CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Electric power is a key driver of economic growth and prosperity. But access to
electricity still remains a distant dream for majority of the population living in the
remote and arid areas of developing countries. With the growing demand for safe
and reliable energy, solar as a source of energy remains the least utilized energy
source in the Nigerian economy and yet one of the safest forms of energy [1].
Rapid reduction of fossil fuel resources and growing evidence of global warming
phenomena cause the necessity of urgent search for alternative energy sources.
Recent studies show that renewable energy has great potential and can be used to
fulfil world energy demand. The PV industry has grown more than 40% per year
since last decades due to rapid decrease in PV technology cost. PV technology may
become major alternative energy source in the future since it has several positive
attributes, low maintenances, free and inexhaustible energy source and robust and
long-life time system’s components. However, solar energy is not always reliable,
because solar radiation varies and frequently changes, due to unpredictable nature
and dependence on weather and climate changes. Hence, generated energy does
not match with load demand all the time [2].
Photovoltaic power generation offers the benefits of clean, non-polluting power
generation, production of power close to the consumer with very little maintenance
requirement, and having an especially extensive life period [3].
Photovoltaic systems are used in every field where electricity is needed. Depending
on the application, PV systems are built up using accumulators, inverters, battery
chargers and various electronic backup circuits. In particular, PV systems have
become one of the renewable energy systems that have been integrated into
buildings, making it possible to attain zero (low) energy consumption buildings
[4].
Photovoltaic (PV) systems are composed of interconnected components designed
to accomplish specific goals, ranging from powering a small device to feeding
electricity into the main distribution grid. More specifically, PV devices convert
sunlight into DC electricity. Such energy is transferred to the load or to the utility
grid by means of a sub system [1]

1.1 Statement of Problem

Recent studies show that renewable energy has great potential and can be
used to fulfil world demand. However, solar radiation varies and frequently
changes due to unpredictable nature and dependence on weather and climate
change. Hence, generated energy does not match with load demand all the
time. Energy generated in PV systems depends mainly on solar energy
available at the site, geographical location, ambient temperature, clearance
index, tilt and orientation of PV panel are the main factors that affect solar
energy.
This has led to solar energy system not being 100% reliable. The high cost
of battery which is used to store the energy generated by the solar system is
also a factor.

1.2 Aims and Objectives

The aim of this work is to optimize photovoltaic system for Solar Home
System using 5Kva as a case study
Objectives of the work includes
i. Determining the type of charge controller to be deployed
 ii. Determining the best battery technology and battery arrangement
required for maximum output
iii. Deployment of the best load sharing formular and technique that
will enable adequate and maximum functionality of the system.
iv. Available photovoltaic software and simulation tools which can be
used to predict and analyze performance and expected operational
condition
v. Getting maximum sunlight intensity to the PV solar module

1.3 Scope of Study

This aims to give explanation on approaches done by previous researchers

in order to find ultimate combination for design parameters, modelling of
pv system components which includes PV panels, output power estimation
battery system, simulation software used as sizing tool and deployment of
charge controlling technology which aims at improving efficiency of the
system and the maximum output at the lowest possible cost.
(keyword: photovoltaic, optimum sizing, design, stand alone, renewable
energy)
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Photovoltaics

Photovoltaics (often shortened as PV) gets its name from the process of
converting light (photons) to electricity (voltage), which is called
the photovoltaic effect [5].

A photovoltaic module is a group of cells, wired in series. The electrical output

from a single cell is small; so multiple cells are connected in series and
encapsulated (usually behind glass) to form a module. PV modules are thus the
principle building blocks of a PV system, and any number of modules can be
connected to give the desired electrical output in a PV array or system. This
modular structure is a considerable advantage of PV systems, because new panels
can be added to an existing system as and when required.[6]
PV technology has several advantages some of which are producing energy by
using clean and endless sunlight energy, working over several years with minor
problems after installation as they do not require continuous maintenance, and
they are resistant to various weather conditions. Moreover, PV is a module
system thus it can be expanded and enlarged according to the increase in energy
needs. PV cells are made of sensitive semiconductor materials that use photons to
free electrons to drive an electric current. Two main categories of PV technology
are crystalline silicon (mono-crystalline silicon cells and polycrystalline silicon
cell), and thin film,
2.1 Types of Solar PV System

Solar PV systems can be classified based on the end-use application of the

technology. There are two main types of solar PV systems: grid-connected (or
grid-tied) and off-grid(or standalone) solar PV systems.
2.1.1 Grid-connected solar PV systems
The main application of solar PV in Nigeria is grid-connected, as Nigeria mains
is well covered by the national power grid. Most solar PV systems are installed
on buildings or mounted on the ground if land is not a constraint. For buildings,
they are either mounted on the roof or integrated into the building. The latter is
also known as Building Integrated Photovoltaics (“BIPV”). With BIPV, the PV
module usually displaces another building component, e.g. window glass or
roof/wall cladding, thereby serving a dual purpose and offsetting some costs.[7]

2.1.2 Off-grid solar PV systems

Off-grid solar PV systems are applicable for areas without power grid. Currently,
such solar PV systems are usually installed at isolated sites where the power grid
is far away, such as rural areas or off-shore islands. But they may also be
installed within the city in situations where it is inconvenient or too costly to tap
electricity from the power grid.
An off-grid solar PV system needs deep cycle rechargeable batteries such as lead-
acid, nickel-cadmium or lithium-ion batteries to store electricity for use under
conditions where there is little or no output from the solar PV system, such as
during the night.[7]
2.2 Factors Affecting the Performance of PV Systems

