An overview of the solar energy

By shehab saad 201701257

 What is solar energy?
Solar energy is generated by nuclear reactions within the body of the sun.
This energy reaches the surface of the earth in the form of electromagnetic
radiation. The composition of this radiation as it travels through space
towards the earth is around 56% infrared, 36% visible radiation and 7%
ultraviolet with the remainder belonging to regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum outside the energy ranges covered by these three.[1]

 How much of it reaches our earth surface to collect?

The Sun is an extremely powerful energy source, and sunlight is by far
the largest source of energy received by Earth, but its intensity at
Earth’s surface is actually quite low. This is essentially because of the
enormous radial spreading of radiation from the distant Sun. A
relatively minor additional loss is due to Earth’s atmosphere and clouds,
which absorb or scatter as much as 54 percent of the incoming sunlight.
The sunlight that reaches the ground consists of nearly 50 percent
visible light, 45 percent infrared radiation, and smaller amounts of
ultraviolet and other forms of electromagnetic radiation.[2]
The sunlight that reaches the earth’s surface is of two types, direct
radiation and diffuse radiation. The latter is the result of various
scattering and absorption processes that take place as the sunlight
passes through the atmosphere. Vegetation is able to absorb both
types of radiation, and so can solar cells. However, a solar thermal plant
requires direct radiation to operate effectively. This limits the
applicability of this technology to regions where there is low average
annual cloud cover. With no cloud cover, and whatever the location,
between 80% and 90% of the sunlight reaching the surface will be
direct radiation.

 How the collected energy is expressed?

The mean annual solar energy resource is frequently expressed as the
amount of radiant energy received on a given surface area per unit time
(kWh/m2/day).[3]

 What are the Renewable energy standards?

A renewable energy standard (RES) requires utility companies to source
a certain amount of the energy they generate or sell from renewable
sources such as wind and solar. There are many variants to an RES
policy, including clean energy standards (which allow nuclear and low-
polluting non-renewable energy sources like natural gas) and
renewable goals (which are non-binding). They are sometimes also
called renewable portfolio standards (RPS).[4]

 Utility-scale solar power plant

A utility-scale solar power plant can utilize several solar technologies –
primary photovoltaics (PV) or concentrating solar power (CSP). What
distinguishes utility-scale solar from distributed generation is both
project size and the fact that the electricity is sold to wholesale utility
buyers, not end-use consumers. Utility-scale solar plants provide the
benefit of fixed-priced electricity during peak demand periods when
electricity from fossil fuels is the most expensive.[4]
  What are the reliable technologies?
The idea to convert solar energy into other forms, and especially into
electricity, has been of vital importance among the scientists and
engineers, and today we have two major options for solar energy based
on the conversion chains. These are:
1.
Passive solar technologies involve the accumulation of solar energy
without transforming thermal or light energy into any other form. This
is mostly used, for instance, for collecting, storing, and distributing solar
energy for heating purposes.
2.
Active solar technologies collect solar radiant energy and use special
equipment to convert it into other forms of energy, e.g., heat or
electricity. These technologies can be further grouped into two major
categories:
2.1.
Solar thermal technology that collects and concentrates solar energy by
special devices and further converts it into electricity through other
forms, and
2.2.
Photovoltaic technology that enables the direct conversion of solar
energy using semiconductor devices.[5]
  Some quick facts:
 There are more than 37,000 megawatts (MW) of utility-scale solar
projects currently operating, with another 112,000 MW under
development.
 Utility-scale solar can be paired with energy storage to manage
evening energy ramps, provide backup power, and more.
 Of the utility-scale solar contracts signed in 2018, only 11% were
under a mandated renewable portfolio standard, while more than
80% of projects were signed under voluntary procurement by a
utility or corporate off-taker. (Source: U.S. Solar Market Insight
Report) [4]

 Could this energy be stored for later use?

Solar energy can also be stored in electrochemical batteries. When
solar energy is pumped into a battery, a chemical reaction among the
battery components stores the energy. The reaction is reversed when
the battery is discharged, allowing current to exit the battery. Lithium-
ion batteries are most commonly used in solar applications, and new
battery technology is expanding rapidly, which promises to yield
cheaper, more scalable battery storage solutions. In fact, U.S. energy
storage is expected to reach nearly 7.5 GW annually by 2025, a sixfold
growth from 2020, representing a market worth $7.3 billion.[6]
  What are the basic components of the system?
• Solar panels
• Electrical connections between solar panels
• Output power lines
• Power inverter (Converts DC electricity to AC electricity)
• Mechanical mounting equipment
• Charge controller
• Wiring
• Batteries for energy storage
• Electrical meter (for grid-connected systems)
• Overcurrent and surge protection devices
• Power processing equipment
• Grounding equipment
Utilities may use more advanced systems for generating substantial quantities of
electricity such as:
• Single axis or double axis tilting systems
• Automatic cooling and cleaning systems
• Fuel cell, battery or other type of power storage systems
• Transmission lines [8].

