, you will
need a charge controller and a battery backup to supply the load in a stable
way. In this case, it is better to consider a hybrid system rather than solely
grid-tied system.
On the other hand, autonomy represents the number of hours or days when the
PV system is independent from the power grid. In the grid-tied scheme, the
autonomy is zero.
Therefore, if autonomy is desired, then consider a backup battery bank (hybrid
system).
Revenues and costs
Besides reducing energy consumption from the grid (and
therefore saving on your utility bills), the other main purpose of a
grid-tied system is to obtain extra revenues.
This revenue comes from the excess energy injected back to the
grid. The excess energy is charged at the electricity rate of your
utility distribution network through the Net Metering Scheme.
The overall costs of a PV systems comprise the equipment,
permitting and installation.
While permitting costs do not fluctuate much from one system to
another, equipment costs and installation certainly change. Grid-
tied systems generally present the most economical alternative
among PV systems because there is no need of adding a battery
backup and charge controllers to supply the batteries.
This represent a big difference in costs compared to off-grid and
hybrid systems. Furthermore, installation costs are smaller as
well, as time of connection to the battery bank is not taken into
account with this configuration.
Size of the system and solar radiation
Grid tied configurations offer the possibility to install more
powerful systems. That is why they are used for utility purposes as
well.
When adding extra panels to off-grid or hybrid systems you might
have to add stronger battery backup. You will not encounter this
problem with grid-tied systems.
Besides, the availability of solar radiation also affects the decision
about the best solar system type for you.
Particularly for grid-tied the relationship is almost linear. Your
panels will produce as much electricity as solar radiation allows.
Your system will reduce your energy consumption from the grid
on sunny days more.
3. Hybrid systems
receive a portion of their
power from one or more
additional sources. In practice,
PV modules are often paired
with a wind generator or a
fuel-fired generator. Such
systems usually require
batteries for storage. They are
most appropriate when energy
demand is high, when power
must be available on demand,
or if your budget is limited.
Therefore, the main difference
between the grid-tied and the hybrid
systems lies in the availability of
In hybrid systems there are two
power during blackouts and the
types of loads:
possibility to back up a specified load •critical loads
with a particular autonomy. •non-essential loads
Now, there are two available topologies to install a hybrid system: DC-coupled
and AC-coupled.
DC-coupled
DC-coupled scheme presents the most common and simple configuration of a
hybrid system and contains the following components:
solar panels
charge controller
inverter
sub-panel load
battery bank
combiner box
wiring
grounding and mounting system
The operation of the system varies depending on the time of the day and on the
availability of the power grid. Thus, the functioning of the system can be
divided into two main modes: Grid-connected and Island mode.
AC-Coupled
AC-coupled system consists of the following components:
solar panels
wires
sub-panel
main panel
battery bank
grounding system
mounting system
grid-tied inverter
battery based inverter
combiner box [3]
As you can see, the main difference from DC coupled module lies in the
number of inverters and the way the system interacts with the critical loads.
In the same way, the system operates according to the availability of the power
grid and the time of the day.
Reliability of the grid
This is one of the main factors affecting our decision for a hybrid system. If grid
is not reliable, the critical load of your house might not be available when you
need it the most. In such case, it is justifiable to install a hybrid system instead of
a grid-tied system.
Another important advantage of hybrid system is that your PV system acts
independently from the grid in times of environmental disasters when the power
grid goes off for prolonged times.
Power load and autonomy
With hybrid systems you are able to select the critical load. You can power
your entire house with the PV system, but it is not the most optimal nor
economic option. Many appliances are not necessary to use during a blackout
(dryers and washing machines for example).
Autonomy in this configuration is determined by the number of hours during
which you want to be independent from the grid. This is entirely related to the
reliability of the distribution network in your city.
Revenues and costs
Revenues are the same as at the grid-tied systems, however, costs of the
system are different. Battery banks are a very expensive part of the system,
selection and dimensioning of the batteries will deeply influence the initial
costs of the system and they may even require to be changed during the life
span of the panels.
Size of the system and solar radiation
The size of the system has two variable components:
• the critical loads
• the non-essential loads
If you want to size your system only to provide the critical loads, then your
system will be smaller. However, if you want to have your needs covered when
the grid fails, you need to add more panels to your system.
The solar radiation in this case is important to consider as the system should be
able to supply critical loads and charge the batteries in case of grid failure
during the previous night or during the day.
Isolation transformer
In order to prevent spurious noise transfer from the grid to the solar
power system electronics.
match the inverter output voltages to the grid
Figure 19 Grid-connected hybrid solar power system with
standby generator.
System Components
Familiarity with system components, the different types that are
available, and criteria for making a selection is important.
Basic components of PV systems with and without batteries are:
• Solar photovoltaic modules
• Array mounting racks
• Grounding equipment
• Combiner box
• Surge protection (often part of the combiner box)
• Inverter
• Meters – system meter and kilowatt-hour meter
• Disconnects:
- Array DC disconnect
- Inverter DC disconnect
- Inverter AC disconnect
- Exterior AC disconnect

