Strength of materials

lab manual

STRENGHT OF MATERIALS LABORATORY

As per Syllabus – R 2008

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Tension test on MS bar and HYSD bars

2. Torsion test on MS / CI specimens and shear test on MS
3. Test on Timber beam – Bending test - compression test on timber
specimens
4. Test on brick crushing, water absorption
5. a. Hardness test on metals
b. Impact test.
6. a. Crushing Test on concrete cubes
b. Split Tension test on concrete cylinder.
7. Test on Springs for stiffness
8. Test of cement fineness, normal consistency, setting times
9. Test on fine aggregate - sieves analysis test – bulking - fineness
modulus
10. Test on course aggregate crushing value & impact value

BEYOND THE SYLLABUS

1. Deflection test on Mild steel

2. Deflection test on Aluminum beam

 3. Verification of Maxwell Reciprocal Theorem

4. Effect of Hardening - Improvement in hardness and impact resistance of steels

5. Tempering – Improvement of Mechanical properties comparison of Unhardened,

Quenched and Tempered specimen.

Ex. No. TENSION TEST ( Mild Steel ) Date :

Aim :

To determine tensile strength, Young’s modulus, percentage of elongation etc. of

 mild steel rod.

Apparatus required:

 Universal testing machine

 Extensometer
 Vernier caliper
 Scale
 Mild steel specimen

Procedure:

1. The diameter of the specimen is measured at top, middle and bottom, and the
average is determined.
2. Gauge length is marked by leaving suitable length at both the ends.
3. The load range in the UTM is chosen appropriately to the given diameter of
the rod, and to the ultimate stress assumed.
4. The rod is rigidly fixed in between the grips and the test piece should be held
in such a way that the load is applied as axially as possible.
5. The extensometer is fixed for measuring elongation of gauge length.
6. The load is applied and the extensometer reading is noted for uniform
increment of loads.
7. The extensometer is removed before the yield point.
8. The yield load shown by the backward movement of the pointer is noted.
9. The load is further applied and the ultimate load is noted.
10. The breaking load is noted at which the specimen breaks.
11. The specimen is released from the grips.
12. Final dimensions ( i.e., increment in gauge length and reduction in diameter at
neck) of the specimen are measured.

Formula:

Yield load
Yield stress = --------------------------------------
Cross sectional area
 Ultimate load
Ultimate stress = ------------------------------------
Cross sectional area

Breaking load
Breaking stress =--------------------------------------
Neck area

Increase in length
% of elongation = -------------------------------------
Original length

Decrease in c/s area

% of decrease in c/s area =-----------------------------
Original area

Tension test ( Mild Steel )

Length of rod ( gauge ) =

Diameter of rod =
Area of rod =
Yield load =
Ultimate load =
Breaking load =
Final gauge length =
Increase in length =
Final diameter ( neck ) =
Neck area =

Calculation:
 Graph:
Deflection ( X-axis ) vs Load ( Y – axis)

Result :

Yield stress =

Ultimate stress =

Breaking stress =

% of elongation =

% of decrease in c/s area =

Ex. No. DOUBLE SHEAR TEST Date :

Introduction:
Structural fastenings such as rivets, bolts, weds and springs are very often
Selected to shear due to external loads and moments. Further machine parts like shafts,
are etc., are also subjected to shear stresses due to rotation. It is therefore, essential to the
steel also to be tested in shear to find its suitability in practice.

Aim :

To determine the double shear strength of the mild steel.

Apparatus required:

 UTM
 Double shear set up
 Specimen

Procedure

1. The specimen is placed in to the rectangular device present in the double shear
set up.
2. The above set up is placed in the bottom portion of the UTM. The moving
head of the UTM is placed in the top of the rectangular device.
3. Now the hydraulic pressure is applied in the rod by turning the knob present in
the hydraulic machine. The maximum load at which the specimen fails is
noted. The final diameter of the rod is measured.
4. The double shear stress is calculated using the formula.

Result :

The double shear stress of the given specimen is = _______________________

Double shear test :

Diameter of the rod , d ` =

C.S. area of the rod, A =

Load at failure, W =
Double shear stress = Load at failure / 2A

Ex. No. TORSION TEST Date :

Aim :

To determine the shear stress and rigidity modulus of the given specimen.

Apparatus required :

 Torsion testing machine

  Vernier caliper
 Scale
 Specimen

Procedure:

1. Before testing, the measuring range is adjusted according to the capacity of

the test piece counter weight of the pendulum is adjusted correctly.
2. The specimen is then held in the driving chuck and driven chuck with the held
of handles. The angle- measuring dial is also adjusted to zero position.
3. Black pointer is adjusted at the starting position the thread from the driving
chuck pulley is taken over small pulleys.
4. The machine is started and the specimen is subjected to torsion.
5. The torque is measured at a suitable interval of angle twist.
6. Angle of twist and the torque are measured at the failure of the specimen.

Result :

Plastic shear strength is = ----------------------------------------------

Angle of twist at the failure of the specimen is =---------------------------
Modulus of rigidity is =----------------------------

Calculation :

Length of the specimen, l =

Dia. of the specimen, d =
Torque at failure, T =
 Angle of twist, ø =

Polar moment of inertia, J =

Plastic shear strength, fs = Txr/J

Rigidity modulus, N = (T. l) / (J. ø)

Ex. No. IMPACT TEST ( Izod ) Date :

Aim :
To determine the impact strength of mild steel square specimen using Izod test.
Apparatus required :
 Impact testing machine
 Vernier caliper
 Guide plate
Procedure:
1. The specimen is kept truly vertical in the notch vice so that the centre of the
notch is in level with the top of the vice so that the notch is facing the
direction of the blow. The one- third portion of the specimen ( 25mm )
should be projected above the vice and remaining portion ( 50mm) should lie
inside the vice.
2. The pointer is set at maximum of the dial.
3. The lever is released and the pendulum hammer is allowed to swing.
4. The pointer in the dial gives the energy absorbed in friction down.
5. The pendulum is locked in its original position.
6. The batch is released and the pendulum is allowed to strike the specimen.
7. The energy spent is breaking or bending the specimen is noted down form the
dial.
8. The impact strength is calculated using the formula.

