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    Linear Approximations and Differentials PDF

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    254 (chaper 4| Apaleatons of Denvatves 4.2 | Linear Approximations and Differentials erm en cs 4.2.4. Describe the linear approximation to a function at a point 4.2.2 Write the linearization of a given function, 4.2.3. Draw a graph that illustrates the use of diferentials to approximate the change in a quantity. 4.2.4 Calculate the relative error and percentage error in using a differential approximation. We have just scen how derivatives allow uso compare related quants that are changing over ime, In this scion, we examine another aplication of derivatives: the bly to approximate functions locally by Unear cio, Lines fancons re the easlet functions with which to work, so they provide a useful tol for approximating function values. In adtlon, the ideas presented in hs secon ae generalized ltr in the text when we study sow fo approximate functions by higher tegre polynomials introduction fo Power Series and Functions (ntpllenx orgleontentimsS760Mlaest) Linear Approximation of a Function at a Point Consider afanction f thats difereniabeat point x= a, Recall thatthe tangent ne othe graph of fat « is given by the equation y= fla)+ f'a(x—a). For example, consider he function f(x) = at a=2. Since f i difentable at x= 2 and f°) = —-b, we see that (@)= =, Therefore te tangent line tothe gph of f at a= 2 is given by the equation =1 1 ystilen, 1 Figure 4.7(2) shows a graph of (2) along with the tangent line fat x= 2. Note that for x near 2, the graph of the tangent lin is close to the grap of f. As a result, we can use the equation ofthe tangent line to approximate f(x) for x near 2. For example, if x= 2.1, the y value of che corresponding potnt on the tangent line is (2.1 — 2) = 0.475. ‘The actual value of (2.1) is given by. se JO) = gh x 0.47619 ‘Therefore, the tangent line gives us a fairly good approximation of (2.1) (Figure 4.7()). However, note that for values ‘of x far from 2, the equation ofthe tangent ine does not give us a good approximation, For example, if x= 10, the y value of the corresponding point on the tangent line is =4-1ao-2 =4-2=-15, yed-dao-n 24-22-15, ‘whereas the value of the function at x= 10 is f(10) = 0.1, Chapter 6 | Apleatons of Deratves 285 ote oe (2.1, 0.47619) oar. (2.1, 0.475) ¥ 0465+ Approximate wale of 12. 046. ea Tangent ive a ofx=2 ous as 200° 21 24 243 243" @) o Figure 4.7. (@) The tangent line f(x) = Ix at x= 2 provides a good approximation to f for x near 2, ()ALX=2A1, the value of y onthe tangent line to f(x) = Ux 1s 0.475. The acwual value of f(2.1) is 1/2.1, which is approximately 0.47619. In general, for a differentiable function J, the equation of the tangent line © f at x= a can be used to approximate {F(8) for x near a, ‘Therefore, we can write LO) = Mla) + f (a(x a) for xnear a. ‘We call the linear function Ua) = fla) + fax a) (41) the linear approximation, or tangent line approximation, of f at x=, This function L is also known as the arization of fat x ‘To show how useful the linear approximation can be, we look at how to find the linear approximation for f(x) = VE at eee Linear Approximation of v= Find the linear approximation of f(x) = \F at x=9 and use the approximation to estimate V5IT. Solution Since we are looking for the linear approximation at x=9, using Equation 4.1. we know the linear approximation is given by Ux) = f09) + F'ONx-9), We need to find f(9) and "(9 288 (Crap 4 Apaeatons of Derivatives f=" > FO) FO=ad + FO ‘Therelore, the linear approximation s given by Figure 4, 1G) =3+L0-9 Using he linear approximation, we can estimate YT by writing er (9.1) & LO.1) = 3 +40. - 9) = 3.0167. 