If the system includes batteries, it will also require:

• Battery bank with cabling and housing structure
• Charge controller
• Battery disconnect
1. Solar Modules
The heart of a photovoltaic system is the solar module. Many
photovoltaic cells are wired together by the manufacturer to produce
a solar module. When installed at a site, solar modules are wired
together in series to form strings. Strings of modules are connected
in parallel to form an array.
Rated Power
Rated power is the maximum power the panel can produce with
1,000 watts of sunlight per square meter at a module temperature
of 25oC in still air. Actual conditions will rarely match rated
conditions and so actual power output will almost always be less.
Grid-connected residential PV systems use modules with
rated power output ranging from 100-300 watts. Modules
as small as 10 watts are used for other applications.
PV System Voltage
Modern systems without batteries are typically wired to provide from
235V to 600V. In battery-based systems, the trend is also toward use
of higher array voltages, although many charge controllers still
require lower voltages of 12V, 24V or 48V to match the voltage of the
battery string.
Figure 20 photovoltaic cells, solar module, strings and array
Module Efficiency (Watts per Area)
Modules with higher efficiency will have a higher ratio of watts to
area. The higher the efficiency, the smaller the area (i.e. fewer
modules) will be required to achieve the same power output of an
array.
2. Array Mounting Racks
Arrays are most commonly mounted on roofs or on steel poles set in
concrete. In certain applications, they may be mounted at ground
level or on building walls.
Adjustability
Mounting racks are adjustable, allowing resetting of the
angle of the PV modules seasonally
Tracking
Pole-mounted PV arrays can incorporate tracking devices
that allow the array to automatically follow the sun.
3. Grounding Equipment
Grounding equipment provides a well-defined, low-resistance path
from your system to the ground to protect your system from current
surges from lightning strikes or equipment malfunctions. Grounding
also stabilizes voltages and provides a common reference point.
Equipment Grounding
Equipment grounding provides protection from shock caused by
a ground fault. A ground fault occurs when a current-carrying
conductor comes into contact with the frame or chassis of an
appliance or electrical box. All system components and any
exposed metal, including equipment boxes, receptacles,
appliance frames and PV mounting equipment, should be
grounded.
System Grounding
System grounding requires taking one conductor from a two-wire
system and connecting it to ground. In a DC system, this means
bonding the negative conductor to ground at one single point in the
system. This must be accomplished inside the inverter, not at the
PV array.
4. Combiner Box
Wires from individual PV modules or strings are run to the combiner
box, typically located on the roof. These wires may be single
conductor pigtails with connectors that are pre-wired onto the PV
modules. The output of the combiner box is one larger two wire
conductor in conduit. A combiner box typically includes a safety fuse
or breaker for each string and may include a surge protector.

