LAURENTIAN UNIVERSITY

ENGR_4477: PROCESS MODELLING AND

CONTROL

PROJECT – A STUDY AND MATHEMATICAL

MODELS OF A SMELTER

Presented by

Henrey Wambui
0386801

Presented to

Prof. Hellen Sheng

On

December 7th, 2021

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Table of contents Page

1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………… 4
2. Mathematical modelling…………………………………………………………. 6
2.1. Temperature modelling…………………………………………………… 8
2.2. Material and Energy balance modelling…………………………………... 10
2.3. Residence time modelling………………………………………………… 12
3. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….. 14
4. References……………………………………………………………………….. 15

List of Figure
Figure 1: Flow sheet of copper ore processing…………………………………………… 3
Figure 2: Types of separation steps involved with copper ores…………………………... 4
Figure 3: sketch and parts of a flash furnace……………………………………………… 5
Figure 4: Block flow diagram of a smelter……………………………………………….. 7
Figure 5: control units of a smelter preheater…………………………………………….. 7
Figure 6: Control Units of the smelter furnace…………………………………………… 8
Figure 7: Estimation of the flame volume………………………………………………... 9
Figure 8: system information obtained from the tracer experiment………………………. 13
Figure 9: information obtained from the step tracer experiment…………………………. 14
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Figure 1: Flow sheet of copper ore processing (Jane S. , 2018)

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Introduction
Smelting is a pyrometallurgical process by which a metal is obtained from its ore, at temperatures
beyond its melting point. The ore is heated to a high enough temperature such that the material melts,
and the final product is a molten metal (the required product) and a slag (impurities). Smelting is
done so that the impurities are either carried off in the slag or are burned off as gases. Roasting on
the other hand involves not only heating, but also reaction with a gas, mainly oxygen. It is typically
used to convert sulfides to oxides by reaction with air. ([1], 2021)
A smelter is a block on a process flow diagram for mineralogy and metallurgical processes.

Figure 2: Types of separation steps involved with copper ores (Jane, Bold, & Pepper, 2018)
The smelting process produces smelting dust, smelting off-gas, matte, and slug. Slug is a molten
form of the impurities contained in the ore while matte is pure form of the metal being processed.
The smelt off-gas is dependent on the chemical composition of the ore. On a lot of occasions, it is
usually Sulfur (IV) oxide, as smelting is most used in sulfur-containing ore concentrates, such a
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chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), chalcocite, covellite or bornite. The most commonly used smelting process
in copper production in the flash smelting process balance method. Other types of smelting processes
are continuous smelting process which include WORCRA processes, Noranda process and the
Mitsubishi processes.

Figure 3: sketch and parts of a flash furnace. ([2], 2016)

Flash smelting is mainly used for copper sulphide concentrates, as well as to a significant extent for
nickel sulphide concentrates. Sulphide oxidation can be carried out to a predetermined degree in the
flash furnace. The heat of the oxidation reactions maintains the furnace heat balance. Sometimes,
high enough iron and sulphur contents of the concentrate may cause the smelting process autogenous
(self welding).
The feed into a flash smelter consists of blowing fine, dried copper sulphide concentrates and silica
flux with air, oxygen-enriched air, or oxygen blast into a hot (1500K) hearth-type furnace, (see
Figure above). Entry of these materials into the hot furnace causes the sulphide minerals components
such as CuFeS2 of the concentrate to react rapidly with the oxygen of the blast, resulting in a
controlled oxidation of Fe and S from the concentrate, evolution of an enormous amount of heat,
which in turn causes the solids to melt. ([2], 2016)
The process is continuous and autothermal and produces Molten matte (60–65% Cu.), Molten iron-
silicate slag (~1% Cu) and an off gas with a sufficiently high SO2 content (20–30 vol.%) which is
captured and turned into sulfuric acid through a hydration reaction. The flash reactions result in two
immiscible liquids (matte and slag) that fall onto the flash furnace settler are generated. The
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difference in density between matte (3900–5200 kg/m3) and slag (3300–3700 kg/m3) produces the
separation of these two immiscible phases in the settler. Matte and slag are periodically tapped from
the furnace via tap holes located in the settler. This process control is mostly carried by means of
process models, such as the very well-known Outotec Process Advisor, which is a combined
feedforward (concentrate blend assays, feed rate, etc.) and feedback (data from smelter melt, field
measurements such as temperatures and levels, dynamic heat, and material balance to calculate the
set points for the oxygen coefficient and enrichment, flux dosing, and burner fuel amount.
(Bacedoni, Moreno-Ventas, & Rios, 2020)

