CAUSES OFACCIDENIS

the
Humanenoris factor responsible for
dents, whether they occur in the most ari
highway, or in the home.
the work
environment and the work(ploandiCeof,tinonns.the
However,nature
tasks can also contribute to accidents. the jh
Workplace Factors
Workplace conditions that affect
include type of industry. hours of
tempetaturc, cquipmnent design, safety
emplwork,oyeelightsafinetg,y
work pressure. devices, and
Voe of Industry. The frequency and severitu 4
acidents vary as afunction of type of industry A
stecl mill provides more opportunities for
acidents
than does a bank. The greater the physical demand
made on the worker, the higher the accident rate
Also, stressful and tiring work seems to result in
more accidents.

Ahazardous woik
plant must be
e0sy reacti. designed se that enegey
 Chapter ll: Employee Safety and
l as
such construction.
highway trans- Health Issues 261
ndustries
|mining are high in
laming,and frequency accidents
level of during the night shift may be
Industries
ofaccidents.
aci such as ware-
provided illumination. The artificial related to
weilyof
aircralt and automobile manufacturing,
at night can be better for lighting
ovmmunications have a low frequcncy and
natural lighting conditions during thework than the
eNie
Researchers day.
found that US. workers
faccidents. Cement and steel companies shifts on night
believe that their chances of being hurt in
frequcncyof accidents, but when acci accident are significantly lower than the chances anof
alow severe. Electric utili.
NU, they are usuallybut day-shift workers, when they perceive that their com
recordfew accidents, but these tend to be pany supports a climate of high awareness of safety
also
because of the high voltages involved. (Huang, Chen, Deamond, Cigularoy, &Chen, 2007).
nlsaleand
businesses have high accident Other researchers found that workers who have been
njuries are rare. injured on the job face agreater risk of being fired or
but lost-time
lots can be dangerous. Data col- of being unable to work fuil time if (once they return
Even parking period by the U.S. Bureau of to work after the injury) they work the night shift
l over a 9-year that more than 200 (Dembe, Delbos, Ericksorn, &Baniks, 2007).
r Statistics
showed employ-
lots. Some 36%
were killed each year in parking rest were Lighting. Good lighting can lead to a reduction in
homicides, 11% were suicides, and the accidents. The insurance industry estimates that
2008).
e ovarious kinds of accidents (Fayard, are poor lighting is a causal factor in one
fourth of all
S Accident data for somehigh-risk industries industrial accidents. Accidents are higher in plants
sedinTable l1-2. before the
that continue production through dusk also a time
nighttime lightingis turned on. Dusk isrelationship
TS of Work. Areasonable assumption might be of frequent automobile
accidents. The
at the higher the number of hours worked, the between level of iluminationand
accident rates in
alert
not established. An
gher the accident rate, but research does industry has been firmly problem of a
ONde clear support for this idea. However, shift management can easily correct
the
In
OIK seems to be related to accident rates. poorlylit work area.
neral, fewer accidents oCcur during the night workers show thbat
ift than during the day shift, although when Temperature. Studies of factory
workplace
are are lowest when the
CnLS do oCcur during the night shift, they
fewer
accident rates
ally more serious. The Occurrence of
 Four: Characteristics of the
2621 Part
to 70 degrees
F Satety Devices. Also
temperature is
Accidents
maintained
increase when the
warmer
at 68
or
tenmperature varies
coal
cooler. Studies ofmore
safe machinery is the
devices and other idemveporloprevent
devices function to aids to
tpmeantnt in the of
worker's acidebnutilSti.n sSieale
significantly cither acidents are three times
miners show that
minor (approaching 85 sharp moving partskeep or to
a
temperatures
frequent under high low tennperatures (approaching the power supply in an
the emer a u to ma ticaha
lnd
y awT|
degnes F) than under seem to become more careless
62 degrYs F).