5. Surge Protection
Surge protectors help to protect your system from power surges that
may occur if the PV system or nearby power lines are struck by
lightning. A power surge is an increase in voltage significantly above
the design voltage.
6. Meters and Instrumentation
Essentially two types of meters are used in PV systems:
• Utility Kilowatt-hour Meter
• System Meter
Utility Kilowatt-Hour Meter – The utility kilowatt-hour meter
measures energy delivered to or from the grid.
System Meter – The system meter measures and displays
system performance and status. Monitored points may include
power production by modules, electricity used, and battery charge.

7. Inverter
Inverters take care of four basic tasks of power conditioning:
• Converting the DC power coming from the PV modules or
battery bank to AC power.
• Ensuring that the frequency of the AC cycles is 60 cycles
per second.
• Reducing voltage fluctuations.
• Ensuring that the shape of the AC wave is appropriate for
the application, i.e. a pure sine wave for grid-connected
systems.
Criteria for Selecting an Inverter
Power Quality, Voltage Input, AC Power Output, Surge
Capacity, Frequency and Voltage Regulation, Efficiency,
Integral Safety Disconnects, Inverter-Chargers, Automatic
Load Shedding and Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
Power Quality – Inverters for grid-connected systems produce better than
utility-quality power. For grid-connection, the inverter must have the words
“Utility-Interactive” printed directly on the listing label.
Voltage Input – The inverter’s DC voltage input window must match the
nominal voltage of the solar array, usually 235V to 600V for systems without
batteries and 12, 24 or 48 volts for battery-based systems.
AC Power Output – Grid-connected systems are sized according to the power
output of the PV array, rather than the load requirements of the building. This
is because any power requirements above what a grid-connected PV system
can provide is automatically drawn from the grid.
Frequency and Voltage Regulation – Better quality inverters will produce
near constant output voltage and frequency.
Efficiency – Modern inverters commonly used in residential and small
commercial systems have peak efficiencies of 92 percent to 94 percent, as
rated by their manufacturers. Actual field conditions usually result in overall
efficiencies of about 88 percent to 92 percent. Inverters for battery-based
systems have slightly lower efficiencies.
Surge Capacity – The starting surge of equipment such as motors is not a
consideration in sizing grid-connected inverters. When starting, a motor may
draw as much as seven times its rated wattage. For grid-connected systems,
this start-up surge is automatically drawn from the grid.
Automatic Load Shedding – For battery-based systems, the inverter can
automatically shed any unnecessary loads in the event of a utility power
outage. Solar loads, i.e. the loads that will be kept powered up during the
outage, are connected to a separate electrical sub-panel. A battery-based
system must be designed to power these critical loads.
Inverter-Chargers – For battery-based systems, inverters are available with
a factory integrated charge controller, referred to as inverter-chargers. Be
sure to select an inverter-charger that is rated for grid-connection, however.
In the event of a grid power outage, use of an inverter-charger that is not set
up for grid-connection would result in overcharging and damaging the
batteries, known as “cooking the batteries.”
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) – Modern non-battery based
inverters include maximum power point tracking. MPPT automatically adjusts
system voltage such that the PV array operates at its maximum power point.
For battery-based systems, this feature has recently been incorporated into
better charge controllers.
Integral Safety Disconnects The AC disconnect in most inverter models
may not meet requirements of the electric utility Therefore, a separate
exterior AC disconnect may be required even if one is included in the inverter.
All inverters for grid-connection include both DC disconnects (PV input) and
AC disconnects (inverter output). In better inverters, the inverter section can
be removed separately from the DC and AC disconnects, facilitating repair.
8. Disconnects
Automatic and manual safety disconnects protect the wiring and
components from power surges and other equipment malfunctions.
They also ensure the system can be safely shut down and system
components can be removed for maintenance and repair.
Array DC Disconnect, Inverter DC Disconnect, Inverter AC
Disconnect, Exterior AC Disconnect, and Battery DC
Disconnect
9. Battery Bank
Batteries store direct current electrical energy for later use. This
energy storage comes at a cost, however, since batteries reduce the
efficiency and output of the PV system, typically by about 10 percent
for lead-acid batteries. Batteries also increase the complexity and cost
of the system.
Types of batteries commonly used in PV systems are:
• Lead-acid batteries
- Flooded (a.k.a. Liquid vented)
- Sealed (a.k.a. Valve-Regulated Lead Acid)
o Absorbent glass mat
o Gel cell
• Alkaline batteries
- Nickel-cadmium
- Nickel-iron
Sizing Battery Banks – For grid-connected systems, batteries are
usually sized for relatively short time periods with 8 hours being
typical. Size may vary, however, depending on the particular needs of
a facility and the length of power outages expected. For comparison,
battery banks for off-grid systems are usually sized for one to three
cloudy days.
Interaction with Solar Modules – The solar array must have a
higher voltage than the battery bank in order to fully charge the
batteries. For systems with battery back-up, pay particular attention to
the rated voltage of the module, also called the maximum power
point (Vmpp), in the electrical specifications. It is important that the
voltage is high enough relative to the voltage of a fully charged
battery.
For example, rated voltages between 16.5V and 17.5V are typical for
a 12V system using liquid lead-acid batteries.
Higher voltages may be required for long wiring distances between
the modules and the charge controller and battery bank.

