DIFFERENTIATION AND ITS APPLICATION

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

NOVEMBER, 2012
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Front page

Certification

Dedication

Acknowledgment

Table of content

Abstract

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Scope of the study and limitation

Purpose of the study

Significance of the study

Literature review

CHAPTER TWO

Fundamental of calculus

Functions of a single variable and their graphs

Graph of a function

The rate of change of a function

Limits and continuity

Theory on limits

Infinite limits and limits at infinity Continuity

CHAPTER THREE
Differentiation

Differentiation as a limit of rate of change of elementary function

Gradient (straight line and curve)

Differentiation as a limit of rate of change of a function

Rules for differentiation

Differentiation of trigonometric function

Differentiation of a function of a function

Differentiation of implicit function

Differentiation of logarithmic, exponential and parametric function

CHAPTER FOUR

Application of differentiation

The tangent and normal to a curve

Maxima and minima point

Cure sketching

Point of inflexion

Summary and conclusion

References.
 ABSTRACT

This research is mainly on one aspect of calculus called differentiation and

its application.
 CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

From the beginning of time man has been interested in the rate at which

physical and non physical things change. Astronomers, physicists, chemists,

engineers, business enterprises and industries strive to have accurate values

of these parameters that change with time.

The mathematician therefore devotes his time to understudy the concepts

of rate of change. Rate of change gave birth to an aspect of calculus know as

DIFFERENTIATION. There is another subject known as

INTEGRATION.

Integration And Differentiation in broad sense together form subject called

CALCULUS

Hence in a bid to give this research project an excellent work, which is

of great utilitarian value to the students in science and social science, the

research project is divided into four chapters, with each of these chapters

broken up into sub units.

Chapter one contains the introduction, scope of study, purpose of study,

review of related literature and limitation.

Chapter two dwells on the fundamental of calculus which has to do with

functions of single real variable and their graph, limits and continuity.
 Chapter three deals properly with differentiation which also include

gradient of a line and a curve, gradient function also called the derived

function.

Chapter four contains the application of differentiation, summary and

conclusion

1.2 Scope Of The Study And Limitation

This research work will give a vivid look at differentiation and its

application.

It will state the fundamental of calculus, it shall also deal with limit

and continuity.

For this work to be effectively done, there is need for the available of

time, important related text book and financial aspect cannot be left out.

1.3 Purpose Of The Study

The purpose of this project is to introduce the operational principles of

differentiation in calculus. Also to analyse many problems that have long

be considered by mathematicians and scientists.

1.4 Significance Of The Study

The significance of this study cannot be over emphasized especially in

this modern era where everything in the entire world is changing with

respect to time, because the rate of change is an integral part of operation in

science and technology, hence there is need to ascertain the origin of

calculus and its application.

Finally, the goal of this work is to review the application of

differentiation in calculus.

1.5 LITERATURE REVIEW

Calculus, historically known as infinitesimal calculus, is a mathematical

discipline focused on limits, functions, derivations, integrals and infinite

series.

Ideas leading up to the notion of function, derivatives and integral were

developed through out the 17th century but the decisive step was made by

Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz.

Ancient Greek Precursors (Forerunners) Of The Calculus

Greek mathematicians are credited with a significant use of infinitesimals.

Democritus is the first person recorded to consider seriously the division

of objects into an infinite number of cross-sections, but his inability to

rationalize discrete cross-section with a cone’s smooth slope prevented him

from accepting the idea, at approximately the same time.

Zeno of Elea discredited infinitesimals further by his articulation of the

paradoxes which they create.

 Antiphon and later Eudoxus are generally creadited with

implementing the method of exhaustion which implementing the method of

exhaustion which made it possible to compute the area and volume of

regions and solids by breaking them up into an into an infinite number of

recognizable shapes.

Archimedes of Syracuse developed this method further, while also

inventing heuristic method which resemble modern day concept some what.

It was not until the time of Newton that these methods were incorporated

into a general framework of integral calculus.

It should not be thought that infinitesimals were put on a rigorous

footing during this time, however.

Only when it was supplemented by a proper geometric proof would Greek

mathematicians accept a proposition as true.

Pioneers of modern calculus

In the 17th century, European mathematicians Isaac barrow, Rene

Descartes, Pierre deferment the idea of a deferment.

Blaise Pascal, john Wallis and others discussed the idea of a

derivative. In particular, in method sad disquirendam maximum et minima

and in De tangetibus linearism Curvarum, Fermat developed an adequality

method for determining maxima, minima and tangents to various curves

that was equivalent to differentiation.

Isaac Newton would latter write that his own early ideas about

calculus came directly from formats way of drawing tangents

On the integral side cavalieri developed his method of in divisibles in

the 1630s and 40s, providing a modern form of the ancient Greek method of

exhaustion and computing cavalierr’s quadrate formula, the area under the

curves Xn of higher degree, which had previously only been computed for

the parabola by Archimedes.

Torricili extended this work to other curves such as cycloid and then

the formula was generalized to fractional and negative powers by Wallis in

1656.