Workers
higher temperatures. by
Older
not interfere with
gency,
Personal protectiveoperation thebut tihsceoytne of
TuS
eqsuihhatpmeternppaddedtr-osofuchlmaegovesncsheisn,es,eresij
underthe discomfot of rators, safety glasses with
than younger workers
workers are more affected accidents tipped shoes, ear protectors, and n
as
exremes and are more likcly to have
dimatic be provided to protect workers
athigher temperatures. too in
factor related
Equipment Design. Another physical equipment,
are
often they are not used.
practical; for example,
workers
dangerimesous
Somet thejobs,
to acidents is the design of thetools,
example, if an
safety device that
interferes object
Arespirator can hinder with job to sing:
and machines used on the job. For
engincer locates a machine's stop button where
it is workers. Thick gloves makeCommunicatpieorinormance
it
difficult to reach, the consequences can be deadly on a control panel. hard to press butamotonngg
for the worker who needs to shut down the Another reason safety
machine immediately. Poor placement of switches used is that it can be
who use respirators for jobs
equipment
is often po
uncomfortable.
and controls, inadequate warning lights for system
malfunctions, and dials that are difficult to read performed underWorkes
temperature conditions may find that hie
have all been blamed for accidents. the devke
causes skin irritation when clamped to their
survey of employees in an automnobile glass face
Engineering psychologists strive to match .
factor
equipment requirements with the capabilities of the showed that only 30% considered respirators com:
human operators (see chapter 13). Their work on fortable enough to wear. Comfort obviously infle
safe workplaces and equipment has been highly ences workers' decisions about whether to use
effective, particularly with regard to cumulative equipment that may protect them from harm bu
trauma disorders and repetitive motion injuries such that causes considerable discomfort.
as carpal tunnel syndrome. These injuries are
by continuous and repeated motions of caused
wrists and can affect shoulders and hands and Work Pressure. Accidents can be caused by te
back as well.
Repetitive motion injuries are prevalent among pressure to maintain a production schedule or adhert
office workers who use to atimetable. Workers often perceive the threat a
computer terminals and
among certain types of factory disciplinary action or dismissal if they fail to ke?
keyboards, workers. Redesigning to a schedule. Shuttingdown a production ine u
providing
port good posture, and chairs and armrests that sup power plant because workers think conditions art
effective in reducing allowing rest pauses are all
unsafe costs the company huge sums of money
Cumulative repetitive motion injuries. who assumesthe
respons-
trauma
cery store checkout disorders also occur in gro employee or manager
clerks who are required bility for such an action may be punished. weather
frequent, repetitive wrist
ronic scanners. Every movements using elec
to make
Airline pilots in bad
who refuse to fly aircraft's Wings
or in front of product must be moved over or because ice is forming on the lights.Alsa
itern will be the scanner so that the price cause passengers to miss connecting thecomt-
registered. The optimum of the
design for checkout reducing
they are held responsible for record. Whenpilos
cashier stands and is ableclerks is one jinworkstation pany's on-time performance similarbehav
to use both which the see their colleagues reprimanded for totakeoff
ot
changeably to
both wrists.Thisdistribute the hands inter ior, they feel considerable pressure
OCcur if reduces the typeworkload
are in aonly one hand is used. of injury between time despite the weather.
uses onecheckout line, The next timelikely to
notice you
Scanner. hand or two when whether the cashier Personal Factors phy
the
passing items by the Proper attention to equipment design
to
and
environmat
ical and social conditions of the work

Newsbreak
On-the-Job Stress/0ff-the-Job Drinking
Everyone knows that driving after having a few
ainks is not a smart thing to do, but surely there
can be o hharm in having a few drinks after driv-
ne Right? Wrong! At least it would be wrong if
drive a bus, a semitrailor, or a cable car for the
Can Francisco, California, Municipal Railway
System (Muni).
A5-year study of 1,836 drivers for the Muni
Evstem found that the more drivers drank in
heir of-the-job hours, the more likely they were
to have an accident or serious injury at work.
Drivers who reported having more than 10
irinks a week after work were far more likely to
fle claims against the company for work-related
Snurce: Drinkingafter work could affect job (2002, September 22). St. Petersburg (FL) Times.
elp reduce the frequency and severity of accidents.