10. Charge Controller

A charge controller, sometimes referred to as a photovoltaic controller
or battery charger, is only necessary in systems with battery back-up.
The primary function of a charge controller is to prevent overcharging
of the batteries. Most also include a low voltage disconnect that
prevents over-discharging batteries. In addition, charge controllers
prevent charge from draining back to solar modules at night.

Charge controllers are selected based on:

• PV array voltage – The controller’s DC voltage input must match
the nominal voltage of the solar array.
• PV array current – The controller must be sized to handle the
maximum current produced by the PV array.
Solar Electric System Design, Operation and
Installation
As the demand for solar electric systems grows, progressive builders
are adding solar photovoltaic (PV) as an option for their customers.

Essential steps required for solar power systems engineering design

include site evaluation, feasibility study, site shading analysis,
photovoltaic mapping or configuration analysis, dc-to-ac power
conversion calculations, PV module and inverter system selection, and
total solar power array electric power calculations.

 Evaluating a building site for its solar potential

• photovoltaic mapping or configuration analysis
• Considerations in selecting components
• Considerations in design and installation of a PV system
 dc-to-ac power conversion calculations
 total solar power array electric power calculations
• Typical costs and the labor required to install a PV system
Evaluating a Site for Solar PV Potential
Does Hargeysa Have Good Solar Potential?
This is a very common question and the answer is, yes, Hargeysa
gets enough sun for grid-connected and stand alone photovoltaic
systems to operate well.
Evaluating a Building Site – While Hargeysa may have good to
excellent solar potential, not every building site will be suitable for a
solar installation. The first step in the design of a photovoltaic
system is determining if the site you are considering has good solar
potential. Some questions you should ask are:
• Is the installation site free from shading by nearby
trees, buildings or other obstructions?
• Can the PV system be oriented for good performance?
• Does the roof or property have enough area to
accommodate the solar array?
• If the array will be roof-mounted, what kind of roof is it
and what is its condition?
1. Mounting Location – Solar modules are usually mounted on
roofs. If roof area is not available, PV modules can be pole-mounted,
ground-mounted, wall-mounted or installed as part of a shade
structure
Roof mount

The PV array may be

mounted above and
parallel to the roof surface
with a standoff of several
inches for cooling
purposes.