Formula:

Impact strength of specimen = ( Energy absorbed by specimen) /

(Cross sectional area of the specimen)

Result :
The impact strength is -------------------------------------- N/mm.

Impact test ( Izod)

MSR VSR Total reading (in mm)
Specimen Dimensions Area , mm2
(mm) ( div) = MSR + ( VSR x LC)
Breadth
1
Width
Breadth
2
Width
3 Breadth
 Width

Sl. Frictional energy absorbed by Energy spent in Energy Impact strength of the
No friction without specimen, bending the absorbed by specimen, N/mm
. Nm ( A) specimen , specimen, = ( B-A)/ Area
Nm (B) Nm ( B-A)
1
2
3

Impact strength = Energy absorbed by specimen / Cross sectional area

Average =

Ex. No. IMPACT TEST ( Charpy ) Date :

Aim :
To determine the impact strength of mild steel square specimen using Charpy
test.
Apparatus required :
 Impact testing machine
 Vernier caliper
 Guide plate
Procedure:
 1. The hammer is raised and locked .
2. The pointer is set at the maximum graduated energy range of the dial.
3. The trigger is released and the pendulum hammer is allowed to swing. This
actuates the pointer to move in the dial.
4. The pointer shows the energy absorbed by the bearing without specimen and
it is noted .
5. The hammer is again raised and locked.
6. The specimen is placed in between the simple anvil support keeping the 45
degrees V- notch in the opposite direction to the striking edge of the
hammer.
7. The specimen is adjusted such that the striking edge of hammer and V-notch
coincides in the same alignment.
8. The pointer is set to read the maximum energy range marked in the dial.
9. The lever is released and the pendulum is allowed to strike the specimen at
its mid point.
10. The energy spent in breaking or bending the specimen is observed.
11. The results are tabulated and the impact strength is calculated using the
formula.

Formula:
Impact strength of specimen = Energy absorbed / Cross Sectional area

Result : The impact strength is ………………… N/mm

 Impact test ( Charpy)
MSR VSR Total reading (in mm)
Specimen Dimensions Area , mm2
(mm) ( div) = MSR + ( VSR x LC)
Breadth
1
Width
Breadth
2
Width
Breadth
3
Width

Sl. Frictional energy absorbed by Energy spent in Energy Impact strength of the
No friction without specimen, bending the absorbed by specimen, N/mm
. Nm ( A) specimen , specimen, = ( B-A)/ Area
Nm (B) Nm ( B-A)
1
2
3

Impact strength = Energy absorbed by specimen / Cross sectional area

Average =

Ex. No. HARDNESS TEST ( Rockwell – Diamond Cone ) Date :

Introduction :
 The term hardness in general means the resistance of the material to indentation.
The hardness value obtained in a particular test serves only as a comparison between
materials or treatments. Hardness tests are widely used for inspection and quality
control. Heat treatment or working usually results in change in hardness. Hardness test
affords a rapid and simple means of inspection and control for the particular material and
process.
An indentor or fixed and known geometry makes an impression with the
specimen under a known static load applied ( either directly or by means of a lever
system.) . the hardness is then expressed as a number that is either inversely proportional
to the depth of indentation or proportional to a mean load over the area of indentation.

Aim :
To determine the Rockwell hardness number of the given specimen using
diamond cone.
Apparatus required:
 Rockwell hardness testing machine
 Diamond cone
 Test specimen

Procedure :
1. In the Rockwell hardness testing machine is a direct reading instrument based
on the principle of different depth measurement is used in this test. The
penetrator or indicator scale load for the particular material to be tested is
chosen from the table.
Material Penetrator Load Scale

Relatively soft material Diamond cone 60 kgf

A
Fairly hard material 1/16 ball pointer 100 kgf B
Hard material Diamond cone 150 kgf C

2. The surface of the specimen is cleaned by emery sheet. The specimen is kept
on the testing platform.
 3. The platform is raised until the small pointer in the dial reads against the red
mark and the lengthy pointer against the set position.
4. The load is applied gradually and maintained till the lengthy pointer comes to
rest. The load is released gradually.
5. After releasing the load the dial reading is observed. This is Rockwell
hardness number of the specimen.
6. The same procedure is repeated for at least six times.
7. The average value of the Rockwell hardness number is obtained.

Result :

The Rockwell hardness number for the given stainless steel material is …………
( HRA / HRB / HRC )

The Rockwell hardness number for the given EN8 materials is …………………
( HRA / HRB / HRC )
 Sl Load Hardness
Material Penetrator Scale
No. (kgf) Number
1 Stainless steel Diamond cone
2 Stainless steel Diamond cone
3 Stainless steel Diamond cone
4 Stainless steel Diamond cone
5 Stainless steel Diamond cone

Average =

Sl Hardness
Material Load( kgf) Penetrator Scale
No. Number
1 EN -8 Diamond cone
2 EN -8 Diamond cone
3 EN -8 Diamond cone
4 EN -8 Diamond cone
5 EN -8 Diamond cone

Average =

Ex. No. HARDNESS TEST ( Rockwell – Ball intender ) Date :

Aim :
To determine the Rockwell hardness number of the given specimen using
diamond cone.
Apparatus required:
o Rockwell hardness testing machine
o Intenders
 o Test specimen
Procedure :
1. In the Rockwell hardness testing machine is a direct reading instrument
based on the principle of different depth measurement is used in this test.
The penetrator or indicator scale load for the particular material to be
tested is chosen from the table.
Material Penetrator Load Scale

Relatively soft material Diamond cone 60 kgf

A
Fairly hard material 1/16 ball pointer 100 kgf B
Hard material Diamond cone 150 kgf C
2. The surface of the specimen is cleaned by emery sheet. The specimen is kept
on the testing platform.
3. The platform is raised until the small pointer in the dial reads against the red
mark and the lengthy pointer against the set position.
4. The load is applied gradually and maintained till the lengthy pointer comes to
rest. The load is released gradually.
5. After releasing the load the dial reading is observed. This is Rockwell
hardness number of the specimen.
6. The same procedure is repeated for at least six times.
7. The average value of the Rockwell hardness number is obtained.
Result :
The Rockwell hardness number for the given stainless steel material is …………
( HRA / HRB / HRC )
The Rockwell hardness number for the given EN8 materials is …………………
( HRA / HRB / HRC )