In an 1659 treatise, fermat is credited with an ingenious trick for

evaluating the integral of any power function directly.

Fermat also obtained a technique for finding the centers of gravity of various

plane and solid figures, which influenced further work in quadrature.

James Gregory influenced by fermat’s contributions both to tangency

and to quadrature, was then able to prove a restricted version on the second

fundamental theorem of calculus in the mid -17th century. The first full

proof of fundamental theorem of calculus was given by Isaac barrow.

 Newton and Leibniz building on this work independently developed

the surrounding theory of infinitesimal calculus in the late 17 century.

Also, leibniz did a great deal of work with developing consistent and

useful notation and concepts.

Newton provided some of the most important applications to physics,

especially of integral calculus.

Before Newton and Leibniz the word “calculus” was a general term

used to refer to any body of mathematics, but in the following years,

“calculus”. Became a popular term for a field of mathematics based upon

their insight.

The work of both Newton and Leibniz is reflected in the notation used

today.

Newton introduced he notation f for the derivative of function f.

Leibniz introduced the symbol for the integral and wrote the

derivative of a function y of the variable x as both of which are still in

use today
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 FUNDAMENTALS OF CALCULUS

2.1 FUNCTIONS OF SINGLE VARIABLE AND THEIR GRAPHS

Functions are essential ingredients in the study of calculus. Their absence

means an incomplete study of this branch of mathematics which is more or

less the care of many aspects of mathematics.

Calculus by its basis is the notion of correspondence for example, the

surface area (A) of a sphere relates to its radius by the formula

A= 4πr2

The sphere volume (V) of a given mass of gas is related to the pressure (P)

of the gas. V=

These example give us an idea what a function is. Conclusion from

them could imply that if the value of one quantity, say y depends on the

value of another quantity, say x, then for every value of x there corresponds

one and only the value one of y.

On this basis we say that y is a function of x. thus, A is a function of r

and V is a function of p as above.

Though, the same element of y may correspond to different element of

x. for example, two different books may have the same number of pages.
Definition 2.0: A function f from a set x to a set y is a correspondence that

assigns to each element x of X a unique element y of y.

The set of values of X is called the domain of the function. The

element y is called the image X under f and is denoted by f (x). the range of

the function consists of all images of elements of X.

We can represent these explanations by means of diagram.

y

a
ab r
bc m
cd y
d k

Domain Range

Values of f at each of the points indicated ( or the images under f ) cam be

obtained by more evaluation

Example2.1 f (x)= x3 +4x-3

F (2)= 23 + 4 (2) -3
=8+8-3
=16-3
=13

F(-3) =(-3)3+4(-3)-3
=-27-12-3
=-42
F (c) = c3+4 (c) -3
=c3+ 4c-3
Definition 2.1 .A function f is said to be defined at x or f(x) exists if x is in

the domain. Put differently, a function is defined for a certain value b of x,

if a definite value of f (b) corresponds to the value of x.

On the other hand, f is undefined at x if x is not in the domain of f or

at a given value of x the function is meaningless, since division by zero is

not a valid operation.

Example2.2 : for what value of x is the function y = 5x-5 defined? What is

the domain and co- domain?

Solution: y=5x-5 is defined for every value of x since for every value of x,

we obtain one value for y.

The domain are the real numbers and the co-domain is the set of all

the real numbers.

Y or f depends on the value of x hence the domain is called the

DEPENDENT VARIABLE while

X is called the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE.

DEFINITION2.2 a function f form x to y is one to one function.

(injective)

Example2.3 : determine if the function f is one to one if : (i) f (x)

=2x+9, (ii) f(x) =3x2 at x = 3 and 4 for (i) and at x=-2 and 2 for (ii)
 Solution: (i) if a≠ b then with a =3 and b = 4 we have 2.3+9 ≠ 2.4+9

or 15≠17 hence f is a one to one function

(ii) if a≠ b in x then with a = -2 and b =2 we have 3 (-2) 2 = 3(2)2 or f

(-2) = f(2)

Therefore 12 =12 or f(-2) =f (2)

By this f is not a one to one function

Definition 2.3 :

(a) If f is a function from x to x or if f (x) =x for every x, that is every

element x maps into itself then f is an identity function on x. For example

F (x) =x

f(i)=1 etc

(b) A function f is a constant function it there is a fixed element b such that

f(x)=b for every x in the domain. for example f (x) = 1 x

2.2 GRAPH OF A FUNCTION

This aspect of calculus deals with the sketching of graph of a function.

The tread in this topic is to make a table of values for a specified range of x

to obtain values f (x). From this we can plot the pair of points by choosing a

suitable scale

Example2.4 sketch the graph of f if

Solution: the table below list some points x, f(x) in the graph.
X ½ 1 3 4 5

o 1 3
F (x)

Plotting the points yield

y

F (x) =

x
1 
 ,0 
2 

Definition 2.4

(i) A function f is a polynomial function if f (x)= a n xn + an -1 xn-1

…….+ a1x +a0

Where the coefficient ao, a1, a2,………an are real numbers and the exponents are

non negative integer polynomial of degree 3 is given below.

