UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME 431 – Theory of Elasticity I

Lecture Notes on the concepts of

Strain Energy and Complementary Energy
for 2021/2022 Session
(Part I)

Lecturer:
Howard O. NJOKU PhD

February 2, 2023
Contents
2 Strain Energy and Complementary Energy 31
2.1 The strain energy function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.1 Strain energy of linear elastic materials in pure tension . . . . . . . 34
2.1.2 Strain energy of a linearly elastic material in pure bending . . . . . 34
2.1.3 Strain energy of a linearly elastic material in pure shear . . . . . . . 35
2.2 Castigliano’s first theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

30
Sample Problem VI
For the statically indeterminate cantilever AB shown in Fig. 27, hinged at A, simply
supported at B, and subjected along half its span to a uniformly distributed load, w,
41wL
show that the reaction at support B, is given by RB = . Hence, using the unit-load
128
method, find the deflection of its midpoint and point C.

Figure 27: Sample Problem VI

Sample Problem V
The beam AB shown in Fig. 28, is simply supported at A and C, subjected along segment
AC to a uniformly distributed load w = 20 kN/m, and bears a concentrated load W = 50
kN at B. Using the unit-load method, find the deflections of the midpoint of segment AC
and point B in terms of the axial rigidity EI.

Figure 28: Sample Problem V

2 Strain Energy and Complementary Energy

We go further on in our discussion of energy methods and introduce the concepts of strain
energy and complementary energy, and show their immense usefulness in the analysis of
mechanical structures.

31
2.1 The strain energy function
Consider the pin-jointed frame of Fig. 29, supported at A and D and bearing arbitrary
loads W1 and W2 at B and C. Let the resultant force in any member such as BD be
P and its extension be e. If B and C are displaced by δ1 and δ2 , respectively in the
directions of W1 and W2 , δ1 and δ2 are the corresponding displacements of W1 and W2 .
This system consists hence of external loads W1 and W2 and internal forces P in static
equilibrium, together with extensions e compatible with displacements δ1 and δ2 . By the
principle of virtual work,
X
W 1 δ1 + W 2 δ2 = Pe (24)
m

The summation of the RHS is done for all members. Imagine a modified sytem in which
δ1 is increased to δ1 + ∆δ1 , δ2 remaining constant: the extension e in a typical member
will increase to e + ∆e due to the change in δ1 . A new set of compatible displacements
δ1 + ∆δ1 , δ2 and extensions e + ∆e is obtained together with the initial set of forces in
equilibrium. Again by the principle of virtual work,
X
W1 (δ1 + ∆δ1 ) + W2 δ2 = P (e + ∆e) (25)
m

Subtracting Eq. (24) from Eq. (25), we have

X
W1 ∆δ1 = P ∆e (26)
m

Figure 29: Arbitrarily loaded truss of arbitrary shape.

If the materials of the frame are elastic, having the stress-strain and load-extension

32
curves of the forms shown in Fig. 30, the quantity P ∆e is the area of the shaded por-
tion. Physically, this is the work done by the load P in extending the member a small
distance ∆e. Because the material is elastic (and disregarding any energy losses during
loading/unloading,) this work (P ∆e) is conserved as elastic strain energy, ∆U in the bars.
Therefore
X
W1 ∆δ1 = P ∆e = ∆U (27)
m

Figure 30: Load-extension curve for a material during elastic deformation.

In the limit as the changes approach zero,

X
P de = dU
m
XZ
→U = P de (28)
m

33
2.1.1 Strain energy of linear elastic materials in pure tension

Linearly elastic materials are those which obey Hooke’s law i.e., σ = Eϵ. And for which
thus, P = EAe/l. Substituting for P in equation 28,
X Z EA
U = e de
m
l
X EAe2
U = (29)
m
2l

In terms of axial strains, ϵx ,

X Eϵ2
x
U= V (30)
m
2

where V = Al is 2the volume of the member.