2. MATHEMATICAL MODELLING
Mathematical modelling of the flash smelter uses different modelling techniques, which vary
depending on the preference of the firm and the complexity of the parameter being modelled. A
mathematical model uses a pre-set algorithm to try explaining and understand the phenomenon of
the smelter. The model is beneficial especially when the analysis of the smelter parameters may be
impossible to solve analytically. The algorithm takes a continuous problem defining the smelter and
approximates it by a discrete one. Numerical analysis is used to prioritize the approximations based
on accuracy, efficiency, and reliability. The algorithm needs to be efficient, in that it completed the
needed tasks within a short period of time. This is dependent on the hardware on which the algorithm
is run. Additionally, the algorithm needs to be in a position of holding, analysing, and computing
large amounts of data without becoming unstable; the algorithm needs to be robust for the task.
(Ascher & Grief, 2011)
Mathematical models and the control systems of the smelter work together to improve its efficiency.
The algorithms defining the models are dependent on the data collected by the control system to
execute. Therefore, to determine what models to formulate, we need to determine what parameters
we need to control on the smelter. Among others, these parameters include feed rate of the smelter,
temperature control within the smelter, material and energy balance within the smelter, the residence
time of the material, level of purity desired by the miner, and the economic flexibility that is available
for the processes to proceed. Let’s assume that the smelter can be presented by a simple schematic
as shown below.
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``
Figure 4: Block flow diagram of a smelter.
Establishing the streams, inputs, and outputs into the system, helps us define different control units
on different blocks and streams. Let’s assume that the input and output streams are controlled using
valve. If we set the system such that each stream and block is equipped with controls and transmitter
units, we can use data collected from these transmitters to determine the conditions as well as change
the conditions where needed.

Figure 5: control units of a smelter preheater.

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Figure 6: Control Units of the smelter furnace

Where CT – conductivity transmitter, TC – temperature control, RC – ratio control, FC – feed
control, and FCT – feed control transmitter, TT – temperature transmitter.

Since all these parameters are important elements of the smelter and plays a critical role towards the
overall output from the smelter, the models must be designed with a lot of precaution, and precision.
While most of the basic parameters such as feed rate and temperature can be controlled using
controls, others such as purity level of the final products, losses due to the reaction cannot be
controlled and have to be determined every now and then through chemical tests and random
measurements of the samples.

2.1.Temperature modelling
Modelling the temperature of the smelter can be rather technical. The temperature of the smelter is
controlled by controlling the temperature of the flame. If the number of chemical reactions as well
as the number of products are known, the degree of conversion of the smelter can be determined.
This allows us to model the temperature of the smelter by estimating the temperature of the flame
using the equation below.
𝑘 𝑙+3 𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐
4 4
∑ 𝑛𝑖 ∆𝐻𝑅,𝑖,@𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 + 𝑄𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑒 = ∑ ∫ 𝑚𝑗 ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝑗 (𝑇)𝑑𝑇 + 𝜎 ∗ 𝜀 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ (𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 − 𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 )
𝑖 =1 𝑗=1 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓
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Where 𝑛𝑖 = moles of species i that react according to reaction i from the m reactions defined, 𝑚𝑗 =
mole of one mineralogical species from the l identified, 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 = reference temperature, 𝑛𝑖 ∆𝐻𝑅,𝑖,@𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓

= molar enthalpy of reaction i, 𝑄𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑒 = heat released by the furnace to the environment, 𝜀 =
emissivity of the flame, 𝜎 = Stephan-Boltzmann constant, 3 is the number of gasses emitted in the
reaction. The area of the flame cannot be measured and hence must be estimated. This can be done
using photos. As a flame of a furnace can be open longitudinally, its area can be estimated to a
prolate spheroid as described in cartesian coordinates as shown in the equation below

𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑧2 𝑐
+ = 1, ⇒ 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑎 [𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑛(𝛼)]
𝑎2 𝑐2 𝛼

𝑐2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼 = √1 − , 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑧2

Figure 7: Estimation of the flame volume. If a = 3.4cm and c = 5.86 cm, A = 174cm2

(Arias, Balladares, Parra, Sbarbaro, & Torres, 2020). The heat equation of a smelter given above
only accounts for heat lost due to conduction and radiation, while neglecting convective heat loss.
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2.2.Material and energy balance modelling