Sl Load , Hardness
Material Penetrator Scale
No. kgf Number
1 Cast iron Ball intender
2 Cast iron Ball intender
3 Cast iron Ball intender
4 Cast iron Ball intender
5 Cast iron Ball intender
 Average =

Sl Hardness
Material Load ( kgf ) Penetrator Scale
No. Number
1 Mild Steel Ball intender
2 Mild Steel Ball intender
3 Mild Steel Ball intender
4 Mild Steel Ball intender
5 Mild Steel Ball intender

Average =

Ex. No. SPRING TEST ( Closed coiled spring ) Date :

Aim :
To determine the modulus of rigidity of the given closed – coiled helical spring
under Tension.

Apparatus required :
 Tensile testing machine
 Spring testing assembly
 Closed- coiled helical spring
 Vernier caliper
Procedure:
1. The diameter of the wire, radius, pitch and number of turns of the spring are
measured using Vernier caliper.
2. The helix angle is calculated using the pitch of the spring.
3. The spring is placed in the test set – up
4. Initial reading in the scale is noted.
5. The deformations are recorded for the corresponding applied load.
6. Similarly the deformations are recorded while unloading.
7. The deformation of the spring is calculated using the formula.

Formula :

64 W R3 n
δ= ----------------
Cd4

Spring index =D/d

Stiffness = W/δ

Where
δ – Deflection , mm
W – load , N
R – mean radius of spring , mm [ = ( D-d) / 2 ]
n – no. of turns
C – Rigidity modulus , N/mm2
D – diameter of coil , mm
d - diameter of wire, mm

Graph:
 Deflection ( X- axis ) vs Load ( Y – axis )

Result :

Modulus of rigidity of the spring is ……………………..

Modulus of rigidity of the spring is …………………….. ( from graph )
Stiffness of the spring is …………………………………

Spring test ( close – coiled spring )

Diameter of the wire (d) =

Mean radius of the spring (R) =
Number of turns ( n ) =
Pitch of the coil (p) =

Deflection (mm) Mean Rigidity

Stiffness
Sl. No. Load KN deflection, modulus,
Loading Unloading N/ mm
mm N/mm2
1
2
3
 4
5
6

Average =

Ex. No. SPRING TEST (Open -coiled spring ) Date :

Aim :
To determine the modulus of rigidity of the given Open – Coiled helical spring
under compression.

Apparatus required :

 Compression testing machine

 Spring testing assembly
 Open – Coiled helical spring
 Vernier caliper

Procedure :
 1. The diameter of the wire, radius , pitch and number of turns of the spring are
measured using Vernier caliper.
2. The helix angle is calculated using the pitch of the spring.
3. The spring is placed in the test set – up.
4. Initial reading in the scale is noted.
5. The deformations are recorded for the corresponding applied load.
6. Similarly the deformations are recorded while unloading.
7. The deformation of the spring is calculated using the formula.

Formula:

cos2α sin2α
δ= WR3n.secα.2π [ ------- + -------- ]
Clp El

Spring index = D/d

Stiffness = W/ δ

Where

δ – Deflection ( mm)
W – load ( N)
R – mean radius of spring (mm) [ = ( D/d) /2]
n - no. of turns
α - helix angle
C – Rigidity modulus ( N/mm2)
Ip- Polar Moment of inertia ( mm4 )
E - Young’s modulus, ( N/mm2)
I - Moment of inertia of beam about which the bending occurs ( mm4 )
D - diameter of coil ( mm)
d - diameter of wire (mm)
Graph :

Deflection ( X- axis ) vs load ( Y – axis)

Result :

Modulus of rigidity of the spring is --------------------------

Modulus of rigidity of the spring is -------------------------- ( from graph )
Stiffness of the spring is ----------------------------------------
`

Spring test ( Open – Coiled spring )

Diameter of the wire ( d) =

Mean radius of the spring ( R) =
Number of turns ( n) =
Pitch of the coil ( p) =
Helix angle (α) = tan -1 ( P / 2πR)

Deflection (mm) Mean Rigidity

Stiffness
Sl. No. Load KN deflection modulus
Loading Unloading (N/ mm)
(mm) (N/mm2)
1
 2
3
4
5
6

Average =

Ex. No. COMPRESSSION TEST ( Brick ) Date :

Introduction:
Bricks constitute an old and important class of building material. It is extensively
used for constructions because of its ease and relatively low cost of manufacture,
durability and moderate strength. Bricks are used not only for building construction but
als0 to a limited extent for other kinds of construction such as veering walls, curtain
walls, low piers and short span arches.
Aim :
To determine the ultimate compressive strength of given material ( Brick or
concrete cube )
Apparatus required :
 Compression testing machine - 1KN capacity
 Vernier caliper / linear measuring scale
Procedure :
1. The dimensions of the specimen are measured.
 2. The specimen is placed centrally between the bearing plates of the
compression – testing machine
3. The load release valve of the hydraulic loading tanker is closed so that it will
prevent the return of the compressed oil from compression – testing machine.
If the load release valve is in open position, the load will not be applied to the
specimen.
4. The load is applied to the specimen uniformly till the specimen fails .
5. The reversing of the black pointer of the dial indicates the failure of the
specimen. Then the load is stopped.
6. The load at failure is noted down from the red pointer of the dial .
7. The load release is opened slowly to remove the oil from the compression
testing machine.
8. The results are tabulated and the compressive strength is calculated using the
formula.
Result :

The Compressive strength is ------------------------

Formula :
Compressive strength = Ultimate load / surface area

Significance of the test :

Strength of bricks depends on the nature of available soil used for bricks
manufacturing and technique adopted for molding and burning .
The compressive strength of brick ranges from 45kg/cm2 to 100kg/cm2 for the
bricks manufactured by commonly known methods.
Machine-made bricks give the compressive strength varying between 175kg/cm2
to 200 kg/cm2

Compression Test on Brick :

 Surface area Ultimate load Ultimate strength
Sl.No Dimensions
( mm2 ) ( KN) ( N/mm2)
.
Length (mm) Breadth (mm)
1
2
3
4
5

Average =

Ex. No. WATER ABSORPTION OF BUILDING BRICK Date :

Introduction:
Entry of moisture ( water) from exterior walls to interior sides of rooms through
the minute pores present in the masonry will create Dampness in the interior of the room.
To prevent the occurring of dampness, brick walls exposed to outside ( external faces)
should be capable of resisting moisture passing through them to the inside of walls of
sufficient thickness. A good brick should absorb water maximum 1/7 th of the weight of
the brick.
Aim:
To determine water absorption building brick.