Dverall, however, the human element is the more
important cause toconsider. Personal factors such as
hese contribute to accidents: alcohol and drug use,
gnitive abilityy health, fatigue, work experience, job
security, age, and personality characteristics.
cohol and Drug Use. Large numbers of employees
ealcohol or illegal drugs on the job. An employee
th a drinking or drug problem is much more
ely to be involved in an accident than is an
ployee without such a problem. Even drinking
lhe job can lead to accidents at work. A study of
DOre than 380,000
general aviation pilots showed
pilots with DWI (driving while intoxicated)
VCtions were 3.5 times more likely to have
kohol-related
ho had no DWIproblems while flying than those
convictions (McFadden, 2002).
gntive
Ability-
ukeroulds with alowerIt seems reasonable to assume that
measured level of intelligence
her havemeasured
more accidents than workers with a
Statch level of intelligence. However,
Auies havedoesfoundnoot fully support this idea. Some
Odent- -free that only cognitive ability is related to
Tequiringbehavi or in certain jobs, such as
those jiundgment
Osed to and decision making as
volving repetitive manual labor.
Chapter 11: Employee Safety and Health Issues 263
injuries. Also, the amount of drinking after
work was directly related to job stress. The more
on-the-job stress the workers reported, they
more they drank off the job as a way of relieving
the stress.
This situation was expensive for Muni.
Workers' compensation claims linked to after
hours drinking was costing the company more
than $250,000 a year. That's a high price to pay for
drinking off the job, and a good reason for compa
nies to identify and monitor employees who show
serious job stress. These employees can be offered
counseling and shown ways of coping with stress
other than drinking.
Health. I-0 psychologists have documented a
relationship between health and accidents.
Employees who are in poor health or who are
frequently ill tend to be highly susceptible to
accidents. Workers with physical disabilitieswith
overall good health and with jobs commensurate
with their abilities-donot have a disproportion
ate share of accidents. Those disabled employees
are usually highly motivated to work well and
safely. One physical characteristic related to
accidents is vision. In general, people who have
good eyesight have fewer accidents than do people
who have poor eyesight.
Fatigue. Fatigue causes a decrease in productivity
and an increase in accidents. During a typical
8-hour workday, periods of increased productivity
are accompanied by decreased accidents. In the
10-hour workday in many heavy industries, a sharp
rise in the accident rate has been reported during
the last 2 hours of the shift, presumably because of
fatigue.
Fatigue is a factor in highway accidents, a sub
ject of study by I-0 psychologists because highways
are the workplace for bus and truck drivers.
Fatigued bus and truck drivers who fall asleep at the
wheel are involved in at least 10% of the collisions
 Four: Characteristics of the Workplace
264 Part
Fatigue contributes to one
Job Insecurity. Research was
vehicles.
employees conducted
involving other food-processing plant
that had already laid off Some ofin an on 231
accidents.
fourth of all single-car

Work Experience. Ashorter

time on the job tends to results showed that the workers its
who orgaknerizsa.tion
wor The
futreporureted
After some months on insecure about their jobs and their
mean a higher accident rate.
the job, the accident rate usually
drops and continues company had less motivation to wifelth itnheg
increases. This was working practices and to comply withadhere to safe
to decline as work experience
shown in a 12-year study of 171 firefighters. This lack of diligence, in tum, safety polices.
had
Firefighters with more experience on the job inrease in workplace accidents and contributed to an
fewer less severe injuries from accidents than did
injuries among
these insecureemployees (Probst &Brubaker,
those with less experience on the job (Liao, Arvey, 2001).