The law of conservation of mass or states that for any system closed to all transfers
of matter and energy, the mass of the system must remain constant over time, as the system's mass
cannot change, so quantity can neither be added nor be removed. Therefore, the quantity of mass is
conserved over time. The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed. It can only be converted from one from to another. Mass balance can be computed by
accounting each component in the feed elemental wise. This means that for elements that remain
inert, though out the reaction can be determined using the equation below. Such element include
nitrogen and the tracer used to investigate the residence time of the reactor.
𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑀𝑁𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
2
𝑎𝑖𝑟
= 𝑀𝑁2

Compounds in the flux that react within the smelter and are ejected as slag can be done using the
equation below, that considers a reaction between silicon (IV) oxide and iron (II) oxide to produce
Fe2SiO4.
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔
𝑀𝑆𝑖𝑂2 + 𝑀𝐹𝑒𝑂 = 𝑀𝐹𝑒2𝑆𝑖𝑂4
Thermodynamic databases for copper smelting may be developed from experimental work. This
calculation involves the chemistry of the flash furnace slag (mingled melts of matte and slag) as the
composition of the starting material. Through minimization, the Gibbs energy techniques FactSage.
calculates the equilibrium mass and composition off gas, liquid slag, liquid matte, and possible solid
phases. The concentration data of copper, lead, and zinc in slag and matte determined in this form
may be used to obtain the respective distribution coefficients using the formula
𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒⁄
𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑔 [𝐶𝑢]𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒
𝐷𝐶𝑢 =
[𝐶𝑢]𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑔

Having determined the distribution coefficients of all the party elements within the feed, we can use
them to determine the mass balance using the equation
𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒⁄
𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑔 𝐶𝑢 𝑤𝑡% 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑢2 𝑆 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 𝐶𝑢 𝑤𝑡% 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑢2 𝑆
0 = 𝐷𝐶𝑢 ∗ 𝐶𝑢2 𝑆 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 ∗ − 𝐶𝑢2 𝑆 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑔 ∗
100 100
𝐶𝑢 𝑤𝑡% 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑢2 𝑂
− 𝐶𝑢2 𝑂 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑔 ∗
100
Mass balance for oxygen off gas vs oxygen process air is built as,
𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟
0 = −𝑂2 + 𝑂2
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It is important to note that the lost energy of the furnace in which the smelting reaction takes place.
As earlier stated, the reactants are ore concentrates, flux and process air and the products are the off
gas, matte, and slag. The enthalpy of the reactants can be calculated using data from FactSageTM
FactPS database room temperature for the concentrates, and at 2270C for the preheated air. The
enthalpy of the products can be calculated at 13000C, from then chemical compositions of the matte,
slag, and the off gas. They would contain compounds such as Cu2O, Cu2S, SO3, O2, N2, PbS, PbO,
among others. The energy balance of the system can be determined using the general equation,
𝑛
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
[∑ 𝐻𝐾,250𝐶 ∗ 𝑚𝐾𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑘=1
𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
+ ∑ 𝐻𝐾,2270𝐶 ∗ 𝑚𝐾𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝐻𝑆𝑖𝑂 ,250𝐶 ∗ 𝑚𝑆𝑖𝑂 ,250𝐶 ]
2 2
𝑘=1 𝑀𝐽
⁄𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑

𝑀𝐽
+ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑒 ( ⁄𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 )
4
𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒
= [∑ 𝐻𝑗,13000 𝐶 ∗ 𝑚𝑗

𝐽=1

8 7 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠
𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑔 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑔 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠
+ ∑ 𝐻𝑖,13000 𝐶 ∗ 𝑚𝑖 + ∑ 𝐻ℎ,13000𝐶 ∗ 𝑚ℎ,13000𝐶 ]
𝑖=1 ℎ=1 𝑀𝐽
⁄𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
Where 𝐻𝐾, 𝑥0𝐶 is the enthalpy of K at x degree Celsius.

𝑚𝐾𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 is the mass of K in the concentrate (kg/tonne of feed)

It is important to note that the using mass and energy balance to model a smelter is a classical method
and does not account for smelting reaction kinetics as well as the fluid dynamics of the smelting
process within the furnace. Comparison of experimental and industrial data regarding mass and
energy balance analysis is of great significance as at allows the designer is determining what aspects
of the system necessitates improvement. For instance, error margins would mean that the smelter
reaction is not going to completion or that the reaction is inefficient within the set parameters at
which the smelter is being operated. (Bacedoni, Moreno-Ventas, & Rios, Copper Flash smelting
process balance modelling , 2020)
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2.3.Residence time.
Different elements and compounds take different routes, and presumably, time, to pass through the
reactor. The distribution of these times for the stream of fluids leaving the smelter is called the exit
age distribution, or the residence time distribution (RTD). It is more convenient to present the RTD
such that the area under the curve is unity. This is known as normalizing the distribution. That is,
∞
∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑡 = 1
0