Eϵx
The term is known as the strain energy density, u. Thus
2
X
U= u×V (31)
m

Noting that E = σx /ϵx or ϵx = σx /E, the strain energy density may also be expressed as

σx ϵx σx2
u= or u= (32)
2 2E

2.1.2 Strain energy of a linearly elastic material in pure bending

Using the last expression for strain energy density (equation 32), the strain energy may
be expressed as
X Z σ2
x
U= dV (33)
m V 2E

We recall that for a material in pure bending, the axial stress in an element of volume
dV = dxdA, subjected to a bending moment M , is given by

My
σx = − (34)
I

where y is the distance from the neutral axis and I is the moment of inertia. Substituting
for σx in equation 33,

XZ  2
My1
U = − dx dA
m V 2E
I
X Z l M2 Z
= 2
dx y 2 dA
m 0 2EI A

34
 R
Recognizing that A
y 2 dA = I,
X Z l M 2 dx
U= (35)
m 0 2EI

2.1.3 Strain energy of a linearly elastic material in pure shear

Example 11
Show that the elastic strain energy for a material subjected to pure shear forces is given
by
X Z τ2
Ushear = dV (36)
m V 2G

T dx
Hint: Consider a circular shaft of radius r experiencing an angular deflection dϕ =
GJ
Tr
due to a torque T . G is the modulus of rigidity; J is the polar moment of inertia; τ =
J
is the shear stress; and γ is the shear strain.
Hence find the energy absorbed by a concentric annular rod of inner and outer radii
r1 and r2 , respectively, subjected to a constant torque. Express the energy in terms of
the maximum and minimum shear stresses and the volume of the material.

Figure 31: Shear stress in a concentric annular rod subject to constant torque.

Solution:
XZ XZ
U= P de ≡ T dϕ
m m

However,
T dx
dϕ =
GJ

35
 XZ T2
∴ Ushear = dx (i)
m
GJ

Also,
Tr τJ
τ= → T =
J r
Z 2 2 X Z τ 2 J dx
X τ J
∴ Ushear = 2
dx ≡ (ii)
m
GJr m
G r2

But
πr4
Z Z Z
2 2
J= r dA ≡ r 2πr dr ≡ 2πr3 dr =
2
Substituting for J in Eqn. (ii)

X Z τ2
Ushear = πr2 dx
m
2G

or
X Z τ2
Ushear = dV
m
2G

where dV = πr2 dx. For a concentric annular rod, the shear stress varies linearly from the
inner to the outer surface with the maximum on the outer surface (Fig. 31). Thus in an
element of thickness dr at a distance r from the center of the cross-section,

r
τ= τmax (iii)
r2

Substituting for τ in equation 36, we obtain

Z  2
r 1
Ushear = τmax dV
V r2 2G
r2
r2 τmax
2
Z
1
= 2
2πrl dr
r1 r2 2G
2 Z r2
2πlτmax
= 2
r3 dr
2r2 G r1
2
 4
r2 − r14

πlτmax
=
r22 G 4
τmax 2πl r2 − r14
2
 4 2
πl (r22 + r12 ) (r22 − r12 )

τmax
= =
2G r22 4 2G r22 2
2 2 2 2 2
τmax r2 + r1 πl(r2 − r1 )
=
2G r2 2
" 2 2  2 # 2
1 τmax r2 τmax r1 πr2 l − πr12 l
= +
2G r2 r2 2
2 2
τmax + τmin V ol
→ Ushear =
2G 2

36
where from Eqn. (iii) and Fig. 31, τmin = τmax (r1 /r2 ), and V ol = (πr22 l − πr12 l) is the
volume of the annular rod.

Example 12
Find the elastic strain energy stored in the linearly elastic cantilever beam of Fig. 32. The
beam is pulled at its end by an axial force W1 .

Figure 32: A cantilever beam pulled at its end

Solution:
EAe2 EA W12 L2
U1 = =
2l 2L E 2 A2
W12 L
→ U1 =
2EA

Example 13
Find the elastic strain energy stored in the linearly elastic cantilever beam of Example 12
when subjected instead to a vertical load at its end (Fig. 33).