30 12 14 16% Figure 4.8 The local linear approximation to. f(x) = VE at = 9 provides an approximation to f for x near. Analysis Using a calculator, the value of VOT to four decimal places is 3.0166. The value given by the linesr approximation, 3.0167, is very close othe value obtained with acaculior, soit appears that using this linear approximation is a good way to eimate vZ, at leat for x near 9. At the same time, t may seem odd to use 4 linear approximation when we can jst push a few butions ona calculator to evaluate TT. However, how does the calculator evaluate V9T? The calculator uses an approximation! Infact, calculators and computers use approximation all the time to evaluate mathematical expressions; they jus use higherdegree approximation. [EF 4% Fina the local tinear approximation to f(x) = br at x = 8, Use itto approximate TET to five decimal places. Linear Approximation of sinx Find the linear approximation of fa) = sinx at x= & and use ito approximate sin(62°) Solution First we note that since 4 rad is equvalent to 60°, using the near approximation at reasonable. The linear approximation is given by Loy = 12+ Ele Chapter 6 | Apleatons of Deratves 87 fo) =sinx > s(8)=sin(8) reozcox > £(8) To estimate sin(62") using Z, we must frst convert 62° to radlans. We have 62° = S2E radians, so the 180 estimate for sin(62") is given by 0) = (22 a sin(62°) = ¢(@24) = 1(S28 iy © 0.88348. Figure 4.9 The linear approximation to f(x) = sinx at x= m3 provides an approximation to sinx for x near 1/3 (Ef 18 seve nearepproniaton for 0) = coss at = Linear approximations may be used in estimating roots and powers, n the next example, we find the linear approximation for fl) =(1+x)" at x=0, which can be used to estimate roots and powers for real numbers near 1, The same idea ‘can be extended toa function of the form (x) = (m +x)" to estimate roots and powers neara different number m. Approximating Roots and Powers Find the linear approximation of f(x) = (1 +)" at x= 0. Use this approximation to estimate (1.01)? Solution ‘The Linear approximation at =0 is given by ase (Crap 4 Apaeatons of Derivatives La) = f(0) + FON =O), Because fO=A+H" > fO FE)=nd+y""! > £'@ the linear approximation is given by Figure 4.10(a). LG) = Lt n(e-0) = 1+ me ‘We can approximate (1.01)? by evaluating £(0.01) when n= 3. We conclude that (1003 = 0.00 = L.01) = 1 + 30.01) = 1.03 s 10% LOO=1+3x sang f= Lg) = 14+ 3x 2 031. 1.0308 (0.01, 1.030301) 1.03 (0.01, 1.03) 1.0296. 1.029 1Lo28s. (0.0085 ” 0.0095 x @ © Figure 4.10 (a) The linear approximation of f(x) at x=0 is L(x). (b) The actual value of 1.019 is 010s * a.015 = 0 estimates 1.01? tobe 1.03, 1.030301. The linear approximation of f(x) at 47 Find the linear approximation of f(x) = (1 + x)* at x= 0 without using the result from the preceding example, Differentials ‘We have seen that linear approximations can be used to estimate function values. They can also be used to estimate the ‘amount a function value changes as a result of a small change in the inpu. To discuss this more formally, we define a related ‘concept differentials. Differentials provide us with a way of estimating the amount a function changes asa result of small ‘change in input values. ‘When we fist looked at derivatives, we used the Leibniz notation dy/dx ta represent the derivative of y with respect to x Although we used the expressions dy andl din this notation, they did not have meaning on their own, Here we see a meaning to the expressions dy and dx. Suppose y = f(x) is a differentiable function. Let dx be an independent variable that ‘can be assigned any nonzero real number, and define the dependent variable dy by dy = spd. (42) tis important to notice that dy isa funetion of both x and dx. The expressions dy and ds are called differentials. We can Chagter¢ | Apleatons of Deratves 89 dlivide both sides of Equation 4.2 by dx, which yields ay (a3) Bare ‘This is the familiar expression we have used to denote a derivative. Equation 4.2 Is known as the differential form of Equation 4.3, Computing differentials For each of the following functions, find dy and evaluate when x= 3 and dx = 0.1 Solution ‘The key step is calculating the derivative. When we have that, we can obtain dy direct. a Since f(x) =x? +2x, weknow "(x)= 2x42, and cherefore dy = Qxt2dx When x=3 and dx =0.1 dy =(2:-3+2K0.1) = 08. b. Since f(a) =cosx, f"(4) = -sin(2). This gives us a sins. When x= and dr = dy = -sin\0.) = og” + find