Figure 21 Roof Mounted PV System

 Shade Structure

Figure 22 Patio Cover or Deck Shade

Building-Integrated PV Array (BIPV)

Figure 23 Building-Integrated Installation

2. Orientation - Solar modules produce 95 percent of their full power

when within 20 degrees of the sun’s direction. But the tilt or
orientation of a roof does not need to be perfect but flat roofs work
well because the PV modules can be mounted on frames and tilted up
toward the required direction.
Table 1: Orientation Factors for Various Roof Pitches and Directions

During the course of a day, the angle of sunlight striking the solar
module will change, which will affect the power output. The output
from the “100-watt module” will rise from zero gradually during dawn
hours, and increase with the sun angle to its peak output at midday,
and then gradually decrease into the afternoon and back down to
zero at night.
3. Tilt – Generally the optimum tilt of a PV array in the equator
equals the geographic latitude minus about 15 degrees to achieve
yearly maximum output of power. Nevertheless, it is recommended
that modules be installed at the same pitch as a sloping roof,
whatever that slope is, primarily for aesthetic reasons, but also
because the tilt is very forgiving.

4. Required Area – Residential and small commercial systems

require as little as 25 meter square for a small system up to as much
as 500 meter square. As a general rule for the equator, every 1,000
watts of PV modules requires 25 meter square of collector area for
modules using crystalline silicon (currently the most common PV cell
type). Each 1,000 watts of PV modules can generate about 2000
kilowatt-hours (kWh) per year in locations of east Africa. If your
location limits the physical size of your system, you may want to
install a system that uses more-efficient PV modules.
Keep in mind that access space around the modules can add up to 20
percent to the required area.
5. Shading – Photovoltaic arrays are adversely affected by shading.
Even small shadows, such as the shadow of a single branch of a
leafless tree can significantly reduce the power output of a solar
module. This is because when manufacturers assemble solar
modules from cells, they wire groups of cells in series with each
other. Shading one cell will essentially turn off all the cells in its
group. Keep in mind that an area may be unshaded during one part
of the day, but shaded at another part of the day.
In order to analyze yearly
shading of a solar platform,
solar power designers and
integrators make use of a
commercial shading analysis
instrument called the Solar
Pathfinder shown in Figure . The
Solar Pathfinder is used for
shade analysis in areas that are
surrounded by trees, buildings,
and other objects that could
Solar Pathfinder and shading cast shadows on a designated
graphs. solar platform.
Spherical dome showing the reflection of surrounding buildings
and vegetation.
DC-to-AC power conversion calculations
The following is an example demonstrates how to determine power
output performance for a solar power system.
example
PV module: SolarWorld model SW 175 with dc-rated output of 175 W
■ PV module PTC power output rating: 158.3 W
PV module area: 14 ft2
■ Approximate available unshaded platform space: 7500 ft2
■ Total number of PV modules to be installed: 530 units
■ Total PTC output watts: 530 × 158.3 = 83,899 W
■ Inverter unit capacity chosen: 100 kilowatts (kW)
■ Inverter efficiency: 94.5%
■ Total eligible rebate watts: 83,899 × 94.5% = 79,285 W
Step 1

The following shading tabulations are for the Solar Pathfinder

December: = 0%
January: = 7%
November: = 15%
February: = 35%
October: = 49%
March: = 88%
September: = 89%
April: = 89%
August: = 90%
May: = 92%
July: = 97%
June: = 97%
Mean shading multiplier = (7 + 15 + 35 + 49 + 88 + 89 + 89 + 90 +
92 + 97 + 97)/12 = 54%
Step 2 Photovoltaic System Losses
1. PV dc nameplate derating
The default value applied for such losses is 95 percent of the dc
nameplate value or a multiplier value of 0.95.
2. Inverter and matching transformer losses.
The mean value multiplier applied by the STC power rating is 92
percent, which translates into a multiplier value of 0.92.
3. PV module array interconnection mismatch
a median degradation multiplier of 0.98 is applied during solar
array power output calculations.
4. Reverse diode losses. 0.996