Apparatus required :

 Balance
 Water Tank etc.,
Procedure :

1. Take 3 bricks and dry in a ventilated oven at a temperature of 105° C to 115°C.

 2. Cool the specimen to room temperature and find its dry weight ( W1). Specimen
warm to touch shall not be used for the purpose.
3. Immerse completely dried specimen in clean water for 24 hours.
4. Remove the specimen and wipe out any traces of water with damp cloth and
weigh the specimen ( W2). Complete the weighing within 3 minutes after the
specimen has been removed from water.
5. Calculate water absorption percent by weight using the formula

W2-W1
____________ X 100
W1
Result :

Water absorption ( percent by weight after 24 hours immersion in cold water) = --------%

Significance of the test:

The average water absorption shall not be more than 20 percent by weight upto
the bricks having compressive strength of 125kg/cm 2 and 15 percent by weight for bricks
having the compressive strength more than 125 kg/cm2

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Weight of Water
Dry weight Wet Weight
Sl.No. Size (cm) water absorption
( W1) ( W2)
( W2-W1) ( %)
 Ex. No. BRINELL HARDNESS TEST Date :

Introduction:
Brinell hardness number is the ratio of the applied load on the specimen to the
spherical area of impression by the penetrator.
The test consists in forcing a steel ball into the test piece and measuring the mean
diameter of the indentation left over the surface after removal of the load. The brinell
hardness HB is obtained by dividing the test load by the curved surface area of the
indentation. This curved surface is assumed to be a portion of the sphere.
Aim :
To determine the Brinell Hardness test number of the given specimen
Apparatus required:
 Brinell hardness testing machine
 Test specimen
 Brinell Microscope

Procedure :
1. Keep the operating lever in horizontal position.
2. Place the specimen on testing table.
3. Turn the handwheel in clockwise direction so that the specimen will push the
indentor.
4. Lift the operating lever from horizontal position upwards slightly after which
it rotates automatically.
 5. Wait till the lever becomes standstill.
6. Bring the lever back to horizontal position.
7. Turn back the handwheel and remove the specimen, carry the same procedure
for further specimen.
8. Measure the diameter of impression by Brinell Microscope and find out
Brinell hardness number.

Result :

The Brinell Hardness Number of given sample is = --------------------------

Significance of the test :

Brinell hardness test is best for measuring hardness of grey iron castings
consisting of soft flake graphite, iron and hard iron carbide. Brinell hardness test are
conducted on structural steel and other rolled sections, steel, cast iron and aluminium
castings and in most forgings.

OBSERVATION :

Diameter of Indentor Mean Brinell

Material
First (mm) Second (mm) Kgf /mm2

Calculation :
2P
Brinell Hardness Number = ----------------------------------
π D ( D – √D2 – d2 )
Where
P = Load
D = Original diameter
d = Diameter of the removing load

Ex. No. DEFLECTION TEST ( Mild Steel ) Date :

Aim :
To determine the Young’s modulus of mild steel simply supported beam by
conducting deflection test.
Apparatus required :
 Kinfe – edge supports
 Vernier caliper / linear measuring scale
 Deflectometer
 Weight with hanger
Procedure:
1. The dimension of the specimen is measured using Vernier Caliper
2. The position of the specimen, load and deflectometer are fixed as per given
values of l, x and a.
3. The initial readings of deflectometer readings are noted down.
4. The load is applied and the corresponding deflectometer readings are
recorded. The same procedure is done for every increment as well as
decrement of loading.
5. The results are tabulated.
Formula :
Wax
E = ------------( L2 – a2 – x2 )
61 Lδ
Where
E – Young’s modulus ( N/mm2)
W- Load (N)
a – Distance of load from left support ( mm).
x – Distance of deflectometer from right support (mm)
I – Moment of inertia of beam about which the bending occurs ( mm4 )
L – Span between knife – edge supports (mm)
δ – Deflection ( mm)
Result :
The Young’s modulus is --------------------------------
The Young’s modulus is --------------------------------( From graph)

Graph

Deflection ( X- axis ) vs Load ( Y- axis )

Deflection test ( Mild steel )

Mean Young’s
Sl.
Deflection reading . div. deflection modulus
No. Load ( kg)
(mm) ( N/mm2)
Loading Unloading Mean
1
2
3
4
5

Average =
Ex. No. DEFLECTION TEST ( Aluminium ) Date :

Aim :
To determine the Young’s modulus of Aluminium simply supported beam by
conducting deflection test.
Apparatus required :
 Kinfe – edge supports
 Vernier caliper / linear measuring scale
 Deflectometer
 Weight with hanger
Procedure:
1. The dimension of the specimen is measured using Vernier Caliper
2. The position of the specimen, load and deflectometer are fixed as per given
values of l, x and a.
3. The initial readings of deflectometer readings are noted down.
4. The load is applied and the corresponding deflectometer readings are recorded.
The same procedure is done for every increment as well as decrement of
Loading.
5. The results are tabulated.
Formula :
Wax
E = ------------( L2 – a2 – x2 )
61 Lδ
Where
E – Young’s modulus ( N/mm2)
W- Load (N)
a – Distance of load from left support ( mm).
x – Distance of deflectometer from right support (mm)
I – Moment of inertia of beam about which the bending occurs ( mm4 )
L – Span between knife – edge supports (mm)
δ – Deflection ( mm)
Result :
The Young’s modulus is --------------------------------
The Young’s modulus is --------------------------------( From graph)