F (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx+d. a 0

F(x) = anxn n R

Where a, b, c and d are constant and R is a set of real numbers.

If n = 0

F (x) = a0
If n = 5

F (x)=a5x5+ a4x4 + a3 x3+ a2 x2+a1x +a0

(ii) A rational function is a quotient function of two polynomials.

below is given a rational functions

f (x) =

Where 2x2 + 3x + 1and 5x3 + 6x+7 and polynomials

(iii) a function f that can be expressed in terms of sums, differences,

product, quotients or root of polynomial function is known as an

algebraic function.

An algebraic function is given below

f(x)= 1+4x2 +

(iv) An explicit function is a function written in such a way that the

variable y is on the left hand side alone such as y = 4x – 7,

, y = 6x2 + 2x+ 9 e.t.c.

However there is one exception where the variables x and y are

not given separately. Thus, a function this form is said to be implicitly

defined if neither x nor y is expressed as an explicit function of the other.

2.3 THE RATE OF CHANGE OF A FUNCTION

(GRADIENT OF A FUNCTION )

In this section we shall endeavor to investigate and observe what

happens, when a function changes along its curve and observe the average

rate of change.

This average rate of change could equally be considered as the

gradient or the slope of that function.

Thus, given a function y=x, we observe that as x is changing y is equally

changing.

In this light, the rate of change of a given function could be

measured in between two points by taking the average rate of change.

Consequently, it x, and x2 are two points in x and y 1 and y2 in y, then

the rate of change is the ratio of the increase in y to that of x hence

Rate of change =

Example 2.5 find an expression for the average rate of change of the

function

(i) y=3x+4

(ii) y=2x2 within the interval x1 and x2 in x.

 Solution. By the formula obtained above for the average rate of change

of a function, the average rate of y=3x+4 is

for y =2x2 we have

By this expression we can obtain different values at different

intervals.

2.4 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

2.4.1 LIMITS

In this section we only intend to give definition that will lead us into limits

properly.

Definition 2.5

Assume f(x) is a function defined on an open interval containing

c but not necessarily at c itself and let L be a real number. We say that the

limit as x approaches c of f(x) is written as

Lim f (x) = L

x c
If when ever x get close to c from either side with x c, f (x) gets close to

L. By this definition above, we say that whichever way we approach the

number c in f(x), the answer is the same. If this happens we say the limit

exist else it doesn’t

Example 2.6 calculate f(x)

Solution : if we substitute x=-2, the

f(-2) =

Which is an undefined expression.

We can derive this algebraically as follows:

x+4 = -2+4 =2

Example 2.7

Calculate

Solution by rationalizing the numerator

2.4.2 THEOREMS ON LIMITS

1) let P(x) be polynomial

P(x) = p(c)

2) Let a be any real number and supposed that lim f(x) exist then

af(x) = a f(x)

3) If f(x) and g(x) both exist, then

[f(x) + g(x)] exist and
lim [f(x) + g(x)]= lim f(x) + lim g(x)
x c x c x c

4. lim f(x) .g(x) = lim f(x) . lim g(x)

x c x c x c

5.

Example 2.8 (on theorems on limits)

(1) calculate lim 4
x 3
solution lim 4 = 4 by theorem 1
x 3
ii) calculate lim 5(x2+3x)
x 2
solution lim 5(x2+3x) = 5im x2+3x
x 2 x 2
=5(x +3(2))
2

=5(4+6)
=5(10)
=50

iii) calculate lim 6x3 +4x– 7x2

x -2
solution lim 6x3 +4x – 7x2 = lim 6x3 + lim4x – lim 7x
x -2 x -2 x -2 x -2
 iv) Calculate lim (3x2-6) (2+3 x 4)
x 0

solution lim
x 0

Calculate

Solution

2.4.3 INFINITE LIMITS AND LIMITS AT INFINITY

Definition 2.6

If a function f(x) grows without limit in the positive direction as x get

close the number c, from either side, then we say that f(x) tends to infinity

as x approaches c and we write

Example 2.9 find

Solution: solving the above problem a table is needed hence the table of

from x near 0 from both sides.

X x

1 1 1 -1 -1 -1

0.5 2 16 -0.5 -2 -16

0.1 10 10000 -0.1 -10 -10000

0.01 100 1000000000 -0.01 -100 -1000000000

0.001 1000 1000000000000 -0.001 -1000 -1000000000000

Table 2.1
y

F(x)=,1/x4, x<0
limx 0- F(x) =1/ x4 ,x>0 lim x 0+

Obviously, as x get closer and closer to zero f(x)= gets larger and larger.

This indicate that grows without bound (limit) as x approaches zerox

from the either side.

Hence

Definition 2.7
 If a function f(x) grows without limit (bound) in the negative direction

as x gets close to the number from either side, then we say f(x) tends to

minus infinity as x approaches c as we write.

