14.

1 System Aspects of Antennas 661

where η0 = 377 , the wave impedance of free-space. Note that the magnetic field vector
is also polarized only in the transverse directions. The Poynting vector for this wave is
given by (1.90) as

S̄ = Ē × H̄ ∗ W/m2 , (14.3)

and the time-average Poynting vector is

1 1
S̄avg = Re { S̄} = Re { Ē × H̄ ∗ } W/m2 . (14.4)
2 2
We mentioned earlier that at large distances the near fields of an antenna are negli-
gible, and that the radiated electric field can be written as in (14.1). We can give a more
precise meaning to this concept by defining the far-field distance as the distance where the
spherical wave front radiated by an antenna becomes a close approximation to the ideal
planar phase front of a plane wave. This approximation applies over the radiating aperture
of the antenna, and so it depends on the maximum dimension of the antenna. If we call this
maximum dimension D, then the far-field distance is defined as
2D 2
Rff = m. (14.5)
λ
This result is derived from the condition that the actual spherical wave front radiated by
the antenna departs less than π/8 = 22.5◦ from a true plane wave front over the maximum
extent of the antenna. For electrically small antennas, such as short dipoles and small loops,
this result may give a far-field distance that is too small; in this case, a minimum value of
Rff = 2λ should be used.

EXAMPLE 14.1 FAR-FIELD DISTANCE OF AN ANTENNA

A parabolic reflector antenna used for reception with the direct broadcast sys-
tem (DBS) is 18 inches in diameter and operates at 12.4 GHz. Find the far-field
distance for this antenna.
Solution
The operating wavelength at 12.4 GHz is

c 3 × 108
λ= = = 2.42 cm.
f 12.4 × 109
The far-field distance is found from (14.5), after converting 18 inches to 0.457 m:

2D 2 2(0.457)2
Rff = = = 17.3 m.
λ 0.0242
The actual distance from a DBS satellite to Earth is about 36,000 km, so it is safe
to say that the receive antenna is in the far-field of the transmitting antenna. ■

Next, define the radiation intensity of the radiated electromagnetic field as

r2  
U (θ, φ) = r 2 | S̄avg | = Re E θ θ̂ × Hφ∗ φ̂ + E φ φ̂ × Hθ∗ θ̂
2
r2
 1

= |E θ |2 + |E φ |2 = |Fθ |2 + |Fφ |2 W, (14.6)
2η0 2η0