The outdoor performance of a PV module is influenced by many factors. Some of

these issues are related to the module itself and others are related to the location
and environment. Few of these major factors are: material degradation, solar
irradiance, module temperature, parasitic resistances, fill-factor, shading, soiling,
PID, tilt-angle etc.[8]

a. Degradation of PV Module
Manufacturers of solar PV systems usually guarantee the performance life of
25 years for the modules. As shown in Fig. 1, warranty curve typically promises
that the modules will generate at least 90% of rated capacity in the first 10 years
and around 80% in the next 10-15 years.
Solar PV panels usually degrade at a faster rate in the first few years of their
life. In general, rated power output of solar panels typically degrades at about
0.5%/year. Thin film PV modules (a-Si, CdTe and CIGS) degrade faster than
Si crystalline based modules.[9]
These degradation processes may be chemical, electrical, thermal or
mechanical in nature. Early degradation of PV modules may be due to design
flaws, poor quality materials or manufacturing issues. In most cases, module
failures and performance losses are due to gradual accumulated damages
resulting from long-term outdoor exposure in harsh environments. [8]
b. Variation in Solar Radiation
The performance of PV modules under varying light conditions will differ
significantly, which in turn has a severe impact on the yield of PV systems.
Variations in the intensity of solar radiation falling on a PV module affect many
of its parameters, including Isc, Voc, power, FF and efficiency [8]
c. Module Temperature
A PV cell, like any other semiconductor device, is very sensitive to temperature.
The efficiency and power output of a PV cell reduces with increase in its
temperature. This is mainly due to the increase in internal carrier recombination
rates caused by increased carrier concentrations. The temperature of a PV
module increases with increasing solar radiation and air temperature but
reduces with increasing wind speed. During summer noon time when the
irradiance is very strong, PV module temperatures may reach 60-65 ºC.
The impacts of temperature on current, voltage and power output of PV cell are
shown in Fig. 1. From the normalized values of current, voltage and power at
25oC, with increase in temperature, cell current increases slightly, but voltage
drops at larger rate, leading to the larger drop in the power output. If cell
temperature falls below 25oC, the current falls slightly but voltage and power
increases. In general, up to about 0.5% loss of efficiency per degree Celsius
increase in temperature is typical in silicon cells.[8]

Fig. 1. Impacts of temperature on a PV cell performance.[8]

The voltage Voc decreases by about 0.1 to 0.3 V for each degree K rise in
temperature and current Isc increases by about 2.3 to 4 mA/K. With increase in
 cell temperature, the reduction in voltage is much more than the corresponding
increase in current. The overall effect of this is a reduction in the power output
at a rate of about 0.4 to 0.5% per degree rise in temperature.
The level of impacts of temperature on PV modules will vary depending upon
the type of semiconductor used. To reduce the temperature related issues on PV
modules, the following aspects could be considered.
i. Keep sufficient gap between the modules and the roof (or ground) to
allow convective air flow to cool them.
ii. Ensure that panels and supporting structure are of light colored so that
heat absorption will be less.
iii. Use perforated base structure to increase cooling.
iv. Do not keep inverters below and close to the modules.
v. Use cooling fans
In a rooftop PV system mounted close to the roof floor, the module temperature
may reach about 150% of the ambient temperature, whereas in a properly
ventilated system, such as a pole mounted module, the rise in temperature will
be in the range of about 120%.[8]
d. Fill-Factor
The fill-factor of a PV cell is defined as the ratio of the maximum power to the
product of Voc & Isc. fill-factor can be represented as
Fill-Factor = vmax – Imax/voc - Ioc = area A/area B
Graphically, fill-factor is a measure of the squareness of the PV cell and is also
the area of the largest rectangle which will fit in the I-V curve. A good quality
PV module is expected to have fill-factor above 70%. A lesser fill-factor
indicates larger value of Rs or lesser value of Rsh, increased recombination
current in the space charge region and increased reverse saturation current of
 the junction Io, all these conditions representing increased losses. Increasing
cell temperature reduces the fill-factor [8]
e. Parasitic Resistances
The series and shunt resistances of a PV cell, called Parasitic Resistances,
results in increased I2R losses, which eventually results in reduced module
efficiency. The series resistor (Rs) represents the internal resistance of the PV
cell. It comprises of the resistance of metal contacts, fingers, impurities, and
resistance of the semiconductor itself. [10] The shunt resistor (Rsh) represents
the leakage resistance and is responsible for the leakage current.
For optimum performance of a PV module, Rs must be as low as possible and
Rsh must be as high as possible. The knowledge of these resistance values is
important for monitoring the quality and evaluating the performance of a PV
system. PV module data sheets usually do not provide the values of Rs and Rsh,
but they can be calculated. [9]
f. Shading
Shading results in mismatches in the generated currents of individual cells of a
module. Even partial shading on a single cell can significantly reduce the power
output of the entire module as if all the cells were shaded. A shaded cell
produces much less current than the unshaded ones. Since cells in a module are
connected in series, same current has to flow through all the cells. If more
current than the shaded capability is forced through a shaded cell, it will be
overheated and might be damaged.
A common solution to avoid hot-spot heating of PV cells due to shading is by
using Bypass Diodes. A bypass diode is connected across a sub-string of cells
in the module. During normal operation with uniform light falling on each cell,
the bypass diode will act as an open switch. However, when current mismatches
occur due to shading, the diode connected across the shaded sub-string will act
 as a closed switch and thus bypasses that sub-string. PV modules with 60 or 72
cells usually have 3 bypass diodes.
Another outcome of shading of PV cells is the distortion of the I-V and P-V
curves, shown in Fig. 2b. This results in inefficient operation of string inverter
MPPT controller.