Example 2.1.0 calculate

Solution: from table 2.1 in example (1.9) it shows that as x gets closer to

zero (from either side), f(x) = grows without bound in the negative

direction. Hence we say tends to minus infinity as x tends to zero.

Y =-1/x4, x<0 Y= -1/x4,x>0

Definition 2.8(a): suppose f is a function that is defined on an open interval

(r, s) and L be a real number the statement

Means that for every

If

By this definition if we say that the limit of f(x) as x

approaches c from the right is L. here L is referred to as the right hand limit

of f(x) as x approaches c.

Definition 2.8 (b)

Suppose f is a function that is defined on an open interval (s, r) and let

L be a real number.

The statement

Implies that for every

Here the means that the limit of f(x) as x approaches c from the

left is L or L is the left hand limit of f(x) as x approaches c.

The right or left-hand limit are sometimes referred to as one sided

limits.
L

Example 2.1.1

Find xlim

5
5 x

Solutions using one-sided limit theorem.

Note that there is no right-hand since is not a real number if x>5 i.e

Example 2.1.2.

Find the

Solution:

Using the one-sided limit theorem

 is negative and the cube root of a negative number is real.

= 0 hence

Hence the left-hand limit exist and is zero.

Also for x > 1, is positive and so its limit exist and is zero

Finally the limit

Hence

Example 2.1.3 find

Solution: if x > 4 the = and f(x)

Therefore: lim

If x > 4 the =

Therefore

If x <4 the and

Therefore lim =lim

x

Since the right-hand and left limits are unequal, it limit from the definition

of right and left limits that does not exist

Example 2.1.4: by means of a formal computation of the

Solution

radian Sin Sin

1 0.8414709 0.841470

0.5 0.4794255 0.958851

0.1 0.0998334 0.998334

0.01 0.0099998 0.99998

0.001 0.0009999 0.9999988

Obviously it seems the quotient approach 1 as

Hence

This limit cannot be calculated by more substitution since is undefined

at 0

Now

But as 0, 4 0, so that
2.4.4 CONTINUITY

In this aspect we shall endeavour to look at some elementary

knowledge of continuity. This will be accomplished through some few

definitions.

We will start by saying that a function is continuous at a point if it is

defined at that point.

The followings indicate continuous and discontinuous functions

continuous at a.

We may interpret continuous function of as that, a small change in x

produces only a small change in the functional value f(x)

However, if F is defined at a and limit f(x) exist then this limit may or may

not equal f(a), .

by this if then f is said to be continuous at a as indicated in

this definition below:

Definition 2.9

A function f(x) is continuous at a number a if the three conditions

below are satisfied

(i) F is defined on an open interval containing a or f(a) exist

(ii) exist

(iii)

This above condition show the importance of continuity

Definition 2.1.0
A function is said to be discontinuous at c if it is not continuous or if

one or more of the 3(three) conditions in 2.9 fails to hold.

By this f is discontinuous at c if:

(i) f(c) does not exist or

(ii) exist but is not equal to f(c) or

(iii) does not exist

Example 2.1.5

Show that the function

is continuous at 4. for f(x) to be continuous at a, it

must satisfy the three conditions in the above definition. Thus

Hence f(x) is continuous

Example 2.1.6 find all numbers for which

is continuous.

Solution f(x) is continuous if:

(i) f(x) is defined

(ii) exist

(iii)

is defined for all values of x except at x = -1 and x = 3/2 take this

for values of a=0, -1/2, 3, 4…

Hence f(x) is continuous for all numbers x except x=-1

Example 2.1.7: for what value of x is

In continuous?

Solution: At x=9 we have implying that the function is not defined.

But for values of f(x) is defined.

That is for values of f(x) is continuous.

Definition 2.1.1. A function is defined on a close interval [a, b], if it is

continuous on [a,b] and if also

By the above definition we say that f is continuous from right at a or from

left at b respectively

Definition 2.1.2: A function f is said to have a removable discontinuity at c

if exist and is finite but either f is not defined at c or

Example 2.1.8 consider f(x) =

Solution

Therefore it is obvious that the above function despite it equals two (2), f is

discontinuous at 1 (one) since f(x) is not defined thus condition (1) failed.

This shows an example of a removable discontinuity, that is the point that

makes it discontinuous can be removed in the following way:

Suppose we consider the continuous g(x):

Here g(x) = f(x) = x+1. Hence the function is continuous for all real x and

g(x) for .

However, if we find g(1) the evaluation of

, the function g(x) will be discontinued at 1.

Thus to remove the discontinuity as explained above we have to look

for a function that is equal to g(x) that is continuous at the point where g(x)

is discontinuous.

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 DIFFERENTIATION

3.1 Differentiation as a limit of rate of change of elementary function

In this section we shall discuss about the gradient of a line and a

curve, gradient function also called the derived function and finally, the

main topic differentiation as a limit of rate of change of elementary function.