5. DC wiring losses. a multiplier value of 0.99.

6. AC wiring losses multiplier value of0.99

7. PV module dirt and soiling losses.

derating factor of 0.95 is recommended
8. System availability and mean time between failures
(MTBF)
multiplier of 0.98
With reference to the preceding, the overall calculated dc-to-ac losses
amount to 0.77:
DC-to-ac loss = 0.95 × 0.92 × 0.98 × 0.996 × 0.98 × 0.99 × 0.95 ×
0.98 = 0.77

Step 3 Upon completion of solar shading tabulation and

establishment of the shading multiplier, the overall solar power output
performance will be calculated by applying all power loss factors to
the calculated total PTC.

Applying the dc-to-ac loss (0.77%) and mean shading multiplier to

the calculated PTC, we obtain
Net ac output watts = (79,285 W PTC) × 0.77 (ac-to-dc loss) × 0.54
(shading multiplier) = 32,966.7 W
Designing a Typical Residential Solar Power
System
A typical residential solar power system configuration consists of
solar photovoltaic (PV) panels; a collector fuse box; a dc disconnect
switch; some lightning protection devices; a charge controller for a
battery if required; an appropriately sized inverter; the required
number of PV system support structures; and miscellaneous
components, such as electrical conduits or wires and grounding
hardware. Additional expenses associated with the solar power
system will include installation labor and associated electrical
installation permits.

Preparation Phase
Prior to designing the solar power system, the designer must
calculate the residential power consumption demand load.
The calculation is based on a 2000-ft2 conventional single residential
unit:
Step 1: Lighting load. Multiply the living space square area by 3 W:
2000 × 3 = 6000 W.
Step 2: Laundry load. Multiply 1500 W for each laundry appliance
set, which consists of a clothes washer and dryer: 1500 × 1 = 1500
W.
Step 3: Small appliance load. Multiply kitchen appliance loads rated
1500 W by 2: 1500 W × 2 = 3000 W.
Step 4: Total lighting load. Total the sum of the loads calculated in
steps 1 to 3: 6000 + 1500 + 3000 = 10,500 W.
Step 5: Lighting load derating. Use the first 3000 W of the summed-
up load (step 4) and add 35 percent of the balance to it: 3000 +
2625 = 5625 W.
Step 6: Appliance loads. Assign the following load values (in watts)
to kitchen appliances:
Dishwasher 1200
Microwave oven 1200
Refrigerator 1000
Kitchen hood 400
Sink garbage disposer 800
Total kitchen appliance load 4600
If the number of appliances equals 5 or more, then the total load must
be multiplied by 75 percent, which in this case is 3450 W.

Step 7: Miscellaneous loads. Loads that are not subject to power

discounts include air conditioning, Jacuzzi, pool, and sauna and must
be totaled as per the equipment nameplate power ratings. In this
example we will assume that the residence is equipped with a single
five-tone packaged air-conditioning system rated at 17,000 W.

When totaling the load, the total energy consumption is 26,075 W:

17,000 (air conditioner) + 3450 (appliances) + 5625 (lighting
power) = 26,075 W
In general, an average 8 hours of habitation time should be used for
sizing the solar power system,

solar power system is needed = 26,075 Wh / 8 h = 3260 W

3260-W solar power system is needed

Step 8 When using a battery backup, a 30 percent derating must be
applied to the overall solar power generation output efficiency, which
will augment the solar power system requirement by 2500 W.

total energy consumption= 3260 W +978 W = 4238 W

Step 9 size the battery bank

ampere-hour (Ah) capacity of the battery storage system, the
aggregate wattage worked out earlier must be divided by the voltage
and then multiplied by the backup supply hours
Voltage = 120 V ac
hours the overall power demand must be
sustained during the absence of sun or
insolation----6hrs
the amperes produced by the solar
power system, which is stored in the
battery bank = 4238 W / 120v = 35A
ampere-hour (Ah) capacity of the battery
storage system = 35 x 6 H = 212 Ah