Graph

Deflection ( X- axis ) vs Load ( Y- axis )

Deflection test ( Aluminium )

Mean Young’s
Sl.
Deflection reading . div. deflection modulus
No. Load ( kg)
(mm) ( N/mm2)
Loading Unloading Mean
1
2
3
4
5

Average =
 Ex. No. VERIFICATION OF MAXWELLS LAW OF Date :
RECIPROCAL DEFLECTION

Aim :
To verify Maxwell law of reciprocal deflection by conducting a deflection test on
simply supported beam.
Theorem :
Maxwells law of reciprocal deflection states that the deflection at point N due to
force P at point M is symmetrically equal to the deflection at the point M due to force P
applied at point N.
Apparatus required :

 Knife edge support weights with hanger

 Vernier caliper
 Dial gauge
 Specimen.
Procedure :

1. The breadth and depth of the beam is measured.

2. The position of the span is fixed at two points M and N as per the sketch.
3. The deflection is set first at point N and the load is placed at the point M
4. The initial reading of the dial gauge is observed.
5. The load is applied at suitable increment at M and the corresponding
deflection at N is observed at every set of load.
6. The load is decreased uniformly at the same rate and the corresponding
deflection is observed for every set of load.
 7. The deflection and the load are measured. The deflection is set at the point M
and the load is applied at the point N
8. The same procedure is repeated keeping the deflectometer at the point M and
the load at the point N.
9. All the deflections are recorded in the tabulation.
Result:

Least count : 0.01mm

Load Deflectometer reading Mean deflection

At point M (gm)

At point N ( gm)

At point “N” due to load

load at point “N” (mm)

At point “N” due

At point “M” due to

At point “M” due to

at point “M” (mm)

to loading at
loading at point “N”
Sl. point “ M”
Loading (div)
Loading

Un loading

Unloading
No.

(div)
( div)

(div)
 Ex. No. EFFECT OF HARDENING Date :

Aim :

To determine the hardness and impact resistance of the given hardened material
and compare them with unhardened material.

Apparatus required :

 Muffle furnace
 Hardness testing machine
 Impact testing machine
 Specimen

Procedure :

Hardening: It is defined as a heat treatment process in which the steel is heated

to a temperature within or above its critical range, and held at this temperature for a
considerable time to ensure thorough penetration of the temperature inside the component
and allowed to cool by quenching in water, oil or brine solution.
1. The specimen is hardened as stated above.
2. Now the specimen is polished using emery papers of various grades.
3. Hardness number of the hardened specimen is found by Rockwell hardness
testing machine.
4. The same specimen is used for determination of impact strength from impact
testing machine.
5. The calculated hardness numbers and impact strength are tabulated separately.

Result :

The hardness number and impact strength of the hardened specimen are compared
with the unhardened specimen.
Effect of hardening :
 Date :
Ex. No. IMPROVEMENT OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Aim :

To compare the mechanical properties of various hardened specimen like

unhardened , quenched, quenched & tempered specimens.
Apparatus required :
 Furnace
 Oil, water or brine solution
 Rockwell hardness testing machine
 Specimen
Procedure:
Quenching : It is an operation of rapid cooling by immersing a hot piece into a
quenching bath.
Tempering : It is defined as the process of reheating the hardened specimen to
some temperature before the critical range followed by any rate of cooling such a
reheating permits the trapped temperature to transform and relieve the internal stresses.
1. An ordinary unhardened specimen is taken and its hardness number is found by
Rockwell hardness testing machine.
2. The test specimen whose hardness number was found already in the
unhardened stage is placed inside the heat treatment furnace after making the
temperature of the furnace as 800°c, the specimen is heated for at least 1 hour
continuously and then it is taken out by holder and it is cooled rapidly by dipping
it into the quenching bath.
3. The hardness number of this specimen is found by RHTM.
4. Again the specimen is reheated.( i.e. Tempering is done )
5. The hardness number of the tempered specimen is found.
6. The results are compared.

Result :
A report is given by comparing three different hardness values of the
specimen, which was subjected to various heat treatment processes.
Improvement of Mechanical Properties :
 Ex. No. COMPRESIVE STRENGTH OF TIMBER Date :

Aim :
To determine the compressive strength of the timber perpendicular / parallel to
Grain.
Apparatus required :

 Universal wood testing machine

 Scale
 Test specimen etc.
Procedure:
1. The specimen is placed such that the load will be applied through the bearing
plate to the radial surface ( Perpendicular / Parallel to grain )
2. The load is continuously applied such that the hydraulically movable head of
the testing machine travels at an uniform rate until the specimen fails.
3. The maximum load at failure is note down.
4. The ultimate compressive stress is calculated.

Result :

The ultimate compressive stress of timber Perpendicular / Parallel to grain = ------------

 Ultimate
Size of the Ultimate load
Area ( mm2) Compressive
Specimen ( mm) ( KN)
Strength N/mm2

Calculation :
Ultimate load
Ultimate compressive strength of timber Perpendicular / Parallel to grain = -----------------
Area of cross section

Ex. No. FINENESS TEST FOR CEMENT Date :

Aim :
To determine the fineness modulus of cement

Apparatus required :

Balance - A balance sensitive to 0.5 percent of the weight of the sample

to be weighed.
IS Sieve No. 9 ( 90 microns ) , Stopwatch .

Procedure :

 The sample shall be weighed accurately to 100gms and taken it on a IS

Sieve No.9
 The air set lumps in the sample shall be broken with fingers
 The sieve shall then be continuously sieved giving circular and vertical
motion for a period of 15 minutes.
 The weight of the residue left on the sieve shall be weighed.
 The weight shall not exceed 10% for ordinary cement.

Result :

Fineness of the cement = ----------------------------------------%

Observations and Calculations:

Weight of cement taken = 100g

Weight of cement retained ( N) on IS Sieve No. 9 ( 90 micron) =------------------
N
Percentage of cement retained = ------ x 100
100
 Ex. No. DETERMINATION OF AGGREGATE CRUSHING Date :
VALUE

Introduction:

Aggregate is subjected to a gradually increasing specified rate of loading and its

crushing value is determined. The aggregate crushing value gives relative measure of the
substance of an aggregate to crush under a gradually applied compressive load ( Static).