3.2 Gradient: Straight line and curve

As we rightly said in the study of rate of change of a function, the

gradient of a line is measured by taking the ratio of the increase in Y and the

increase in x in moving from one point to another on the line. Such that if
(x1, y1,) and (x2, y2,) are two point on a line, the gradient is then taken as

(x2, y2)

(x, y)

Infact the gradient of a line can be seen as the slope of that line. That is, the

rising or falling of the line. It is quite easy to find the gradient or slope of a

straight line since this will always remain constant all along the line. This is

always equal to the tangent of the angle made with the positive direction of

the x-axis the gradient of a straight line is always equal to tan

p

Q N

,
Curve

However, this task is not quite easy in a curve, since the curve changes

direction at each point. This difficulty brings us to the idea of a tangent

line, which has been a problem of the great Greek Scientist Archimedes

287-212) B.C. The problem has been that of finding a unique tangent line (if

one exist) to a given curve a given point on the curve.

Examples of typical tangent line at different points are shown below.

Diagram

One might ask, what has tangent line got to do with gradient? Infact, the

gradient at a point on curve is the gradient of the tangent line at that point.

As a result of this difficulty, we develop a means of finding a gradient

function which will be for a particular curve.

 The gradient function is a function is a function from which we can

find the gradient at any given point.

The means is in line with the study of limits.

Suppose we want to find the gradient of a function f(x) = x 2 at the point 2.

when x = 2, y = x2 = 4

We can approach this by finding it act a point N(2, 4) where x=2 i.e

the gradiant of the tangent at that point, then we take another pointy R(3, 9)

the gradient point of the curve drawing

Next we let R assume a new position closer to N and calculate the gradient

then. We will observe that the approximation will get better until R is. Very

close to N and it will be clear that the gradient approaches the value 4.

This process of allowing R get close N is known as the limiting

process and we say that as R tends to N the gradient of NR

approaches the limiting value of 4 hence we say the gradient of the tangent

at N is this value 4.

However, a general method of finding the gradient function as

follows:

Suppose we want to find the gradient function of Y=x 3 at the point

N(x, x3). Next take another point R with x-coordinate an increase

in x. thus the ordinate of R will have a corresponding increase y and so its y

– coordinate y+

Now at N, Y=x3 and at R.

The gradient of NR=

As R→ N, . The limiting value will be 3x2 for meaningfulness, we

rewrite the limiting value of (read dee y/dee x) and thus obtain

This limiting value of was due to the work of Leibnitz.

We shall at times use f 1(x) to denote . Thus the gradient function

of y = f(x) is is the limiting value of as x →0.

Note, any letter or symbol can be used for the increment in X and Y as such

one should not be surprise when letters or symbols such as are

used.
 Also this method of finding the gradient function from which the

gradient at a point is obtained is known as the 1 st principle of finding the

gradient.

Example 3.1:

Find the gradient function of 2x2.

Solution: let y = 2x2

Take a point N coordinate (x, y) i.e. (x, 2x 2) on the curve, next take

another point R whose X coordinate is then y- coordinate of R 2(x+ x)2.

corresponding increase in y2 is y+ y

Gradient of the curve NR=

3.3 differentiation as a limit of rate of change of a function

The procedure for finding or f1(x) as explained above is called differentiation.

Often at times, we call it the derivation of y with respect to x or the differential

coefficient. The measures the way or how often a given function changes. Hence

we say it measures the rate of the change of the function y when viewed with x.

Thus when we say the rate of change of 3x2 is 6x. we mean the gradient of the tangent or

the derivative of 3x2 is 6x.

Example 3.2: find the rate of change of y = 4x 2 and the gradient of the tangent to the

curve y = 4x2 at the point 2.

Solution:

In terms of

Hence the gradient of the tangent at the point is f1(2) = 8.2= 16

Example 3.3: find the derivative of y = 3x2. from the first principle.

Solution: y = 3x2 …………………….. (1)

With as increments in x and y respectively.

Subtract (i) from (ii)

Example 3.4
Find the derivative of f(x) = sin x
Solution: let y = sinx.
Take as an increment in x and y respectively.
Then:

We now apply the trigonometrical formula:

3.4 RULES OF
DIFFERENTIATION
In this section we shall
endeavour to look at the
various rules each with
examples.
Rule 1: The derivative of
a constant is zero.
For clearness, we use the
idea of limits. Let y = c,
we wish to show that
f (x) = 0 since any value of f is C it follows that C + x = C for all x
1

Hence
Rule 2:
The power Rule. If n is a +ve integer then derivative of xn is nxn-1
Example 3.5: Find the derivative of 5x2

Solution: let

Example 3.6 find if y = 7x4

Thus if y = axn
=naxn-1

By this, we have the theorem.

Theorem: the derivation of this sum or difference of two or more

functions is equal to the derivative of the individual function and their sums

or differences taken afterwards.