Fig. 2a. Arrangement of bypass diodes in a PV module. Fig. 2b. Shaded array

In string inverters many series connected modules are treated as a single unit
(Fig. 3). The MPPT controller in these inverters is at the string level and it
responds to the least efficient module of the string. This will leave some
modules operating below their MPP, leading to loss of efficiency. The solution
to correct this issue is that the MPPT algorithm must take into account the entire
voltage range of the string in order to detect the presence of a global maximum
instead of local maximum. Inverters with this capability are known as the
Shade-Tolerant String Inverters.
A Micro-Inverter is another effective solution to reduce the negative impacts of
partial shading. In this scheme (Fig. 4), each module has its own inverter that is
connected in parallel to the common AC bus. Due to parallel connection,
mismatches in currents between different modules will not be an issue. Micro-
inverters are usually connected below each module. They feature the MPPT at
 the module level which increases array production by about 20%. However,
micro-inverters are more expensive than string inverters.

Fig.3. Arrangement of a String Inverter

Fig 4. Micro-Inverter.
g. Soiling
Soiling is the accumulation of dust, dirt, and other contaminants on a PV
module. It leads to the formation of a thin screen over a module and thus reduces
the light falling on one or many cells. Dust represents minute solid particles of
diameter less than 500 μm. Dust settlement depends on factors such as dust
properties (shape, size, weight), weather conditions (rain, humidity, snow),
location (coastal or dusty area), module tilt angle, surface finish and wind speed.
Permanent soiling can occur if humidity condensate sticks dust to the surface,
particularly at the bottom of a tilted module. Collection of dust and the growth
of lichens along the module frame produce partial shadings on the bottom row
cells and may damage the coating and seals.
 Soiling in PV system may result into an annual power loss of 5-17% or more.
At PMI-Noida premises (lati: 28.54o N, module tilt: 25o ), after an exposure
period of 2 weeks without cleaning, nearly 10% reduction in PV output was
noticed during April-May months. Impacts of dust will be higher near highways
and desert areas but will be less in areas with frequent rains. A rooftop PV
system experiences lesser soiling losses as compared to a ground mounted
system.
Smaller size dust such as engine exhaust, cement etc. results in larger
performance loss as against larger size dust. For the same dust type, finer
particles have greater impact than coarser particles. This is due to the greater
ability of finer particles to reduce the inter-particle gap and thus blocking the
light path more than that for larger particles.
Power losses due to soiling of PV modules can be greatly reduced by regular
cleaning. Many methods are available for PV cleaning. This include: manual
washing, cleaning robot, self-cleaning glass, electrostatic curtain etc. The
simplest among these is by regular wiping and cleaning with water. The
frequency of cleaning will vary depending up on the location, season and
module mounting. Soiling is a major factor for increasing O&M expense of PV
plants.[11]
h. Potential Induced Degradation
Potential Induced Degradation (PID) is a performance degradation mechanism
in PV systems due to stray currents, leading to gradual loss of power up to 30%
or more. PID generally occurs in PV systems with ungrounded inverters. There
are two issues with PID: i) loss of useful generated power and ii) degradation
of the front surface passivation, leading to increased recombination and cell
damages. PID occurs only a few years after installation of the PV system. In a
PV string with 15-20 modules connected in series to raise the DC voltage, some
 cells in the end-string modules will experience large potential difference (V)
with respect to the module frame, which is at ground potential. This V can
cause some electrons from the PV cells to go free and discharge through the
grounded frame, leading to leakage current flow through the encapsulate
(insulation) and glass. The outcome of PID is a drop in the shunt resistance Rsh
of a PV module, which will reduce the maximum power point and open circuit
voltage, leading to a reduction in the fill-factor and cell efficiency. The impact
of PID will be accelerated at higher temperatures and when the top glass
becomes wet and conductive during high humidity conditions.[12]