Aim:

To determine the crushing value of the given aggregate.

Appratus required:

Aggregate crushing test mould of 5kg capacity, balance, IS sieves of sizes

12.5mm and 2.36mm. compression testing machine of capacity 50t, etc.

Procedure:

1. Find the weight of the cylinder and the base plate ( W1)
2. Then add the test sample in three layers in the cylinder, subjecting each layer
to 25 stokes using the tamping rod.
3. Level carefully the surface of the aggregate and weigh the sample along with
the cylinder and base plate ( W2)
4. Insert the plunger to rest horizontally on the surface of the aggregate
5. Place the apparatus with the test sample and plunger in position between the
plates of the compression testing machine and load it so that it reaches 40
tonnes in 10 minutes at a uniform rate of loading .
6. Release the load and take the test apparatus out of the testing machine.
7. Remove the aggregate from the cylinder and sieve it on a 2.36mm IS sieve
and weigh the fraction passing the sieve ( W3) taking care to avoid loss of the
fines.
Result :

Average aggregate crushing value of the sample = --------------------------------------

Significance of the test :

As per IS code the crushing strength of aggregate used in concrete works other
wearing surface should not exceed 45% and for aggregate used in concrete for smoothing
surfaces should not exceed 30%

Observations:

Sl.
Details Test – I (kg) Test – II ( kg)
No.
1 Wt of cylinder with base plate ( W1 )
Wt. of cylinder with base plate + sample
2
( W2)
3 Wt. if sample ( W2 –W1 )
Wt. of fines passing 2.36mm IS Sieve
4
( W3)
5 Wt. of materials retained ( W4)

Calculations:

W3
Aggregate crushing value =------------ x 100 = -------------------------
(W2 –W1)

Ex. No. DETERMINATION OF AGGREGATE IMPACT Date :

VALUE
Introduction:

Aggregate may be used along with a binder like bitumen for roads or it may also
used in concrete for pavements, roads and runways. The wearing surface of the
pavement is subject to heavy static and dynamic loads resulting in crushing of aggregate.
Since aggregate should be tested in crushing due to static and dynamic loads.
In the impact test the aggregate is subjected to a given impact load (dynamic) by
specified number of falls of standard hammer from a given height and its impact value
determined.

Aim:

To determine the aggregate impact value of coarse aggregate.

Apparatus required :

Aggregate impact testing machine , IS Sieve 2.36mm, a cylindrical measure, rod

and balance , etc.,

Procedure :

1. Fill the measure about one – third full with aggregate and using the round end
of a rod, tamp the aggregate with twenty five strokes.
2. Repeat the procedure twice for the remaining two-third portion, adding each
time one third of the volume and tamping it. Note down the weight of the
sample ( say A)
3. Transfer the sample to the cylinder in three layers of one third volume and
tamp it as usual.
4. Place the cylinder in its position in the impact testing machine firmly.
5. Allow the load to fall 15 times at one blow per second at constant rate.
6. Take the sample out of the cylinder carefully.
7. Sieve the sample on 2.36mm sieve. Weigh the portion passing through the
2.36mm sieve.
8. Calculate the aggregate impact value. Repeat this for remaining two samples.
Result :
Average aggregate impact value of the sample is -------------------------- %

Significance of the test :

 IS code specifies that the aggregate impact value should not be more than 45%
weight for aggregate used for concrete other than wearing surfaces and 30% by weight
concrete used as wearing surfaces such as roads, pavements and runways

Observations :

Sl.
Description Sample - I Sample - II
No.
Weight of the empty cup
1.
( W1 )
Weight of the empty cup and
2.
aggregate ( W2)
3 Weight of aggregate ( A)
Weight of aggregate passing
4
through IS sieve 2.6mm ( B)
5 Weight of aggregate retained
Aggregate impact value
6.
( B/A x 100 )

Calculations:
Aggregate impact value of the
Ist sample = B/A x 100 = ---------------------------------
IInd sample = B/A x 100 = ---------------------------------
Average impact value of the samples = ---------------------------------

Ex. No. DETERMINATION OF BULKING OF SAND Date :

Introduction :
 The word “ Bulking” means increase of volume. Sand is an integral part of a
concrete. Whenever a small quantity of water is added to given volume of perfectly dry
its volume increases initially. This is due to the fact that each particle of sand is rounded
by a film of surface eater which tends to hold the surrounding particles used by a similar
film at a distance by surface tension. If more water is added little bottle ( say in the order
of 2 % of we3ight at every time ) it will be noted that its volume an increasing gradually
and after reaching a particular value, the volume dimities usually and finally reaching the
zero value. Thus the total volume of perfectly dry sand ----------------same as that of
saturated sand.

Aim:
To determine the percentage bulking of sand and to plot the “ Bulking curve”.
Apparatus required :
A cylindrical large measuring jar of 1000cc cap, scale , balance, etc .,

Procedure:
1. Take a clean empty jar of 1000cc volume and determine its weight.
2. Fill it carefully with the perfectly dried sand ( dried upto 110°C ) without
tamping or disturbing the sand , layers upto 500cc.
3. Weigh up the jar again together with the sand filled to determine the weight of
sand alone.
4. Pour off the sand into a pan without losing even a single particle of the sand
and add water at 2% by weight of dry sand and mix it thoroughly by hand.
5. Refill the wet sand into the same jar loosely. It will be found that a portion of
sand is excess and it is called “ Bulked excess sand”.
6. Determine the percentage of bulked sand as below. If “V” is total volume and
“U” the volume of bulked sand, then the percentage of bulking = U/V x 100
7. Repeat the experiment by increasing the percent of moisture contents at every
time in order of say 4%, 6%, 8%, 10%, 12%, etc., till there be any bulked
excess sand.
8. Plot a graph moisture content versus percentage of bulking , taking % of
moisture content is X- axis and % of bulking in Y-axis.
9. Note down the maximum bulking and corresponding moisture content.
Result :
Maximum % of bulking = --------------------------------------
Corresponding moisture content = --------------------------------------