Butler, &Nutting, 2001 ). However, the relationship Age. The link between age and accidents is similYr
between accidents and time on the job is not always to the relationship between experience and acci.
clear. Although most studies have reported fewer dents, because there is an obvious relationshin
accidents among employees with greater experience, between age and length of work experience. Other
such findings may be biased by self-selection. factors that interact with age are physical health and
Workers who have had many job-related accidents are attitudes toward the job. Overall health, as wellas
likely to have been fired or transferred or to have quit specificabilities such as vision and hearing, dete:
to look for safer employment. Therefore, we cannot
riorates with age. However, older workers have
conclude with certainty that longer work experience,
by itself, leads to a reduction in the accident rate. In greater job knowledge and more highly developed
some cases, the decrease in accidents among skills. Even though reaction time and eye-hand
experienced workers can be explained by the fact that coordination may no longer be as good, older workers
those who had more accidents dropped out. usually have a more complete grasp of the job's
demands. Their attitudes toward safety tend to be
Job Involvement, more serious. When older workers do have accidents,
a study of 14,466Empowerment,
and Autonomy. In
workers from more than 2,000 however, they are likely tobe more costly in terms of
companies, researchers found that employees who physicalconsequences and time lost from work.
scored higher in job involvement, which
they had greater autonomy and means A popular belief is that
Personality Characteristics.
their work, also scored higher inresponsibility
job
for people who have a great many accidents have su
(an issue discussed in satisfaction unique set of personality traits that distinguish them
also reported a positivechapter 8). These researchers from people who rarely have accidents. Research does
relationship between high
job satisfaction and safety not support this contention, although some studies
awareness. Thus, they
concluded that high job involvement leads toa lower have found that people who have a high number of
accident rate (Barling, Keloway, & accidents manifest characteristics such as neuroti-
Research with 531 workers inIverson,
24
2003 ).
cism, hostility, anxiety, social maladjustment, anda
within a chemical work groups sense of fatalism. One study of 219 civilian production
whose workers feltcompany
more
showed that groups
workers and 263 U.S. Army mechanics foundthat
greater power and authorityempowered (who had
over their work) had those who scored low in conscientiousness were more
significantly better safety records than groups
whose workers did not likely to make a cognitively based mistake or error
feel so
empowered. The that led to an accident while performing a routine
empowered
other
groups performed safety checks and task than were those who scored high in Conscien-
safety-related
than did the behaviors more frequently tiousness (Wallace & Vodanovich, 2003). Ameta-
nonempowered
Alampay &Beehr, 2001). groups (Hechanova analysis of accident studies showed that people who
SCored low in accidents on
Similarly, a study of 161 factory workers in the job than agagreeableness had more (Clarke &
people
Australia demonstrated that who scored high
high in feelings of job autonomy workers who were Robertson, 2008). However, any relationship between
had significantly
higher safety records over an l8-month personality variables and accident frequency is not
did those who had a low period than strong. There is no basis for
degree of job autonomy wno have frequent accidents concluding
have
that peop
a personality
(Parker, Axtell, &Turner, 2001 ). pattern that is
free individuals.clearly different from that of accident

Temporary emotional states can contribute to
accidents. The person who is angry with a spouse or
boss or ispreoccupied with money problems is likely
to be less attentive on the job and hence mnore sus
ceptible to accidents. This was demonstrated in
research involving 127 U. S. Army soldiers who had
een involved in automobile accidents during the
previous 5 years and273 other soldiers who had not
been involved in accidents. The difference between
the two groups was clear. Those who had experi
enced accidents reported heightened emotions just
before the accident. These emotionally stressful
states covered a wide range, fromn divorce and ill
ness to being disturbed by a passenger in the car
(Legree, Heffner, Psotka, Medsker, & Martin, 2003 ).
showed
A study of 243 health care workers
that those whose family problems and responsibili
were far
ties caused conflicts with their work roles
less likely to comply with safety regulations than
those who reported little or no conflicts (Cullen &
Hammer, 2007).
Accident Proneness
The theory of accident proneness holds that cer
tain people are more likely than others to have
accidents. In addition, the theory posits that most
accidents are caused by or involve the same few
people. The theory also assumes that accident
prone persons are likely to have accidents regardless
266 Part Four: Characteristics of the Workplace
of the type of situation. An effective way to test this
theory is tocompare accident records for the same
people for two different periods to determine if the
people who had accidents in one period also had
accidents in the other. Correlations from studies of
this type are low, which indicates that a person's
past accident record is not a valid predictor of
future accidents.
