Determination of Strain in a Steel Bar

Apparatus:
Dividers, steel bar, specimen UTM, scale, vernier caliper.

Procedure:
1. Prepare a test specimen of at least 2ft.
2. Measure at least 3 places dia of steel bar by a VC and calculate the average value.
3. Mark the gauge length i.e 2 marks 8” apart.
4. Insert the suitable jaws in the grip and select a suitable load scale on UTM.
5. Start the machine and continue applying the load tile the specimen breaks and then stop
the UTM.
6. Join the broken species of the tested specimen and measure the increase in gauge length.
7. Determine the value of strain by dividing increase in gauge length by gauge length.

Universal Testing Machine and Components

of UTM
A machine used to test specimens for tensile strength, compressive strength, shear
strength and to perform bend test along other important laboratory tests. The primary use
of the testing machine is to create the stress strain diagram. Once the diagram is
generated, a pencil and straight edge or computer algorithm can be used to calculate
yield strength, Young's Modulus, tensile strength or total elongation.

Components of UTM
It consists of two main parts, called:

1. Loading Unit
2. Control Unit

Loading unit

In this unit actual loading of the specimen takes place - consists of three cross heads
namely upper head, middle head and lower head. Using appropriate cross heads
tensile, compressive, shear, bending load with the help of different attachment can be
applied. Loading unit of a UTM consists of:

1. Upper cross head - To clamp testing specimen from top

2. Lower cross head - To clamp testing specimen from below
 3. Table - to place the specimen, used for compression test

Control Unit

The load is applied and recorded by this unit. The load is applied with control valve and
released by release valve. The load is applied with the help of hydraulic pressure.

Extensometer

An instrument used to measure elongation in the material

Tests UTM can perform

1. Tensile Tests
2. Adhesion Tests
3. Cycle tests with momentary stops
4. Pull-Out Tests
5. Creep Tests
6. Hysteresis Tests

Displays Test Traces and Values

Test Traces: An ongoing test can be displayed as either:

1. Load/Displacement
2. Load/Position
3. Load/Time
4. Position/Time
5. Displacement/Time

Digital Indicating Windows: The following are displayed:

1. Maximum Load (peak hold)

2. Current Load (during a test)
3. Cross head Position
4. Displacement (from the start of a test)

Applications of Universal Testing Machine

Universal Testing Machine can be used and applied to perform tests on the following
samples:

1. Rope
2. Steel Rope
3. Winches
 4. Steel Wire
5. Electrical Wire
6. Webbing
7. Spring
8. Slings
9. Cable
10. Nylon Rope
11. Links
12. Chain
13. Steel Chain

To Determine Yield & Tensile Strength of a

Steel Bar
Apparatus:
UTM, Test Specimen, Vernier Calipers, Ruler etc.

Description of UTM:

A machine designed to perform tensile, compression, bend and shear tests, is called
UTM,. It mainly consists of two parts.

 Loading Unit, control unit. In addition to these units, there are certain accessories
like bending table, jaws for gripping recorders etc.
 Loading unit consists of two crossheads i.e upper cross head and lower cross
head and a table

Procedure:
1. Prepare a test specimen of at least two feet.
2. Measure caliper at least at three places and then find average.
3. Insert the suitable jaws in the grip and select a suitable load scale on UTM.
4. Insert the specimen in the grip by adjusting the cross heads of UTM.

1. Start machine and continue applying the load.

2. At a point when the values of the load at that point this is called yield point.
3. When the specimen breaks stop the machine.
4. Note the ultimate value of the load.
 5. Determine the yield strength and tensile strength of load dividing the yield load &
ultimate load by cross sectional area of the bar.

Gauge length = 8 inch

Determine the yield strength by the following methods:

Offset Method

To determine the yield strength by the this method, it

is necessary to secure data (autographic or
numerical) from which a stress-strain diagram with a
distinct modulus characteristic of the material being
tested may be drawn. Then on the stress-strain
diagram, lay off om equal to the specified value of
the offset (i.e. yield strength ~0.2%),
draw mn parallel to OA, and thus locate r, the
intersection of mn with the stress-strain curve
corresponding to load R, which is the yield strength
load. In recording values of yield strength obtained
by this method, the value of offset specified or used,
or both, shall be stated in parentheses after the term
yield strength.

Figure - Stress-strain diagram for the determination of yield strength by the offset
method.

Secant Method

This method is also referred as the tangent, secant or chord modulus for the line drawn
from the shear stress-shear strain curve at 5% (1/20) and 33% (1/3) of the maximum
compressive shear stress. This region usually lies well within reasonably linear part of
the curve. Lower part of the curve, representing a straight region being associated with
closing up the interfaces between mortar and units is ignored, as they normally close up
due to self weight in real structures. Calculations for Ec are as follows.