Example 3.7

Find f(x)1 if f(x) = 10x2 + 9x-4

Solution

Rule 3: The Product Rule

The product rule for differentiations of x, then the derivative of y with

respect to x is done by taking the derivative of s while keeping t constant

plus the derivatives of t while s is kept constant.

The t is;
 Y = st ………………….(i)

Take as increment is s and t respectively thus producing a change in y

Then:

Example 3.8:

Differentiate

g(x) = (x3-7) (2x2+3)

let g(x) = (x3-7) (2x2+3)

When compared with the rule above, hence product rule.

Theorem: If n is positive integer then the derivative of x-n is –nx-n-1

Example 3.9: differentiate

(i) y = (3s)-4
 Solution y = (3s)-4

Example 3.1.0 Differentiate

3.5 Differentiation of Trigonometric Function

In this section we shall be looking at some of the trigonometric

function such as tanx and Cosec x which can be obtained by taking the

inverse of sinx or cosx or a quotient of cosx and sinx as the case may be.

Using the quotient rule.

Hence;
3.6 Differentiation of a function of a function (The Chain Rule)

When y is expressed as a function of another function such as in the case

In this cases (i) y is the fifth power of the function x3+1: (ii) y is a cube of

the function x +1 and y is the sine of the function x3.

In all we name a function of a function.

 Now suppose y = f(t) is a function of t and t = g(x) is a function of x.

then, is the rate of change t with respect to x. while is

the rate of change of y with respect to t.

Then to find the rate of change of y with respect to x we use:

Example 3.1.1:

Let t = 4x-7 and let y = 6t2 + 5t find

Solution:

This general rule for differentiating a function of a function is also called the chain rule.

Example 3.1.2

If

Solution let:
Example 3.3.1: Differentiate y = sinx3

Solution let u= x3 and y = sin u

3.7 Differentiation of implicit Function

A function is said to be implicitly defined if neither x nor y is expressed as an explicit

function of the other. However, examples include

Thus given any of these functions we may be asked to find

Example 3.1.4: suppose x2 + x3= y + y4 and we want to find .

By chain rule,
Thus differentiate both sides with respect to x

Thus the above method of finding is known as implicit differentiation.

Example 3.1.5

Differentiate implicitly the function

find (i) (ii)

solution (i) differentiating implicitly with respect to x

Square both sides

Differentiating implicitly w r t y
Example 3.1.6: find if 2x+y+sinx+y = 2

Solution

Noting that

Now differentiating the function implicitly

Example 3.1.7

Differentiate y = sec x + tan x

Solution
3.8 Differentiation of Logarithmic, Exponential and Parametric Functions

3.81 Parametric function

Parametric functions occure when functions in both x and y are given as functions

of another variable often called parameter. When such case arises the gradient is given in

terms of the variable parameter.

Example 3.1.8

Find in terms of the parameter when

Y = t2, x=t3

Example 3.1.9

If x = t3 + t and y = 2t2, find in terms of t and show that if =1, x= 2 or

when t = 1/3
Solution:

Then

if t = 1, x = 2,

Example 3.2.0 : find in terms of t when

Solution
Example 3.2.1

The position of a projectile referred to horizontal and vertical axes is given by x = 8t and

y = 40t – 16t2 after time t sec. Find at what times the projectile is moving (i) parallel to

the horizontal (ii) at an angle of 450 to the horizontal.

y dy
0
dx

x
 (i) The projectile will move horizontally when = 0. when the gradient = 0

hence 0=5-4t, thus at time t =

(ii) It will move at an angle of 450 hence when the slope is tan 450 and

at time t

3.82 The Differentiation of Logarithmic Functions

At b = 10, and if we take values of x near zero we observe that the function

grows fast in the negative direction while for large positive values of x it grows very

slow.
y
This is truly shown for

Y  log bx

x
To find its derivative, we observe that none of the above methods works

and so one go to the first principle

Suppose then we have log

Evaluating logb is equivalent to evaluating

For n = 100, 1000, 100000, we observe approaches 2.7182 such that

 As

=2.71828

This number is very important in all higher mathematics and is often denoted by the

symbol e. thus for the moment,

e=

Such that the derivative of is by this, for any given value to b we see

that e is constant hence if b = e the

Example 3.2.2

Find if

(i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)

Solution: (i)

Using the function of a function differentiation process.

Let U= 2x y= logU
(ii)

Let U=sin2x, y= logeU

(iii)

Differentiae implicitly wrt x

(iv)

Let U= , y=logeU
3.83: The Differentiation of Exponential Functions.

This is the inverse of the logarithmic functions and so if y=ex, then x =

logy. The graph of y =ex takes following form:

y=ex
(0,1)
To find its derivative hence y =ex, take the log of both sides: logey = logeex

logey=x i.e x = logey

Differentiating wrt y,

By this the derivatives of ex is ex

Example 3.3.2

Find if

(i) (ii) (iii)

Solution:

(i)

Let u= 3x, y =eu

(ii)

Using product rule

(iii)

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0: APPLICATION OF DIFFERENTIATION

In this chapter we shall be looking at the area such as: the tangent and

normal to a curve, the stationary values of simple functions. Also in this

chapter we shall consider the minima, maxima and points of inflection and

finally look at curve sketching.