In a classic study. apsychologist reexamined
accident statistics that had originally been inter
preted as supporting the accident-proneness the
ory (DeReamer, 1980). The driving records of
30,000 people showed that fewer than 4% of them
accounted for 36% of the accidents over a 6-year
period. These data suggested that a small group of
drivers were involved in a large number of acci
dents. If they could be prevented from driving,
then the accident rate could be cut by more than
one third. The data were reanalyzed by
comparing
accident records for the first 3 years of
with accident records for the second 3thevears
periodot
the period. It was found that the accidents during
the two different periods did not involve the same
drivers. Those identified as safe drivers during
the first period accounted for more than 96% cf
the accidents in the second period, afindingthat
is highly damaging to the accident-proneness
theory. More recent attempts to measure and
validate the concept of accident proneness also
have been unsuccessful (see As, 2001; Haight.
2001).
The theory no longer enjoys the credibility it
once had, although evidence suggests that sone
workers may be predisposed to have more acdi
dents in a particular type of work. Accident prone
ness may be specific to the work situation and not a
general tendency over all situations, which lim
the theory'spredictive value.

ACCIDENTPREVENTION
4norganization can take several steps to safeguard
s employeesand reduce accidents in the work
place. Theseinclude reporting accidents properly,
pying attention to workplace design, conducting
safety training, ensuring management support,
dpromoting safety publicity campaigns.
Aecident Reports
An accident prevention program is no better than
the quality of its accident reports. All accidents,
TeRardless of the consequences, should be investi
Eated and described in detail. A comprehensive
axident report should include the following items:
"Precise time and location of the accident
Type of job and number of employees per
forming it
Personal characteristics of the accident victim
Nature of the accident and known or suspected
causes
Results of the accident-such as personal
njuries and damageto plant, equipmernt, and
Supplies
Chapter l1:Employee Safety and Health Issues 267
WorkplaceConditions
Although most accidents are caused by human
error, conditions in the physical work environment
are potential sources of accidents. Lighting in the
workplace must be adequate for the job tasks, and
temperature must be maintained at a comfortable
level. Work areas should be clean and orderly. Many
accidents have been traced to poor housekeeping.
Oil or grease spots on the floor, electrical cables
underfoot, and equipment stored in hallways or
stairwells can cause serious accidents that can eas
ily be prevented. First-aid kits, fire extinguishers,
and other safety equipment should be located con
veniently throughout a work area and painted in
vivid and easily identified colors.
Controls that are hard to reach or that require
excessive force to operate, and displays that are
excessively complicated and so easily misread, are
design mistakes that are ready sources of accidents.
Emergency controls must be made accessible and
easy to operate.
Engineering psychologists suggest two general
principles for the design of safety devices. First, the
machine should not function unless the safety
device is engaged, for example, a power saw that
 Workplace
268 Part Four: Characteristics of the
guard is in place.
will notoperate unless the handnot interfere with
Second, the safety device must
production or cause the employee to work
harder to
maintain the same output.
in the aircraft
Alarge-scale analysis of accidents at least half
that
and nuclear industries concluded
design of
of all accidents were attributable to poor
features of the work environment (Kinnersley &
Roclen, 2007).
Safety Training
Most organizational training programs devote time
to accident prevention. Workplace dangers and
hazards are pointed out and information is pre
sented on the causes and results of past accidents.
Rules for safe operating procedures are taught,
along with the location of emergency and first-aid
equipment. Periodic drills may be held to maintain
awareness of safe working habits. When a com
pany has an increase in accidents, it may mean that
retraining of the workforce is necessary. Experienced
workers can become careless and need refresher
courses to update their work habits. In general,
companies that systematically continue safety
training efforts are rewarded with substantial
reductions in accidents and in hours lost from
work. The money saved easily pays thecost of the
training programs.
In astudy on the effectiveness of a computer
based safety training program for workers in an
electronics manufacturing firm, researchers found
that workers under the age of 44 performed better
on atest of the safety information than workers
over the age of 44. They also found that both age
groups performed equally well when the computer
based training included pictures and audio narra
tions along with the printed texts instead of the
printed text material alone. The researchers noted
that most safety training programs today are pre
sented online (Wallen &Mulloy, 2006).