Ec = ∆ Shear Stress / ∆Shear Strain

∆ Shear Stress = (Shear stress corresponding to 1/3 of the compressive strength) -

(Shear stress corresponding to 1/20 of the compressive strength)

∆ Shear Strain = Difference of the Shear strain at corresponding values of Shear stress.
 ASTM Standards
Strength Grade 40 Grade 60 Grade 75
Minimum Yield Strength 40,000 Psi 60,000 Psi 75,000 Psi
Maximum Yield Strength 60,000 Psi 90,000 Psi 100,000 Psi

Elongation = 9.8 – 8 = 1.8

Tensile
Area of Yield
Strength =
Sample Dia of Yield Ultimate Bar, Strength=Yield
Yield
No Bar Load(Tons) load(Tons) A=∏ D^ 2 Load *2204/
Load*2204/
/4 Area
Area
1 ½ in 5.97 9.28 0.196 in2 67132.04 Psi 104352.
65 Psi
2 ½ in 4.86 7.65 0.196 in2 54650.20 Psi 86023. 46 Psi
3 ½ in 5.47 8.11 0.196 in2 61509.62 Psi 91196. 12 Psi
4 ½ in 5.43 8.313 0.196 in2 61059.85 Psi 93445. 10 Psi
5 1/8 in 7.05 10.95 0.306 in2 50778.43 Psi 78868. 62 Psi

Determine Bend Test on Steel Bar

Apparatus:
UTM, test specimen, bending table support pin.

Procedure:
1. Take a test specimen of the steel rod.
2. Measure the diameter of the steel rod. Take at least 3 readings and calculate the mean.
3. Now place the test specimen in the bending table specimen should be kept in the bending
table in such a way that the plane
4. Intersecting the longitudinal ribs is parallel to the axis of the pin.
5. Select suitable rang of scale.
6. Start the machine and start applying load continuously and uniformly throughout the
bending.
7. As the load is applied on the rod it will start bending.
8. Discontinue the application of load when the angle of bent specified in the material
specimen has been achieved before rebound.
 9. Take out the specimen and examine the tension surface of the specimen for cracking.

Specification for Angel in Bend Test:

Bar # 3 to Bar #11 should bend up to 180o without crack
Bar # 14 & Bar # 18 should bend upto90o without crack

This all specification has been given in AASHTO (American Association for Sate
Highway and Transportation Officials)

Bend Test Requirements:

Bar No Grade 40 Grade 60 Grad 75

3, 4, 5 3 ½ db 3 ½ db -------------------
6 5 db 5 db -------------------
7, 8 ------------------- 5 db -------------------
9, 10 ------------------- 7 db -------------------
11 ------------------- 7 db 7 db
14, 18 ------------------- 9 db 9 db

Torsion Test on Mild Steel and Cast Iron -

Lab Report
Tensile Strength or Tension Test
Tensile Test - Tensile Strength or Tension Test

Definition:
Tensile strength of a material is the tension stress at which a material breaks or
permanently deforms (changes shape)

sUTS = Pmax/Ao

There are three stages of Tensile Strength:

1. Yield Strength
2. Ultimate Strength and
3. Breaking strength

Tensile strength of a material is the tension stress at which a material breaks or

permanently deforms (changes shape) Toughness, Resilience, Poisson's ratio can also
be found by the use of this testing technique. This data is plotted as load vs elongation
and then converted to engineering stress (load/original area) vs engineering strain
(fractional change in length over the test section assuming the deformation is uniform)
Procedure of Strength Test:
A standard test piece (gauge length 8ft) is gripped at both ends in the jaws of UTM -
Universal Testing Machine which slowly exerts an axial pull so that the steel is stretched
until it breaks. The major parameters that describe the stress-strain curve obtained
during the tension test are the:

1. Ultimate tensile strength (UTS)

2. Yield strength or yield point (sy)
3. Elastic modulus (E)
4. Percent elongation (?L%) and
5. The reduction in area (RA%).

Toughness, Resilience, Poisson's ratio can also be found by the use of this testing
technique. This data is plotted as load vs elongation and then converted to engineering
stress (load/original area) vs engineering strain (fractional change in length over the test
section assuming the deformation is uniform.

Engineering Stress:

Stress s = P / Ao ( Load/Initial cross-sectional area)

Strain = e = dl / lo (Elongation/Initial gauge length)

Engineering stress and strain are independent of the geometry of the specimen.

If the true cross section is measured during the test the True Stress and True
Strain may be calculated. Tensile tests are applied on materials such as concrete,
metals, plastics, wood, and ceramics etc.

Units of Measurement:
Tensile testing systems use a number of different units of measurement. The
International System of Units, or SI, recommends the use of either Pascals (Pa) or
Newtons per square meter (N/m²) for describing tensile strength. In the United States,
many engineers measure tensile strength in kilo-pound per square inch (KSI).