4.1: The tangent and normal to a curve

We have already defined the gradient of the tangent to the curve y= f(x) at

point x as f1(x) or i.e f 1(x) = by this definition

The gradient of the tangent at a particular point a on the x – axis is f 1(a).

hence the equation of the tangent to the curve at the point (x 1,y1) can be

obtained as:

= f1(a)

Y2-y1 =f 1(a) (x2-x1)

Similarly, the normal to the curve at the point (x 1,y1) is the line that is

perpendicular to the tangent to the curve at this points.

Similarly the product of the gradient of the tangent and normal to the curve

is always -1. Hence if that of the tangent is , then the normal will
 Be -

Targent
curve

Targent

Example 4.1

Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve y=x 3- 3x2+2 at the

point (1,0)

Solution

For the tangent

i.e f1(y) = =3x2-6x and at (1,0)

=3(12)-6(1)=3-6=-3

at (1,0)=-3

Therefore the equation at this point (1,0) using

y–y1=f1 (x1) (x-x1)

y-0=-3 (x-1)
y= -3x+3

= -3x +3

i.e the equation of the tangent y = -3x+3

Since the gradient of the tangent to the curve is -3 then, that of the normal is

1/3 hence –(1/3) since (-3.1/3)=1.

Then its equation is

y-0 = 1/3 (x - 1)

y = 1/3x – 1/3

3y=x-1

:. The equation of the normal 3y = x-1

Example 4.2

Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve y = 2x3+3x2-2x-3 at

the point (1,0)

Solution

For the tangent

= 6x2 +6x-2

And at (1,0)

= 6(12)+6(1)-2=12-2=10

:. at (1,0)=10
Therefore the equation at this point (1,0) using

y-y1=f1(x) (x-x1)

y-0= 10 (x-1)

y=10x-10

:. The equation of the tangent y = 10x-10

Since the gradient of the tangent to the curve is 10 then, that of the normal is

-1/10 because:

Gradient of normal =

Then the equation is then gotten as follows:

y-0=-1/10 (x-1)

y= -1x/10 +1/10

10y=-x+1

:. The equation of the normal 10y =-x+1 hence 10y+x=1

4.2 MAXIMA AND MINIMA POINT

Gradient
+ve R.gradient
-ve x
At the point N, the tangent is parallel to the x axis. At this point, the gradient

of the tangent is zero implying that the gradient function is zero. Here the

points N is called the maximum point. The value of y at this point is the

maxima of y, though it is not the highest point on the curve. It is the largest.

But the gradient at point R is also zero since there the tangent is parallel to

the x- axis. Obviously the value of Y at R is less than the immediate points

though it is not the least of all values of y.

Such a point is called a MINIMUM POINT. Thus the value of point Y at

this point is called the minimum value of y.

One can observantly accept the facts that points near N and are between T

and N has positive gradients on the curve. While points to the right of N and

between N and R have negative gradients. By this, one says that at

maximum points, the gradient changes from positive to negative while from

negative to positive minima points.

Maximum and minimum points are also called turning points or stationary

points.

Shown below is a point where the gradient is zero.

 Bending of curve from
r.h.s of the line to the l.h.s. From L.h.s. to r.h.s. Point of inflexion

(a)
(b)

At this point the gradient does not change sign or turn, hence it is not a

turning point. We can see that in (a) is positive before and after zero and

so it is in (b) except it is negative before and after zero. Such a point is

called point of inflexion.

To find the stationary or turning points and to distinguish them we state

below the following procedures:

(i) Find

(ii) Investigate how changes

(iii) Set it to zero so as to find value (s) of x.

 (a) At maximum point, with =0, the value of the gradient (dy/dx)

changes from positive to negative, as increases through that point.

(b) A minimum point with gradient (dy/dx) changes from negative to

positive.

Example 4.3

Find the maximum and minimum values of

Y = x(x-1)2

Solution

Y=x(x-1)2

= x.2(x-1)+(x-1)2 .1

=2x2-2x +x2-2x+1

=3x2- 4x+1

= 3x2 -4x+1

( )= = 6x-4

=0

:. 32 – 4x+1 =0

(3x=1) (x-1) =0

X=1/3 or x=1
 x = 1/3, =6x-4

=6(1/ 3) – 4

= 2– 4

= -2

x = 1, =6x-4

=6(1) – 4

= 6– 4

=2

:. The maximum value is -2 and the minimum value is 2

Example 4.4

Find the nature of the turning point of the function

Y= 202+30x

Solution

Y= 40x+30x

=0, 10 (x-1) (x-3)=0

:. X=1 or 3
 =20x – 40

x = 1,=20x-40

=20 (1) -40

= 20-40

-20 which given the maximum value for y

x = 3, = 20x-40

=20(3)- 40

=60-40=-20 which gives the minimum value for y

Example 4.5

A herdsman has a 2000 metres of fence which he wishes to fence off a rectangular plot

along the bank of a river. What are the dimesion of the maximum area he can enclose?