2.3 Advantages And Disadvantages Of Using Photovoltaic Systems

2.3.1 Advantages
I. Reliability-Even in harsh climates, photovoltaic systems have proven their
reliability. Often, photovoltaic systems are chosen for systems that must
remain operational at all times. Photovoltaic systems may prevent costly or
dangerous power failures in situation where continuous operation is
critical[13]
II. Low Maintenance Cost- It is expensive to transport materials and personnel
to remote areas for equipment maintenance. Since photovoltaic systems
require only periodic inspection and occasional maintenance, these costs are
usually less than with conventionally fuelled equipment alternatives.[13]
III. Scaleable and modular- From providing milliwatts to power a calculator
to acres of panels providing megawatts for grid connected supply on a
commercial building roof or field, solar power products can be deployed in
many sizes and configurations and can be installed quickly and almost
 anywhere in the world. As a distributed generation option, transmission and
distribution costs are reduced.
IV. Universal Applications- Solar PV is the only renewable energy technology
that can be installed on a truly global scale because of its versatility and
because it generates power under virtually all conditions, i.e. even in
overcast light conditions
V. Peak Shaving- The output of solar systems typically correlates with periods
of high electricity demand where air conditioning systems create peak
demands during hot sunny days. PV can shave peak-load demand, when
energy is most constrained and expensive and therefore can move the load
off the grid and alleviate the need to build new peak generating capacity.
VI. Reliability- With no fuel supply required and no moving parts, solar power
systems are among the most reliable electric power generators, capable of
powering the most sensitive applications, from space satellites to microwave
stations in the mountains and other remote harsh environments. Solar panels
typically carry warranties of 20 years or more.
VII. Dual use- Solar panels are expected to increasingly serve as both a power
generator and the skin of the building. Like architectural glass, solar panels
can be installed on the roofs or facades of residential and commercial
buildings.
VIII. Environmentally safe- Solar power systems produce no air or water
emissions or greenhouse gases and produce no noise. Solar systems are
generally far safer than other distributed energy systems, such as diesel
generators and as such are the most suitable technology for urban on-site
generation. PV is the only commercially available renewable technology
generation option for urban areas.[13]
2.3.2 Disadvantages

I. Cost- Photovoltaic systems have a high initial cost. Each installation must
be evaluated from an economic perspective and compared to existing
alternatives. If the initial cost of the photovoltaic systems decreases and the
cost of conventional fuel sources increases, photovoltaic systems will
become more economically competitive.
II. Variability of Available Solar Radiation- Weather can adversely affect the
power output of any PV system. If there is no sunshine there is no power.
III. Energy Storage- Some photovoltaic systems use batteries for storing
energy which will be used at a later time. The battery increases the system’s
size and cost can make the system more complex.
IV. Education- Photovoltaic systems use a new technology with which many
people are unfamiliar. Few people understand its applicability. This lack of
information slows market and technological growth.[13]

2.4 Solar Modules

The heart of a photovoltaic system is the solar module. Many photovoltaic cells
are wired together by the manufacturer to produce a solar module. When installed
at a site, solar modules are wired together in series to form strings. Strings of
modules are connected in parallel to form an array.
I. Module Types – Rigid flat framed modules are currently most common and
most of these are composed of silicon. Silicon cells have atomic structures
that are single-crystalline (a.k.a. mono-crystalline), poly-crystalline (a.k.a.
multi-crystalline) or amorphous (a.k.a. thin film silicon). Other cell
materials used in solar modules are cadmium telluride (CdTe, commonly
pronounced “CadTel”) and copper indium diselenide (CIS). Some modules
 are manufactured using combinations of these materials. An example is a
thin film of amorphous silicon deposited onto a substrate of single-
crystalline silicon.[14]
In 2005 approximately 90 percent of modules sold in the United States were
composed of crystalline silicon, either single-crystalline or poly-crystalline.
The market share of crystalline silicon is down from previous years,
however, and continues to drop as sales of amorphous silicon, CdTe and CIS
modules are growing.
II. Building Integrated Photovoltaic Products – PV technology has been
integrated into roofing tiles, flexible roofing shingles, roofing membranes,
adhesive laminates for metal standing-seam roofs, windows, and other
building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) products. BIPV modules are
generally more expensive than rigid flat modules, but are anticipated to
eventually reduce overall costs of a PV system because of their dual purpose.
[14]
III. Rated Power – Grid-connected residential PV systems use modules with
rated power output ranging from 100-300 watts. Modules as small as 10
watts are used for other applications. Rated power is the maximum power
the panel can produce with 1,000 watts of sunlight per square meter at a
module temperature of 25oC or 77oF in still air. Actual conditions will rarely
match rated conditions and so actual power output will almost always be
less.
IV. PV System Voltage – Modern systems without batteries are typically wired
to provide from 235V to 600V. In battery-based systems, the trend is also
toward use of higher array voltages, although many charge controllers still
require lower voltages of 12V, 24V or 48V to match the voltage of the
battery string.
 V. Using Manufacturer’s Product Information to Compare Modules –
Since module costs and efficiencies continue to change as technology and
manufacturing methods improve, it is difficult to provide general
recommendations that will be true into the future regarding, for example,
which type of module is cheapest or the best overall choice. It is best to make
comparisons based on current information provided by manufacturers,
combined with the specific requirements of your application.
Two figures that are useful in comparing modules are the modules’ price per
watt and the rated power output per area (or efficiency). When looking
through a manufacturer’s catalog of solar modules, you will often find the
rated power, the overall dimensions of the module, and its price. Find the
cost per watt by dividing the module’s price by its rated output in watts. Find
the watts per area, by dividing its rated output by its area.
VI. Module Cost per Watt – As a general rule, thin film modules have lower
costs than crystalline silicon modules for modules of similar powers.
VII. Module Efficiency (Watts per Area) – Modules with higher efficiency will
have a higher ratio of watts to area. The higher the efficiency, the smaller
the area (i.e. fewer modules) will be required to achieve the same power
output of an array. Installation and racking costs will be less with more
efficient modules, but this must be weighed against the higher cost of the
modules. Amorphous silicon, thin film CdTe and CIS modules have rated
efficiencies that are lower than crystalline silicon modules, but
improvements in efficiency continue.
VIII. Amorphous Silicon in Cloudy Climates – Of importance to the Pacific
Northwest, amorphous silicon modules have higher efficiency than
crystalline silicon under overcast conditions. In cloudy weather, all types of
amorphous silicon modules tend to perform better than crystalline silicon,
 with multi-junction (i.e. double- and triple-junction) amorphous silicon
modules performing as much as 15 percent better. In Britain, which has a
similar climate to ours, multi-junction amorphous silicon modules have been
shown to produce more power over the course of the year than crystalline
silicon modules.
Note that because the power ratings of modules are determined under high
light, their rated efficiency (or rated watts per area), will not reflect
performance in overcast weather.
IX. Poly-crystalline or Single-crystalline Silicon? – The power output of
single-crystalline and poly-crystalline modules of the same area is quite
similar. Both types of crystalline silicon are very durable and have stable
power output over time. Therefore, do not be too concerned about the
distinction between single-crystalline and poly-crystalline silicon in
selecting a module.
On the other hand, higher module efficiencies can be achieved by some
combination products that have recently appeared on the market, such as
amorphous silicon deposited on a single-crystalline substrate. These high
efficiency modules may be a good choice particularly if the area available
for the installation is limited.
X. Silicon Modules versus Other Module Types? – The power output of
CdTe modules has been less stable than silicon modules,6 although
improvements are being made. For the time being, as for modules of any
type, check manufacturer’s warranties. A warranty guaranteeing high power
output over 20 to 25 years is an indication of the longevity of the cell
material.
XI. Warranty – It is important to verify warranty periods of all components of
the system, including solar modules. Most modules are very durable, long
lasting and can withstand
Either single-crystalline or poly-crystalline modules may have a higher output for
the same size module, depending on how the manufacturer lays out the cells.
Single-crystalline silicon cells have a higher efficiency (i.e. higher power output
for a given cell area) compared to poly-crystalline. But this refers to the efficiency
of the material not the module, and does not account for lost area due to the spaces
between cells. Single-crystalline cells can be more difficult to lay out compactly
on a module because it is most typically manufactured in circular sections. So
while the poly-crystalline material itself is less efficient, it often is more compactly
laid out on a module.
Amorphous silicon suffers an initial decline in power, but its power output
stabilizes and long term losses are low. Manufacturers of amorphous silicon
modules account for the initial loss in their power ratings and so this does not
represent a long term stability problem.
severe weather, including extreme heat, cold and hailstorms. Reflecting this
longevity, most silicon modules carry 20- or 25-year manufacturer warranties.