For more information on work-related health and
safety issues, see the Web sites for the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (www.osha.gov)
and the National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (www.cd.gov/niosh/).
Management Support
Supervisors play akey role in any successful pro
gram for safety training and awareness. Because of
their close association with workers, they must be
alert to unsafe
Supervisors are in theworking conditions and
employees of ssafe workingbesthabits,position 10 practike
maintenance of
equipment and ,to ar ang Tetmoine
ment, and to foster a climate of work the
organization. They are also safety evitn t
when retraining is advisable. able to within
insist on adherence to safe superv Ii
isTecomn
o rs dt
workinwillg beprocelu
then any safety training program
maximally effective. By example as well as\ess tban
tion, supervisors can maintain employeee instra.
to work safely and to prevent accidents. motivzi
Research involving 703 workers the
oil-drilling platforn of a company in Britainoffsbel
trated the significant impact supervisors can he
on safe job performance. The greater the care and
concern supervisors expressed for the safety of the
subordinates, the more attention these workers naid
to safety-related issues (Mearns &Reader, 2008).
Astudy of 381 workers and 36 supervisors in a
maintenance and repair center in Israel showed that
leaders could be trained to improve safety prac:
tices on the job. Supervisors were provided withferd.
back about safety-related episodes over a period of
8weeks. This training led to a significant incease in
the supervisors' safety awareness, which, in turn, led
to a significant decrease in the accident rate among
their workers. It also led to an increase in the work
ers' use of safety-related equipment (Zoha, 2002).
Other research confirms the vital role of the
Supervisor in establishing an appropriate climale
for safety on the job. Astudy of 127 transportation
teams in the U.S. Army showed that high quality
leader-member exchange relationships (LMXS) led
to a positive safety climate characterized by a
greater emphasis on safe iob bebaviors. Low LMXS
did not lead to greater safety awareness (Hofmann,
Morgeson, &Gerras, 2003 ).
Studies conducted in Canada on a variety o
jobs also demonstrated the importance of asupervi-
sory emphasis on safe practices on the job. The
results showed that transformational leadershipled
to an enhanced Isafety climate at work and a conse-
quent reduction in injuries on the job (Barling
Loughlin, & Mullen, &
Francis, 2006). Kelloway, 2002; Kelloway,
Supervisors
awareness,
cannot be expected to practicesafety
however, unless their superiors reinforce
that concern. If higher sloppy
accident reporting or expresses eventolerates
management a neutral atti-
tude toward safety, this does attention
not encourage

(cfoy devices such as face shields should be easy to use and
sodld not interfere with production.
1O safe practices. Active high-level management sup
nort of safety is a key dimension of an appropriate
oroanizational climate. All levels of supervision must
dermonstrate to subordinates that safety is everyone's
responsibility.
In astudy of 1,590 employees in 10 manufactur
ing and mining companies in Australia, the attitude
toward safetypromoted by management was shown
to be significantly related to safe job performance
(Griffin &Neal, 2000). And research on 534 produc
fion workers in 53 work groups in Israel found that
the group safety climate created by the immediate
SUpervisor significantly affected the rate of on-the
jpb injuries. The higher the group
climate, the lower its accident rateperceived its safety
(Zohar, 2002).
Astudy of 36 production workers showed that
astrong company-wide safety climate can
signifi
Cantly reduce the anticipated adverse effects of job
security on compliance with safe job
eauthor suggested that practices.
production, organizations that focus
perhaps at the expense of safety,
damessage to their
ducivity is the best wayemployees
to keep theirthatjobs.
highOn pro
the
her hand,
organizations support asafe work-
that
genvironment send amnessage to their employees
COmpliance
Tetain with
their jobs safety practices is necessarY
(Probst, 10,000
sResearch on more than 2004). workers in vari-
jobs in
fnalirmed theAustralia and in the United States
importance of a positive organiza-
Tacicessafetyarndclimate
in increasing safe working
reducing accident rates (Huang,
Chapter 11: Employee Safety and Health Issues 269
Chen, Dearmond, Cigularov, & Chen, 2007; Neal &
Griffin, 2006; Wallace, Popp, & Mondore, 2006).