Significance of the test :

Normally concrete is prepared by mixing cement, sand and aggregate is volume

portion. When the sand is in wet condition, it will be less than the actual quantity dry
sand. The concrete mix then becomes deficient in sand and concrete may be use to
segregation. The yield of concrete is also reduced. Therefore, while adding aggregate
( sand) to the concrete mix by volume , the specified volume of sand is proposnately
increased if the sand is moist. The finer the sand, the greater is the bulking.
Observations:
Sl. Moisture content added
No. Description
2% 4% 6% 8% 10%

Weight of dry sand

1.
( grams)
2 Volume of dry sand (cc)
Volume of water added
3
( cc)
Volume of bulked sand
4
(cc)
Increase in volume
5
( cc)
6 % of bulking

Ex. No. DETERMINATION OF INITIAL SETTING TIME Date :

AND FINAL SETTING TIME OF CEMENT
Introduction :
The term setting is used to describe the stiffening of the cement paste. It refers
change from a fluid to a rigid state. Although during setting, the paste acquires strength,
the term hardening is used to denote the gain of strength of a set at paste.
 The setting of cement is caused by a selective hydration of cement compounds
fully Tricalcium Silicate and Tricalcium Aluminate ). The terms initial set and final used
to describe arbitrarily chosen stage of setting.
Initial setting time is defined as the time elapsed between the moment the water is
to the cement to the time the paste starts loosing its plasticity. In actual construction with
concrete, certain time is required for mixing, transporting and placing. During time the
cement product should remain in plastic state. Normally a minimum of minutes is given
for mixing and handling operations.
Final setting time is the time elapsed between the moment the water is added the
cement and the time when the paste has completely lost its plasticity and has used
sufficient firmness to resist certain definite pressure.

Aim :
To determine the initial and final setting times of cement .
Apparatus required:
Vicat’s apparatus with 1mm square needle with and without attachement for
collar , stopwatch, measuring jar , etc.,
Procedure:

Initial setting time:

1. Take 500g of cement sample and mix it with 0.85 times the water required to
produce cement paste of normal consistency.
2. Fill the Vicat mould with the paste, within 5 minutes. Start the stopwatch the
moment water is added to the cement.
3. Lower the needle of 1mm deep gently and bring it in contact with the surface
4. In the beginning, the needle will completely pierce through the paste. But,
after sometime, when the paste starts loosing its plasticity, the needle may
penetrate to depth of 33mm to 35mm from the top.

5. Take the period elapsing between the time when water is added to the cement
and the time which the needle penetrates the mould to a depth equal to 33mm
to 35mm from the top or when reading in the Vicat’s scale between 5 and
7mm as the initial setting time.
Final setting time:

1. Replace the needle of 1mm square by a circular attachment with amular

coller.
2. The period elapsing between the time when water is added to the cement and
the time at which the needle makes impression on the surface of the mould
while the attachment fails to do so is the final setting time.
3. In other words, the paste has attained such hardness that the centre of the
needle does not pierce more than 0.5mm through the paste.

Result :
Initial setting time of the cement = ------------------------------------- minutes .

Final setting time of the cement = ---------------------------------------hours.

Significance of the test :

As per IS the minimum initial setting time for ordinary Portland cement and rapid
hardening cement shall not be less than 30 minutes and 60minutes for low cost cement.
The maximum time for final setting for all types of cement shall not be more than
10 hours.

Observations :
Weight of cement taken = -----------------------------------------------------
Quantity of water added =------------------------------------------------------
Initial setting time =------------------------------------------------------
Final setting time =------------------------------------------------------

Ex. No. DETERMINATION OF NORMAL CONSISTENCY OF Date :

CEMENT PASTE

Introduction:
The normal consistency of a cement paste is defined as that percentage of water
which will permit a Vicat plunger to penetrate a depth of 33-35mm from the top of the
Vicat mould. The apparatus used to determined normal consistency of cement paste is
called Vicat apparatus .
Aim:
To determine the Normal consistency of cement paste.
Apparatus required:
Vicat’s apparatus with plunger, trowel , measuring jar, Vicat mould, stopwatch,
glass plate, etc.,
Procedure:
1. Take about 400gms of pure dry cement and mix with about 25% of water ( by
weight of dry cement) to form a neat cement paste on a non-porous plate.
2. Fill the Vicat mould with the paste and shake it to expel any entrapped air.
3. Place the mould under a standard plunger of 10mm diameter and 15mm long
to touch the surface of the paste and allow it to drop into the paste by its own
weight.
4. Take the reading by noting the depth of the penetration of the plunger into the
paste on the vertical scale of the Vicat’s apparatus.
5. Start the stopwatch as soon as the water is added to the dry sample and take
care that the paste is moulded within 5 minutes.
6. Mould the trial paste with different percentage of water staring with 25% by
weight of cement.
7. Repeat the process of moulding and filling again and again by adding 2% of
extra water each time.
8. Continue till the pointer in the scale of Vicat’s apparatus reaches 5mm to
7mm
9. This corresponding quantity of water expressed as a percentage by weight of
cement is called the Normal consistency.

Result :
Normal consistency of the cement paste is found to be -----------------------------%

Significance of the test :

Normal consistency is essential to determine the initial setting time, final setting
time and soundness of cement.
 Trial Weight of Water added in Weight of water Non penetration
No. sample taken(g) ( %) added distance (mm)
( g)
1

2
3
4
5

Ex. No. DETERMINATION OF SPLITTING TENSILE Date :