2.5 Array Mounting Racks

Arrays are most commonly mounted on roofs or on steel poles set in concrete. In
certain applications, they may be mounted at ground level or on building walls.
Solar modules can also be mounted to serve as part or all of a shade structure such
as a patio cover. On roof-mounted systems, the PV array is typically mounted on
fixed racks, parallel to the roof for aesthetic reasons and stood off several inches
above the roof surface to allow airflow that will keep them as cool as practical.
 I. Adjustability – The tilt of sloped rooftop arrays is usually not changed,
since this is inconvenient in many cases and sometimes dangerous.
However, many mounting racks are adjustable, allowing resetting of the
angle of the PV modules seasonally.
II. Tracking – Pole-mounted PV arrays can incorporate tracking devices that
allow the array to automatically follow the sun. Tracked PV arrays can
increase the system’s daily energy output by 25 percent to 40 percent.
Despite the increased power output, tracking systems usually are not
justified by the increased cost and complexity of the system.
III. General Installation Notes – Proper roof mounting can be labor intensive,
depending largely on the type of roof and how the mounting brackets are
installed and sealed. It is best to follow the recommendations of the roofing
contractor, racking system suppliers and module manufacturers. Module
manufacturers will provide details of support requirements for their
modules. A good racking supplier will provide code-compliant engineering
specifications with their product. As a general rule for bidding purposes,
however, it is typical to have one support bracket for every 100 watts of PV
modules.
Particular attention must be given to securing the array directly to the
structural members of the roof and to weather sealing of roof penetrations.
All details regarding attaching the mounting brackets to the roof and sealing
around them are best approved and carried out by the roofing contractor so
that the roof warranty will not be voided.[14]
IV. Asphalt Composition Roofs – For asphalt composition roofs, all mounts
need to be secured to the roof with stainless steel lag bolts, bolted into the
rafters. Mount types include support posts and L-brackets. Support posts are
preferred because they are designed to give a good seal on boots. Support
 posts are best mounted after the roof decking is applied and before the roof
material is installed. Support posts and roof jacks may be installed by either
the roofing contractor or the crew in charge of laying out the array mounting
system. The roofing contractor then flashes around the posts as they install
the roof. It is very common to install mounts after the roof is installed,
drilling through the asphalt composition roofing to install the bolts. Sealant
is then applied around the bolts without flashing. As well, the top layer of
roofing should be carefully lifted back to inject sealant under the roofing.
While this is much less labor intensive than when flashed, unless performed
by the roofing contractor, this method may void the warranty on the roof.
V. Metal Roofs – There are several types of standing seam metal roof products,
including vertical seam, horizontal seam and delta seam products. Currently,
special clamps, referred to as S-5 clamps, are available to attach arrays
without any penetrations to vertical and horizontal seam roofs and certain
other standing seam roof profiles. These clamps make installation of the
solar array a relatively easy matter compared to any other roof type. In
contrast, clamps for delta seam metal roofs are not available. For these roofs,
it is necessary to cut into the roofing, install boots around the mounting
posts, and then seal the penetration. This being undesirable and labor
intensive, it is best to clearly specify in advance a vertical or horizontal seam
metal roof or other roof type compatible with S-5 clamps.
VI. Other Roof Types – While it is possible to install a PV array on shake, tile
and slate roofs, these roof types pose certain problems. Contact the racking
system supplier for information on products and installation methods for
these roof types. Work directly with the roofing contractor before ordering
the racking system. Also look for roof integrated modules that can be used
with tile or slate roofs.
VII. Roof Vents and Fans – We suggest installing roof vents, plumbing vents,
and fans on the north side of the roof to avoid interference with the solar
array. This will also reduce the potential for inadvertent shading of the array.
VIII. Grounding Equipment
Grounding equipment provides a well-defined, low-resistance path from
your system to the ground to protect your system from current surges from
lightning strikes or equipment malfunctions. Grounding also stabilizes
voltages and provides a common reference point. The grounding harness is
usually located on the roof.
IX. Check with the AHJ – Grounding can be a particularly problematic issue.
Be sure to check with the Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ) – typically
the building department’s electrical inspector – concerning local code
requirements.
X. Equipment Grounding – Equipment grounding provides protection from
shock caused by a ground fault. A ground fault occurs when a current-
carrying conductor comes into contact with the frame or chassis of an
appliance or electrical box. All system components and any exposed metal,
including equipment boxes, receptacles, appliance frames and PV mounting
equipment, should be grounded.
XI. system Grounding – System grounding requires taking one conductor from
a two-wire system and connecting it to ground. In a DC system, this means
bonding the negative conductor to ground at one single point in the system.
This must be accomplished inside the inverter, not at the PV array.
XII. NEC 2005 and System Grounding – In 2005, the National Electrical Code
(NEC) was modified to remove the requirement for system grounding,
although your local jurisdiction may not have adopted this revision. The
requirement for system grounding was removed to permit transformerless
 utility-interactive inverters, which have higher efficiency. There are several
additional NEC requirements intended to ensure that ungrounded arrays are
as safe as grounded arrays, although this is still a point of controversy[14]