In a study of 1,127 nurses working in U.S. hos
pitals, researchers found that a positive safety
climate helped reduce errOrS such as administering
an incorrect dose or the wrong medication. Thís, in
turn, reduced the incidence of unintended health
consequences for the patients. Good safety practices
also reduced the number of back injuries among
nurses and led to an increase in job satisfaction
(Hofmann & Mark, 2006). A study of workers in
Australia whose jobs required considerable driving
found that they were moremotivated to drive
when the believed their supervisor placed asafely
high
value on safety (Newnam, Griffin, & Mason, 2008).
Thus, pertinent I-0 research today demon
strates that all levels of management must estab
lish and reinforce a climate of safety to
dents and injuries at a minimum. keep acci
Safety Publicity Campaigns and Contests
To motivate employees to follow the safe work
they have been taught, many habits
organizations conduct
publicity and promotional campaigns
with posters
and booklets, charts showing the number of
free days, and contests with appealing accident
prizes.
Posters and Booklets. Posters are a
frequently used
device, but their effectiveness depends on the kind
of message depicted. Negative themes coupled with
gruesome pictures of mangled bodies ("Don't do
this or this is what will happen!") are
particularly
ineffective. Fear-oriented appeals create
ment and anger toward the company and resent
the
message. The most effective safety posters stress
positive themes (for example, "Wear hard hat in
this area" or "Hold on to railing").
Warning signs and posters should be as con
spicuous as possible, placed where they will be seen
by the appropriate employees. For greatest effective
ness, signs should be in large, bold print with the
lettering in high contrast against the background.
The use of color, prominent borders, easily recog
nized pictorial symbols, and flashing lights are also
desirable. I-0 psychologists recommend the follow
ing criteria for posters and warning signs:
" Signal word. Warnings should have signal or
key words that are appropriate to the level of
danger, for example, DANGER, WARNING, or
CAUTION.
 (Signal word)
WARNING (Hazard statement)
UNDERGROUND GAS LINE
(Consequences)
EXPLOSION AND FIRE POSsIBLE
(Instructions)
NO DIGGING

HGURE 11-1 Effective warning poster.

should tell clearly

" Hazard statement. Warnings
what thedangers are.
tell clearly the
" Conseq1uences. Warnings should
results of failing to comply.
Instructions. Warnings should tell workers what
to door what not to do to avoid the danger.
criteria.
The example in Figure l1-1 meets these
Booklets of safety instructions and rules are rel
atively ineffective in encouraging safe working prac
It is
tices, no matter how widely they are distributed. but
booklet,
easy to ensure that all workers receive a
it isfar more difficult to make them read it.
Safety Contests. Safety contests can be effective in
maintaining interest in accident prevention. Some
contests reward workers on an individual basis for
accident-free work over a given period. Other
contests operate on a group basis, rewarding a
work crew or department. In a competitive contest,
one work unit can be pitted against another to see
which has fewer accidents. Such contests may
make workers more conscious of safe operating
procedures and thus reduce accident rates, but the
effects may not last much longer than the life of
the contest. One solution is to hold continuous
contests, changing the awards frequently enough
to maintain employee interest. An obvious disad
vantage of safety contests is that they encourage
workers, supervisors, and managers tosuppress the
accurate reporting of accidents.
Safety in Home Offices. With an increasing
number of employees now telecommuting, the
problem of safety in home offices has become a
national concern. Home-based workers report
computer-related discomfort and injury to necks,
backs, shoulders, and arms from poorly designed
chairs and awkwardly positioned keyboards and
monitors. Other dangers include
outlets, poor lighting, and hazardsoverloaded power
from children's
toys underfoot or outstretched power cords.
Safety experts suggest that many accidents in
these offices go unreported because
not want to risk losing the employees do
opportunity to work at