Solution

X X
Suppose the herdsman wants to construct his own rectangular plot away from the bank of
Y
the river.

In this case he will use the four sides of a rectangular

Thus:

2x+2y
Then how large an area can be enclose in this case or how can he maximize this piece of

land can be approached thus:

Area (a) =xy

Perimeter = 2x+2y=2000

Divide through by 2 I have

X+y = 1000

Y=1000 –x

Substitute y =1000-x into the area (a) = xy

Thus x (1000-x) =xy

A = 1000x-x2

= 1000 – 2x

= 0, 1000-2x =0

X=

= -2 as such, a maximum area is achieve

When x=y =500 and the area is 250000 metres.

Example 4.6

The volume of a cylinder closed at both end is 27cm3. find its maximum surface area

Solution :

V=27cm3

h
27 h

= h_________(1)

Total surface area = …………….. (2) substitute (1) into (2)

A=

Since we are looking for maximum area

At turnin point

0=-
Maximum surface are (area max ) = 50.28cm2

Example 4.7

The sum of two number is 36. find their maximum product.

Solution let the two numbers be x and y

Their sum: x+y=36_____(1)

Y=36-x_____(11)

Area = xy

But x +y =36

:. x (36-x)=36x-x2

To find the maximum value of xy

 = 36-2x

But =0

0=36-2x

2x=36

X=18

When x = 18

=-2<0

So that a is maximum when x=18

And y =36-18

=18

:. xy =18X18=324

x+y 18+18 =36

:.their maximum product is 324

4.3 Curve Sketching

It is of important to first of all know the necessary steps to follow if one is to

sketch any curve hence the following step are:

(i) Calculate the derivative and see where curve is increasing and

decreasing. Find all point at which f1=0 or f1 does not exist.

(ii) Find the maximum and minimum point by using first or second derivative

test.
 (iii) Calculate the derivative and determine where the curve is concave up

and concave down i.e

(iv) Find all points of inflexion

(v) Determine the y- interception and if possible x- intercept i.e at x = 0 and at y

=0

(vi) Examine the behaviour of the function for large positive and negative values

of X ….+

(vii) Determine if the curve is symmetrical

It is symmetrical about the y – axis if only even powers of X are involved in the

equation and about the X-axis if only even powers of y are there.

Example 4.8 : Find the points on inflexion, if any, on the graph of the function:

For point of inflexion, with change of

Sign : . 2x-1 =0 : . x = ½

If there is a point of inflexion, it occurs at x = ½

 Test for change of sign. If we take a point less than

X = ½ say ½ - a and a point greater than x = ½ say ½ + a, where a is a small positive

quantity, and investigating the sign of at these two

Values of x

There is a change in sign of as we go

Point of
max inflexion
6

min
4

2
 X

-1 0 1 2 3

Looking at the sketched graph of the above function one observers that the point of

inflexion where the right-hand curve change to the left-hand curve.

4.4 POINT OF INFLEXION

This point on the curve equally pictures what happens when the curve changes direction.

Thus.

there is a maximum value.

there is minimum value of inflexion.

If and changes sign, there is a point of inflexion

By means of an example we shall be able to find point of inflexion on given

curve.

Example 4.9

Find the position of the point of inflexion of the curve

Solution
And changes sign, thus:

When x = -1/3 , y has a maximum value of 46/27

When x = 2, y has a minimum value of -11

The point if inflexion is at point

(-1/3, 46/27), (2,-11).

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Calculus has been an important aspect of Mathematics that the

significance of its study cannot be over-emphasized.

 This aspect of mathematics is divided into two part:

DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION.

However our emphasis is on differentiation.

Most companies, private organization and factories mobilize their

staff to produce one goods or the other with respect to time. So this aspect of

calculus called differentiation serves as a very good method use in maximing

production and the distribution of raw and finished goods as at when needed.

In conclusion, this aspect of calculus (differentiation) is a needed

factor that must be in mind in the course of any production.

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Frank Ayres Jr. et al: Schaum’s outlines fifth edition (2009) The McGraw-Hill

publishing Companies USA

George B Thomas Jr. et al: Calculus and Analytic Geometry 9 th edition 1998

Addison-Wesley publishing company USA

Harper et al : The calculus with Analytical Geometry fifth edition 1986 Harper and

Row publishers. New York

Mary W. Gray: Calculus with finite mathematics 1972 Addison-Wesley Publishing

company London

Murray R Epiegel : Schaum’s Outline 1971 Advance Mathematic for Engineers

and Scientist. Mc Graw-Hill, New York

Raymond A. Barnett et al: Applied Calculus 3rd edition 1987, Dellen Publishing

company San Francisco California

Stroud K.A. et al : Engineering Mathematics sixth Edition 2007 Published by:

Palgrave Macmillan.