2.6 Batteries

A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external

connections for powering electrical devices such as flashlights, mobile phones,
and electric cars. When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal
is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked negative
is the source of electrons that will flow through an external electric circuit to the
positive terminal. When a battery is connected to an external electric load,
a redox reaction converts high-energy reactants to lower-energy products, and
the free-energy difference is delivered to the external circuit as electrical
energy. Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed
of multiple cells, however the usage has evolved to include devices composed of a
single cell.

Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded, as

the electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge; a common
example is the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable
electronic devices. Secondary (rechargeable) batteries can be discharged and
recharged multiple times using an applied electric current; the original composition
of the electrodes can be restored by reverse current. Examples include the lead-
acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable
electronics such as laptops and mobile phones.

Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to
power hearing aids and wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smartphones, to
large lead acid batteries or lithium-ion batteries in vehicles, and at the largest
extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby or emergency
power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.

Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than
common fuels such as gasoline. In automobiles, this is somewhat offset by the
higher efficiency of electric motors in converting electrical energy to mechanical
work, compared to combustion engines.

2.6.1 Principle of operation

Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. In many cases, the
electrical energy released is the difference in the cohesive or bond energies of the
metals, oxides, or molecules undergoing the electrochemical reaction. For
instance, energy can be stored in Zn or Li, which are high-energy metals because
they are not stabilized by d-electron bonding, unlike transition metals. Batteries are
designed such that the energetically favorable redox reaction can occur only if
electrons move through the external part of the circuit.

A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two half-
cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing metal cations. One
half-cell includes electrolyte and the negative electrode, the electrode to
which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell includes
electrolyte and the positive electrode, to which cations (positively charged ions)
migrate. Cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while metal
atoms are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode. Some cells use different
electrolytes for each half-cell; then a separator is used to prevent mixing of the
electrolytes while allowing ions to flow between half-cells to complete the
electrical circuit.
Each half-cell has an electromotive force (emf, measured in volts) relative to
a standard. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-
cells. Thus, if the electrodes have emfs and then the net emf is in other words, the
net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.

The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as

the terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of
a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and
equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a
cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and
the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An
ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal
voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts
and produce a charge of one coulomb, then on complete discharge it would have
performed 1.5 joules of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases
under discharge and the open-circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the
voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a
curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal
arrangement employed.

The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of
the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–
carbon cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5
volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but
approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. The high electrochemical potential
changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or
more.
2.6.2 Categories and types of batteries
Batteries are classified into primary and secondary forms:

 Primary batteries are designed to be used until exhausted of energy then

discarded. Their chemical reactions are generally not reversible, so they cannot
be recharged. When the supply of reactants in the battery is exhausted, the
battery stops producing current and is useless.
 Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical
reactions reversed by applying electric current to the cell. This regenerates the
original chemical reactants, so they can be used, recharged, and used again
multiple times.

Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were
restored to operation by replacing the electrodes.[24] Secondary batteries are not
indefinitely rechargeable due to dissipation of the active materials, loss of
electrolyte and internal corrosion.

a) Primary

Primary batteries, or primary cells, can produce current immediately on assembly.