STRENGTH OF CONCRETE CYLINDERS
Aim:
To determine the splitting tensile strength of concrete cylinders.
Apparatus required :
Compression testing machine, packing strips ( plywood 12mm wide and 3mm
thick ) , Scale , etc.,
Procedure :
1. Prepare the concrete cylinders 150mm x 300mm of mix ratio 1 : 2 : 4 , W/ C
ratio 0.6 , Material required for preparing one cylinder is 2kg of cement , 4 kg
of sand, 8kg of 20mm aggregate , 1200ml of water.
2. Tests shall be made at the recognized ages of the test specimen, the most
useful being 7 and 28days. The ages shall be calculated from the time of the
addition of water to the dry ingredients,. At least three specimens shall be
tested for each age of the test.
3. Measure the diameter and length of specimen.
4. Draw the diameteral lines on the two ends of the specimen.
5. Wipe off the bearing surfaces of the testing machine and of the packing strips
clean.
6. Place one of the plywood strips centrally along the centre of the lower plate of
the testing machine.
7. Place the specimen on the plywood strip and align and centre over the
plywood strips so that the diameteral lines marked on the ends of the
specimen are vertical and centered over the plywood strip.
8. Place the second plywood strip lengthwise on the cylinder , centred on the
lines marked on the ends of the cylinders.
9. Apply the load continuously at the rate of 99KN / min. without shock until
the resistance of the specimen to the increasing load breaks down and no
greater load can be sustained.
10. Note down the load at failure.
11. Calculate the split tensile strength from the formula
2P
σ sp = --------
πdl
Result : Split tensile strength = ---------------------------------N/ mm2

Observations and Calculations :

Diameter of the specimen =-------------------------------------------------
Length of the specimen =-------------------------------------------------
Maximum load at failure =-------------------------------------------------
The split tensile strength shall be calculated from the formula
 2P
σ sp = -------- in which
πdl

σ sp = Measured splitting tensile strength

P = Maximum load in N.
D = Diameter of the specimen in mm
l = Measured length of the specimen in mm.

Ex. No. DETERMINATION OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH Date :

OF CONCRETE CUBE

Introduction:
The most common of all tests on hardened concrete is the compressive strength of
the intrinsic importance of the compressive strength of concrete in construction. As per
IS 456 , 150mm concrete cubes are tested in compression to find their length at 7 days or
28 days. There test specimens shall be made from each sample for testing at 28 days.
Additional cubes may be required for various purposes such as to determine the strength
concrete at 7 days or at the time of striking the form work or to check the testing error.
The test strength of sample shall be the average of the strength of three specimens.
Individual variation should not be more than ± 15 percent of the average.

Aim:
To determine the ultimate compressive strength of the concrete cube.
Apparatus required :
Compression testing machine of capacity 100 T , Scale , etc.

Procedure:
1. Note the date of casting.
2. Measure the dimensions of the concrete cube.
3. Place the concrete cube, in the compression testing machine.
4. Apply the load to the specimen uniformly.
5. Apply further load until the specimen fails. Note down the load at failure.
6. This load is the ultimate compressive load.
7. Repeat the procedure for remaining specimens.
8. Strike off the compacted excess concrete above the top of the cylinder
carefully and weigh the cylinder with compacted concrete.
9. Take this weight as fully compacted concrete.
(Wp) Weight of partially compacted concrete
Compaction factor =-----------------------------------------------------------
( Wf) Weight of fully compacted concrete.
10. Repeat the test for W/C ratios of 0.60 , 0.65 and 0.70

Result : Compaction factor for the given mix of concrete = ---------------------------

Observations:

Sl. No Description Batch - I Batch - II

 1 Weight of Cement (g)
2 Weight of Coarse Aggregate ( g)
3 Weight of fine Aggregate ( g)
4 Weight of Water added ( g)
5 Weight of Empty mould ( g)
Weight of Empty mould and partially
6
compacted concrete (g)
Weight of empty mould and fully compacted
7
concrete ( g)
8 Weight of partially compacted concrete (g)
9 Weight of fully compacted concrete (g)
10 Compaction factor = Wp/Wf
11 Water – Cement ratio ( %)

Ex. No. SIEVE ANALYSIS Date :

Aim:
To determine the grain size distribution of the given sand by sieve analysis.

Introduction:
Sand having particles larger than 0.075 mm sieve are termed as coarse grained sands.
Coarse grained soils are classified mainly by sieve analysis. The grain size distribution
curve gives an idea regarding the gradation of soil; whether the soil is well graded or
poorly graded. In mechanical sand stabilization the main principle is to mix a few soils in
such a proportion that a desired grain size distribution is obtained for the design mix.
Hence for proportioning the selected sands, the grain size distribution of each sand should
be known.

Apparatus:
A set of specified sieves, sieve shaker, balance.
Procedure:
1. Take suitable quantity (1000gms) of oven dried soil retained in 75 sieve.
2. Sieve the sand through 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.70 mm, 1.18 mm, 600, 425,300,
150 and 75, using a mechanical shaker for 5 minutes.
3. Weigh to 0.1 gms each sieve and pan with soil retained on them.
4. The sum of the retained sand is checked against the original mass of sand taken.
5. All the observations are entered in the data sheet and the calculations are made.

Graph:
Plot the particle size distribution curve between the particle dia in (mm) and % Finer in
semi log sheet.

Calculations:
1. Effective size of the Sand = D10
2. Uniformity coefficient (Cu) = D60 / D10
3. Coefficient of curvature (Cc) = (D30)2 / D10 x D60
4. Fineness modulus =Total sum of the cumulative % retained / 1000

Observations:

Cumulative
Cumulative
weight
Weight retained (gms) % retained % Finer
retained
Sl. (gms)
I.S.Sieves (gms)
No.
Empty Retained Retained
weight of weight of weight of
sieve sieve soil
1. 4. 75mm

2. 2.36mm
3. 1. 70mm
4. 1.18mm

5. 600
 6. 425

7. 300

8. 150

9. 75

10. Pan

RESULTS:

1. The particle size distribution curve is drawn..

2. Effective Size D10 (in mm) =

D60
3. Uniformity Coefficient = ------- =
D10
4. Fineness Modulus =

5. Percentage of Gravel (> 2mm) =

6. Percentage of Sand ( < 2mm and upto 0.06 mm) =

7. Percentage of Silt and Clay ( < 0.06 mm) =

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TEST:

The result of particle size analysis have importance in classifying sand into various
groups by several classification systems. The data obtained from grain size distribution
curves is used in the design of filters for earth dams and to determine the suitability of
sand for road construction.

A sand having a Uniformity Co-efficient smaller then about 2 would be considered

uniform .For gravels the Cu must be greater than 4. Fineness modulus for sand varies
from 2 to 4.