Figure 33: A cantilever beam subjected to a vertical load at its end

Solution:
L
M 2 dx
Z
U1 =
0 2EI

37
The bending moment at any section at a distance x from the fixed support is given by

M = −W2 (L − x)

L
W22 (L − x2 )
Z
→ U2 = dx
0 2EI
W22 L 2
Z
= (L − 2Lx + x2 ) dx
2EI 0
L
W22 x3

2 2
= L x − Lx +
2EI 3 0
2 3
 
W2 3 3 L
= L −L +
2EI 3
2 3
W2 L
U2 =
6EI

2.2 Castigliano’s first theorem

We had obtained earlier (equation 27) that

∆U = W1 ∆δ1

∂U
In the limit as the changes approach zero, we have that = W1 and could also show
∂δ1
∂U
that = W2 or generally that
∂δ2
∂U
= Wi (37)
∂δi
i.e., the partial derivative of the total strain energy of a structure with respect to a
displacement δi is equal to its corresponding force Wi . This is the statement of the
Castigliano’s first theorem.

Example 14
Consider the pin-jointed frame of Fig. 34 (a), which is subjected to a horizontal force W
at B. Determine the displacement of B if

(a) the members of the frame are linearly elastic and have cross sectional area A and
Young’s modulus E.

(b) the material of the members has a non-linear load extension relation of the form
P = ae + be2 .

Solution:

38
Figure 34: (a) A three-member truss bearing a horizontal load W . (b) Displacements in
joint B of a three-member truss bearing a horizontal load W .

Let δHB be the displacement of joint B, then this will be the extension eBD of mem-
ber BD (Fig. 34(b)). By geometry, assuming that there are no gross distortions, the
extensions in members AB and BC will be eAB = eBC = δHB cos 60◦ = 21 δHB .

(a) For a system of linearly elastic members in pure tension,

X EAe2
U= (29)
m
2l

EA 1
2 EA 1
2 EA
U = 2
δ HB + 2
δHB + δ2
◦ HB
2L  2L 2L cos 60
2 2

EA δHB δHB 2
= + + 2δHB
2L 4 4
2
5EAδHB
=
4L

∂U 5EAδHB
By Castigliano’s first theorem, W = =
∂δHB 2L

2W L
→ δHB =
5EA

39
 (b) When P = ae + be2 ,
XZ
U= P de (28)
m

XZ
U = (ae + be2 ) de
m
X ae2 be3
= +
2 m
3
"  2
 3 #  
a δHB b δHB a 2 b 3
= 2 + + δ + δ
2 2 3 2 2 HB 3 HB
 2
a δ2

a δHB b δBH bδBH
= 2 + + BH +
8 24 2 3
2 3
3a δBH 5b δBH
→U = +
4 12
2
∂U 3a δBH 5b δBH
By Castigliano’s first theorem, W = = + . δBH is obtained by
∂δBH 2 4
solving this resulting quadratic equation.

Example 15
If the pin-jointed frame of Example 14 is loaded simultaneously at joint B with a horizontal
force W1 and a vertical force W2 (Fig. 35), find the horizontal and vertical displacements
δ1 and δ2 of joint B, assuming linear elastic materials, equal cross sectional area A, and
Young’s modulus E.
Solution:
Under the action of load W1 , the displacements in AB, BC and DB will be 12 δ1 , 21 δ1 ,
√ √
and δ1 , respectively. Under the action of W2 , the displacements will be 23 δ2 , − 23 δ2 , and
√ 
0, respectively. The total displacements in the member will therefore be 21 δ1 + 23 δ2 ,
 √ 
1 3
2
δ1 − 2
δ2 , and δ1 , respectively. For linearly elastic materials under pure tension,

X EA
U= e2 (29)
m
2l

Therefore,
 √ √ 2  EA
EA  1 2 
U = 3 1
δ + 2 δ2 + 2 δ1 − 2 δ2
2 1
3
+ δ12
2L L
 2 2 2 2

EA δ1 3δ2 δ1 3δ2
= + + + + 2δ12
2L 4 4 4 4
EA 5 2 3 2

= δ + δ
2L 2 1 2 2

40
Figure 35: (a) A three-member truss bearing a horizontal load W1 and a vertical load W2 .
(b) Displacements of joint B of a three-member truss bearing a horizontal load W1 and a
vertical load W2 .

By Castigliano’s first theorem,

∂U EA 5EAδ1
W1 = = × 5δ1 =
∂δ1 2l 2L
2W1 L
⇒ δ1 =
5EA

Also,

∂U EA 3EAδ2
W2 = = × 3δ2 =
∂δ2 2L 2L
2W2 L
⇒ δ2 =
3EA

41