These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low current drain, are
used only intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source,
such as in alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only
intermittently available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged,
since the chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not
return to their original forms. Battery manufacturers recommend against
attempting to recharge primary cells In general, these have higher energy
densities than rechargeable batteries, but disposable batteries do not fare well
under high-drain applications with loads under 75 ohms (75 Ω). Common types of
disposable batteries include zinc–carbon batteries and alkaline batteries.

b) Secondary

Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or rechargeable batteries, must

be charged before first use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the
discharged state. Rechargeable batteries are (re)charged by applying electric
current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during discharge/use.
Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers.

The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead–acid battery, which are widely
used in automotive and boating applications. This technology contains liquid
electrolyte in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and
the area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas it produces
during overcharging. The lead–acid battery is relatively heavy for the amount of
electrical energy it can supply. Its low manufacturing cost and its high surge
current levels make it common where its capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is
more important than weight and handling issues. A common application is the
modern car battery, which can, in general, deliver a peak current of 450 amperes.

The sealed valve regulated lead–acid battery (VRLA battery) is popular in the
automotive industry as a replacement for the lead–acid wet cell. The VRLA battery
uses an immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte, reducing the chance of leakage and
extending shelf life. VRLA batteries immobilize the electrolyte. The two types are:

 Gel batteries (or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte.

 Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special
fiberglass matting.
Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell" types, that
are useful in applications such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of
this type (in order of increasing power density and cost) include nickel–
cadmium (NiCd), nickel–zinc (NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-
ion (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by far the highest share of the dry cell rechargeable
market. NiMH has replaced NiCd in most applications due to its higher capacity,
but NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way radios, and medical equipment.

In the 2000s, developments include batteries with embedded electronics such

as USBCELL, which allows charging an AA battery through
a USB connector, nanoball batteries that allow for a discharge rate about 100x
greater than current batteries, and smart battery packs with state-of-charge
monitors and battery protection circuits that prevent damage on over-
discharge. Low self-discharge (LSD) allows secondary cells to be charged prior to
shipping.

2.6.3 Cell types

Many types of electrochemical cells have been produced, with varying chemical
processes and designs, including galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, fuel cells, flow
cells and voltaic piles.

i. Wet cell

A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Other names are flooded cell, since the
liquid covers all internal parts or vented cell, since gases produced during operation
can escape to the air. Wet cells were a precursor to dry cells and are commonly
used as a learning tool for electrochemistry. They can be built with common
laboratory supplies, such as beakers, for demonstrations of how electrochemical
cells work. A particular type of wet cell known as a concentration cell is important
in understanding corrosion. Wet cells may be primary cells (non-rechargeable)
or secondary cells (rechargeable). Originally, all practical primary batteries such
as the Daniell cell were built as open-top glass jar wet cells. Other primary wet
cells are the Leclanche cell, Grove cell, Bunsen cell, Chromic acid cell, Clark cell,
and Weston cell. The Leclanche cell chemistry was adapted to the first dry cells.
Wet cells are still used in automobile batteries and in industry for standby power
for switchgear, telecommunication or large uninterruptible power supplies, but in
many places batteries with gel cells have been used instead. These applications
commonly use lead–acid or nickel–cadmium cells.

ii. Dry cell

A dry cell uses a paste electrolyte, with only enough moisture to allow current to
flow. Unlike a wet cell, a dry cell can operate in any orientation without spilling,
as it contains no free liquid, making it suitable for portable equipment. By
comparison, the first wet cells were typically fragile glass containers with lead rods
hanging from the open top and needed careful handling to avoid spillage. Lead–
acid batteries did not achieve the safety and portability of the dry cell until the
development of the gel battery.

A common dry cell is the zinc–carbon battery, sometimes called the dry Leclanché
cell, with a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same as the alkaline battery (since
both use the same zinc–manganese dioxide combination). A standard dry cell
comprises a zinc anode, usually in the form of a cylindrical pot, with
a carbon cathode in the form of a central rod. The electrolyte is ammonium
chloride in the form of a paste next to the zinc anode. The remaining space between
the electrolyte and carbon cathode is taken up by a second paste consisting of
ammonium chloride and manganese dioxide, the latter acting as a depolariser. In
some designs, the ammonium chloride is replaced by zinc chloride.
 iii. Molten salt

Molten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt as
electrolyte. They operate at high temperatures and must be well insulated to retain
heat.

iv. Reserve

A reserve battery can be stored unassembled (unactivated and supplying no power)

for a long period (perhaps years). When the battery is needed, then it is assembled
(e.g., by adding electrolyte); once assembled, the battery is charged and ready to
work. For example, a battery for an electronic artillery fuze might be activated by
the impact of firing a gun. The acceleration breaks a capsule of electrolyte that
activates the battery and powers the fuze's circuits. Reserve batteries are usually
designed for a short service life (seconds or minutes) after long storage (years).
A water-activated battery for oceanographic instruments or military applications
becomes activated on immersion in water.

2.6.4 Cell performance

A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over
lifetime due to many factors including internal chemistry, current drain, and
temperature. At low temperatures, a battery cannot deliver as much power. As
such, in cold climates, some car owners install battery warmers, which are small
electric heating pads that keep the car battery warm.