 What are the advantages?

1. No pollution associated with it.
2. It must last for a long time.
3. No maintenance cost

 And the disadvantages?

4. It has high cost of installation.
5. It has low efficiency.
6. During cloudy day, the energy cannot be produced and also at night we
will not get solar energy.[9]
  How the system is integrated as a unit?
Multiple solar cells in an integrated group, all oriented in one plane, constitute a
solar photovoltaic panel or module. Photovoltaic modules often have a sheet of
glass on the sun-facing side, allowing light to pass while protecting the
semiconductor wafers. Solar cells are usually connected in series creating
additive voltage. Connecting cells in parallel yields a higher current.

 What are the applications utilizing solar cells?

Solaí Faíms
Many acíes of PV panels can píovide utility-scale poweí—fíom tens of megawatts to
moíe than a gigawatt of electíicity. ľhese laíge systems, using fixed oí sun-tíacking
panels, feed poweí into municipal oí íegional gíids.

Remote Locations
It is not always cost-effective, convenient, oí even possible to extend poweí lines to
locations wheíe electíicity is needed. PV can be the solution—foí íuíal homes, villages
in developing nations, lighthouses, offshoíe oil platfoíms, desalination plants, and
íemote health clinics.

Stand-Alone Poweí
In uíban oí íemote aíeas, PV can poweí stand-alone devices, tools, and meteís. PV can
meet the need foí electíicity foí paíking meteís, tempoíaíy tíaffic signs, emeígency
phones, íadio tíansmitteís, wateí iííigation pumps, stíeam-flow gauges, íemote guaíd
posts, lighting foí íoadways, and moíe.

Poweí in Space
Fíom the beginning, PV has been a píimaíy poweí souíce foí Eaíth-oíbiting satellites.
High-efficiency PV has supplied poweí foí ventuíes such as the Inteínational Space
Station and suíface íoveís on the Moon and Maís, and it will continue to be an integíal
paít of space and planetaíy exploíation.

Building-Related Needs
In buildings, PV panels mounted on íoofs oí gíound can supply electíicity. PV mateíial
can also be integíated into a building’s stíuctuíe as windows, íoof tiles, oí cladding to
seíve a dual puípose. In addition, awnings and paíking stíuctuíes can be coveíed with
PV to píovide shading and poweí.
Militaíy Uses
Lightweight, flexible thin-film PV can seíve applications in which poítability oí íuggedness
aíe cíitical. Soldieís can caííy lightweight PV foí chaíging electíonic equipment in the field
oí at íemote bases.

ľíanspoítation
PV can píovide auxiliaíy poweí foí vehicles such as caís and boats. Automobile
suníoofs can include PV foí onboaíd poweí needs oí tíickle-chaíging batteíies.
Lightweight PV can also confoím to the shape of aiíplane wings to help poweí high-
altitude aiícíaft.[10]

 Solar energy in Egypt

Egypt belongs to the global sun-belt. The country is in
advantageous position with solar energy. In 1991 solar atlas
for Egypt was issued indicating that the country enjoys 2900-
3200 hours of sunshine annually with annual direct normal
energy density 1970-3200 kWh/m2 and technical solar-
thermal electricity generating potential of 73.6 Peta watt hour
(PWh).
Egypt was among the first countries to utilize solar energy. In
1910, a practical industrial scale solar system engine was built at
Maadi south to Cairo using solar thermal parabolic collectors. The
engine was used to produce steam which drove a series of large
water pumps for irrigation. Nowadays utilization of solar energy
includes use of photovoltaic cells, solar water heating and solar
thermal power. Use of solar thermal technology may include both
electricity generation and water desalination, which is
advantageous for Egypt taking in consideration its shortage in
water supply.[7]
References
1- Paul Breeze, in Power Generation Technologies (Third Edition),

2019 2- bitannica

3- Paul Denholm, ... Mark Mehos, in Generating Electricity in a Carbon-Constrained World,

2010 4- solar energy industries association

5- Nikolay Belyakov, in Sustainable Power Generation, 2019

6- aurora

7- Comsan, M N.H. Solar Energy Perspectives in Egypt

8- fuel cell store

9- electrical4U

10- NREL transforming ENERGY