dy. ‘We now connect differentials to linear approximations, Differentials can be used to estimate the change in the value of @ function resulting from a small change in input values. Consider a function f that is differentiable at point a. Suppose the input x changes by a small amount, We are interested in how much the output y changes. If x changes from @ 10 a+ dx, then the change in x is dx (also denoted x), and the change in y is given by Ay=Sla+dx)- fla) Instead of calculating the exact change in y, however, iis often easier to approximate the change in y by using a linear approximation. For x near a, f(x) canbe approximated by the linear approximation LO) = fla) + F@e-a) ‘Therefore, if dx is small, Slat dx) # Lat dx) = fla) + f'(ayla + dx ~ a), 80 (Crap 4 Apaeatons of Derivatives ‘That is, Slat de) ~ fla) = Ma + dx) fla) = f@ax, Im other words, the actual change in the function f if x increases from @ to a+dx is approximately the difference between L(a+ dx) and f(a), where L(x) isthe linear approximation of f at a. By definition of L(x), this difference is equal © f"(@)dx. In summary, Ay= flat dx) — fla) = La + dx) ~ fla) = fads = dy. ‘Therefore, we can use the differential dy = f"(a)d to approximate the change in y if x increases from x= a to ‘a+ dx, Weccan see this inthe following graph. y 4 Figure 4.11 The differential dy = f'(a)dx is used to approximate the actual change in y If increases from a to a+dx ‘We now take a look at how to use differentials to approximate the change in the value of the function that results from a ‘small change in the value of the input. Note the calculation with differentials is much simpler than calculating actual values ‘of functions and the result is very close to what we would obtain with the more exact calculation, Approximating Change with Differe! Let y=2?+2x. Compute Ay and dy at x= Solution ‘The actual change in y if x changes from Ay =.) - £3) = 16.) +26.1)] - B2+2G)] = 081. ‘The approximate change in y Is given by dy = f"G)dx. Since J"(x) =2x+2, wehave dy= "G)dx = 2G) +2)(0.1) = 038. P 2x, find Ay and dy at x=3 if dx=02. 8 m= Chapter ¢ | Apleatons of Deratves a6 Calculating the Amount of Error Any typeof measurement s prone toa certain amount of ero. In many applications, certain quantities are calculated based ‘on measurements, For example, the area ofa circle is calculated by measuring the radius of the circle. An error inthe measurement of the ras leads to an error inthe computed value ofthe area, Here we examin this ie of eror and study how differentials canbe used to estimate the eror ‘Consider a function f with an input that is a measured quantity. Suppose the exact value of the measured quantity is a, ‘but the measured value is a + cx. We sy the measurement eroris dx (oF Ax). Asa result an error occurs in the calculated quantity f(a), This typeof error is known as a propagated error and is given by Ay=fla+dx)- fla) Since all measurements ate prone to some degree of error, we do not know the exact value of a measured quantity, so we ‘cannot calculate the propagated ercor exactly. However, given an estimate of the accuracy of a measurement, we can use differentials o approximate the propagated error Ay. Specifically, iF f isa differentiable function at a, the propagated Aye) Pade. Unfortunately, we do not know the exact value a. However, we can use the measured value a+ dx, and estimate Ay = dy = f'(a+ dade. In the next example, we look at how differentials can be used to estimate the error in calculating the volume of a box if we assume the measurement af the side length is made with a certain amount af accuracy. Volume of a Cube ‘Suppose the side length of a cube is measured to be 5 cm with an accuracy of 01 em. ‘2. Use differentials to estimate the error in the computed volume of the cube. 'b. Compute the volume of the cube ifthe side length is (i) 4.9 em and (i) 5.1 cm to compare the estimated error with the actual potential eror. Solution The measurement ofthe side length is accurate to within 40.1 cm, Therefore, 0.1

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