2.7 Inverter

Inverters take care of four basic tasks of power conditioning:

• Converting the DC power coming from the PV modules or battery bank to AC
power
• Ensuring that the frequency of the AC cycles is 50 cycles per second
• Reducing voltage fluctuations
• Ensuring that the shape of the AC wave is appropriate for the application, i.e. a
pure sine wave for grid-connected systems

i. Power Quality
Inverters for grid-connected systems produce better than utility-quality power.
For grid-connection, the inverter must have the words “Utility-Interactive”
printed directly on the listing label.

ii. Voltage Input

The inverter’s DC voltage input window must match the nominal voltage of the
solar array, usually 235V to 600V for systems without batteries and 12, 24 or 48
volts for battery-based systems.

iii. AC Power Output

Solar Home systems are sized according to the power output of the PV array,
rather than the load requirements of the building. This is because any power
requirements above what a grid-connected PV system can provide is
automatically drawn from the grid.

iv. Surge Capacity

The starting surge of equipment such as motors is not a consideration in sizing
grid-connected inverters. When starting, a motor may draw as much as seven
times its rated wattage. For grid-connected systems, this start-up surge is
automatically drawn from the grid.

v. Frequency and Voltage Regulation

Better quality inverters will produce near constant output voltage and frequency.

vi. Efficiency
Modern inverters commonly used in residential and small commercial systems
have peak efficiencies of 92 percent to 94 percent, as rated by their
manufacturers. Actual field conditions usually result in overall efficiencies of
about 88 percent to 92 percent. Inverters for battery-based systems have slightly
lower efficiencies.

vii. Integral Safety Disconnects

The AC disconnect in most inverter models may not meet requirements of the
electric utility (see section “Disconnects”). Therefore, a separate exterior AC
disconnect may be required even if one is included in the inverter. All inverters
that are UL listed for grid-connection include both DC disconnects (PV input)
and AC disconnects (inverter output). In better inverters, the inverter section can
be removed separately from the DC and AC disconnects, facilitating repair.

viii. Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

Modern non-battery based inverters include maximum power point tracking.
MPPT automatically adjusts system voltage such that the PV array operates at its
maximum power point. For battery-based systems, this feature has recently been
incorporated into better charge controllers.
ix. Inverter-Chargers
For battery-based systems, inverters are available with a factory integrated charge
controller, referred to as inverter-chargers. Be sure to select an inverter-charger
that is rated for grid-connection, however. In the event of a grid power outage,
use of an inverter-charger that is not set up for grid-connection would result in
overcharging and damaging the batteries, known as “cooking the batteries.”

x. Automatic Load Shedding

For battery-based systems, the inverter can automatically shed any unnecessary
loads in the event of a utility power outage. Solar loads, i.e. the loads that will be
kept powered up during the outage, are connected to a separate electrical sub-
panel. A battery-based system must be designed to power these critical loads.

xi. Warranty
Inverters typically carry warranties of 5 years, although the industry is moving
toward a 10-year warranty. The transformer and solid state components of an
inverter are both susceptible to overheating and damage from power spikes,
reducing its life. Transformerless inverters, long available in Europe, are
beginning to move into the U.S. market.

2.7.1 To Consider When Researching Inverters

Many references on sizing and selecting inverters have been developed for off-
grid systems, but may not clearly state that they are specific to off-grid systems.
Sizing and selecting grid-connected inverters entails different considerations and
is easier, since the system does not have to provide 100 percent of the energy
requirements. In particular, peak energy demand and surge capacity do not need
to be considered for grid-connected systems.

2.8 Charge Controller

A charge controller, sometimes referred to as a photovoltaic controller or battery

charger, is only necessary in systems with battery back-up. The primary function
of a charge controller is to prevent overcharging of the batteries. Most also
include a lowvoltage disconnect that prevents over-discharging batteries. In
addition, charge controllers prevent charge from draining back to solar modules
at night. Some modern charge controllers incorporate maximum power point
tracking, which optimizes the PV array’s output, increasing the energy it
produces.

2.8.1 Types of Charge Controllers

There are essentially two types of controllers: shunt and series. A shunt controller
bypasses current around fully charged batteries and through a power transistor or
resistance heater where excess power is converted into heat. Shunt controllers are
simple and inexpensive, but are only designed for very small systems.
Series controllers stop the flow of current by opening the circuit between the
battery and the PV array. Series controllers may be single-stage or pulse type.
Single-stage controllers are small and inexpensive and have a greater load-
handling capacity than shunt-type controllers. Pulse controllers and a type of
shunt controller referred to as a multi-stage controller (e.g., three-stage
controller) have routines that optimize battery charging rates to extend battery
life.
Most charge controllers are now three-stage controllers. These chargers have
dramatically improved battery life.

2.8.2 Selection of Charge controller

Charge controllers are selected based on:
• PV array voltage – The controller’s DC voltage input must match the nominal
voltage of the solar array.
• PV array current – The controller must be sized to handle the maximum current
produced by the PV array.

a Interaction with Inverter

Since the majority of charge controllers have been installed in off-grid systems,
their default settings may not be appropriate for a grid-connected system. The
charge controller must be set up such that it does not interfere with the proper
operation of the inverter. In particular, the controller must be set up such that
charging the batteries from the PV array takes precedence over charging from the
grid.

b Interaction with Batteries

The charge controller must be selected to deliver the charging current appropriate
for the type of batteries used in the system. For example, on a 12V system,
flooded lead-acid batteries have a voltage of 14.6V to 15.0V when fully charged,
while sealed lead-acid batteries are fully charged at 14.1 V.