To utilize this distribution, we need to collect data from our system. This can be done easily by
adding a non-reactive and measurable amount of a tracer into the feed stream. Depending on the
ease of applicability on the system being tested, the tracer can be added as a pulse input, step input,
periodic input, or a random input. If we set the volume of the smelter as V and the flow rates as v
m3/s, we can instantaneously introduce a M unit of tracer into the inflow steam and record the
concentration-time of the tracer leaving the smelter, otherwise known as [ ]𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 curve. Froom
material balance of the smelter, we find that that
∞
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑀 𝑘𝑔. 𝑠
( [] ) ; 𝐴 = ∫ [ ]𝑑𝑡 ≅ ∑[ ]𝑖 ∆𝑡𝑖 = { ⁄ 3}
𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑣 𝑚
0 𝑖

And
∞
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ∫ 𝑡[ ]𝑑𝑡 ∑𝑖 𝑡𝑖 [ ]𝑖 ∆𝑡𝑖 𝑉
( ) ; 𝑡̅ = 0 ∞ ≅ = {𝑠}
[ ]𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 ∫0 [ ]𝑑𝑡 ∑𝑖[ ]𝑖 ∆𝑡𝑖 𝑣

To find the exit age distribution, we divide the concentration readings M/v. Graphically, this can be
presented as shown below. Note that if the tracer spike in the exit stream is immediately registered,
this may mean that some, if not all the material is shotting through the system. This reduces the
efficiency of the system, and hence the system should be optimized or recalibrated.
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Figure 8: system information obtained from the tracer experiment (Levenspiel, 1999)

The step response experiment may also be used to determine the residence time of the smelter. M
units of a tracer is added to the smelter continuously. This gives the [ ]𝑚𝑎𝑥 . It is expected that as the
reaction progresses, the contents of the smelter are replaced by the tracer the concentration of the
fluid under study rises until it reaches [ ]𝑚𝑎𝑥 . This is the residence time for this reaction. A material
balance relates the different measured quantities of the output curve and the step input. That is,
𝑚̇ 𝑘𝑔
[ ]𝑚𝑎𝑥 = [ ]
𝑣 𝑚3

𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑚𝑉̇ 𝑘𝑔. 𝑠

( ) = [ ]𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑡̅ = [ 3]
𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑣 𝑚
[ ]𝑚𝑎𝑥 [ ]𝑚𝑎𝑥
∫0 𝑡𝑑[ ]𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 1
𝑡̅ = [ ]𝑚𝑎𝑥
= ∫ 𝑡𝑑[ ]𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝
∫0 𝑑[ ]𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 [ ]𝑚𝑎𝑥
0

Graphically, this can be presented as,

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Figure 9: information obtained from the step tracer experiment (Levenspiel, 1999)
Gold can be used as tracer in a copper smelter as it is does not ger involved in any of the reaction in
the smelter.

3. CONCLUSION
Data collected from a smelter is needed to perform an analysis of the system. An industrial smelter
is large enough implying that the data collected is also substantially large. The mathematical models
defined for the smelter depend on the data collected. To ensure that the system is operational at an
optimal level, mathematical model and simulations on the smelter should be done as often as
possible. As the equations can be intimidating to deal with, algorithms that are robust, efficient, and
dependable should be set up to help in determining the conditions of the smelter with ease and as
often as needed. This helps in ensuring that problems with the smelter are spotted and dealt with as
early as deviations from the normal is observed with the mathematical models and the present
simulations.
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Arias, L., Balladares, E., Parra, R., Sbarbaro, D., & Torres, S. (2020, December 22). Sensors and Process
Control in copper smelters, A review of current systems and some oppotunities . MPDI Minerals ,
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Ascher, U. M., & Grief, C. (2011). A First Course In Numerical Methods . Delhi: Asoke K. Ghosh.

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Bacedoni, M., Moreno-Ventas, I., & Rios, G. (2020, September 11). Copper Flash Smeting Process
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Jane, S., Bold, & Pepper. (2018). Processes: copper mining and production. Copper Alliance: European
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Korpi, M., Souminem, O., Jansson, J., Pihlasalo, J., & Vilkko, M. (2019). Plant-wide optimization of a
copper smelter : how to do it in practice. Retrieved from Sematic Scholar:
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Plant-wide-optimization-of-a-copper-smelter-%3A-how-
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Levenspiel, O. (1999). Chemical Reaction Engineering . Danvers, MA: John Wiley & Sons.