$ U T T E R W O R T H

E I N E M A N N
International Journal of Project Management Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 51-58, 1995
Copyright © 1995 Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
0263-7863/95510.00 + .00

Construction productivity: issues

encountered by contractors in
Singapore

E C Lim
School of Civil & Structural Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Nanyang Avenue, Singapore
2263

Jahidul Alum
Centre for Advanced Construction Studies, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

The construction industry in Singapore is greatly concerned about its low level of productivity.
A survey of top civil-engineering and building contractors was conducted in late 1992 to identify
the perceptions of top management in relation to construction productivity. The paper describes
one part of the survey that related to productivity issues encountered by contractors at
construction sites. Respondents were asked to rank a list of 17 problems that could affect
construction productivity. The three items of greatest concern were identified as (a) difficulty
in the recruitment of supervisors, (b) difficulty in the recruitment of workers, and (c) a high
rate of labour turnover. The problems encountered least often included stop-work orders issued
because of infringement of government regulations, and work stoppage resulting from disputes
with owners/consultants. All the 67 survey returns from contractors are discussed with
relevance to existing conditions in Singapore.

Keywords: construction, contractors, Singapore

The construction industry in Singapore currently con-
tributes 6% of the country's gross domestic product (GDP)
and it employs 7.5% of the total workforce. The industry
has exhibited strong growth in the last few years. The GDP
growth rate in the construction sector increased from 1.5 %
in 1989 to 21% in 1991. The 1991 figure was three times
the national average GDP growth rate of 6.7% for that
year. The construction contracts awarded in 1991 had a
value of S$7900M, and, in the same year, Singapore
construction firms secured S$950M worth of contracts
overseas.
The GDP growth rate of the construction industry, the
value of the annual contracts awarded, and the construction
workforce employed, for the years 1988-91, are shown in
Table 1.
The boom in construction work over the last few years
is the result of a number of factors:
• an unexpectedly high demand for private residential
properties, which has led to more projects being
launched;
• an increase in public-sector projects, such as public-
housing schemes, roads, flyovers, and the port expansion
programme;
• the rush by some developers to bring their commercial
projects on-stream to forestall an impending glut in the
commercial property market.
The above factors make accurate projections difficult. It
is even more of a challenge to gauge the industry
demand and to ensure that there are sufficient professionals
and workers.
In spite of the impressive performance of Singapore's
construction industry over the past few years, the construc-
tion sector is perceived as a low-productivity sector,
because of its low technology image and its employment of
a large number of mainly unskilled foreign workers. The
economic indicator used to measure construction produc-
tivity is the value added per worker. Using this indicator,
the Construction Industry Development Board, Singapore,
stated in a construction productivity taskforce report' that
construction productivity had increased at an average rate
of 3.1% over the 10-year period 1982-91, which is below
the 4.2% rate for the whole Singapore economy.

51
Construction productivity: issues encountered by contractors in Singapore: E C Lim and J Alum

Table 1 GDP, contract values and workforce employed • manpower:

Year 1988 1989 1990 1991 ~. recruitment of supervisors;
~ recruitment of workers;
GDP growth for -4.4% 1.5% 7.2% 21% , labour turnover;
construction industry
,~ absenteeism;
Values of contracts awarded S$3400M S$5500M S$8000M S$7900M ,:, communications problems with foreign workers;
Construction workforce 82 000 97 000 104 000 117 000 c, alcoholism and similar problems among workforce;
[Source: 1991 Annual Report and 1992 Annual Report Construction ,-~ labour disruptions;
Industry Development Board, Singapore.]
• management:
..~ materials shortages;
The causes of low construction productivity in Singapore delays in materials deliveries to site;
include the unattractiveness of the construction trades to disruption of power/water supplies;
local workers, and the lack of recognition. Another factor ,, stop-work orders because of site accidents;
contributing to low productivity is the large, mostly ~, stoppages because of work being rejected by consul-
unskilled and transient, pool of foreign workers. Further, tants;
the presence of workers from various sources, speaking ~:, stop-work orders because of infringements of govern-
different languages, adds to communications problems on ment regulations;
site. Some of the areas which need to be improved are : stoppages because of disputes with owners/con-
wages, employment conditions, job security, recognition of sultants;
the workers' contributions, and the assimilation of skilled ,, stoppages because of insolvency of subcontractors/
foreign construction workers into the local workforce. suppliers;
These areas of productivity improvement are elaborated on
• environment:
in Reference 1.
,~ health;
~, inclement weather.
Survey
In view of the low productivity in the construction industry, Findings and discussion
the authors conducted a qualitative survey of the overall
level of construction productivity in Singapore. The authors M a n p o w e r factors
sent out a survey to 130 top civil-engineering and building According to the survey returns, the five most important
contractors registered with the Construction Industry issues that need to be addressed by the local construction
Development Board of Singapore. This survey was industry are
conducted in November 1992, to coincide with Singapore's
• difficulty in the recruitment of supervisors (importance
Productivity Month, which takes place in November each
index: 0.77);
year. There were 67 returns, giving a response rate of
• difficulty in the recruitment of workers (importance
51%. This paper deals only with the second part of the
index: 0.71);
survey, which pertained to factors affecting construction
• the high rate of labour turnover (importance index:
productivity. The respondents were asked if they had
0.67);
encountered any of a list of 17 problems, and were asked
• absenteeism at worksite (importance index: 0.58);
to rank their answers in terms of 'very often', 'often',
• communications problems with foreign workers (impor-
'sometimes', 'rarely' or 'never'. The results are tabulated
tance index: 0.58).
in Table 2. The 'importance index' was calculated for each
item using the formula Of the 17 items listed in the survey, 'difficulty in the
recruitment of supervisors' topped the list, with 27 % of
5nl + 4n2 + 3n~ + 2n 4 + n 5 respondents stating that they encountered this problem very
importance index =
5 ( n l + n2 + n~ + n 4 q- n5 ) often. Ranked second was 'difficulty in the recruitment of
workers', with 21% of respondents mentioning that they
where encountered this problem very often. This view of the
difficulty in recruiting supervisors and workers is shared by
n =number of respondents who answered 'very often' the Construction Industry Development Board in Reference
n =number of respondents who answered 'often' 2. In this report, contractors reported that the greatest
n~=number of respondents who answered 'sometimes' shortfall in terms of manpower shortage was that of skilled
n =number of respondents who answered 'rarely' workers (41%), unskilled workers (24%), civil engineers
n~=number of respondents who answered 'never' ( 18 %), and foremen (18 %). Contractors reported problems
in recruiting staff in the face of the brisk demand, coupled
The items listed in the survey were ranked from l to 17 on with a tight labour market. Difficulties experienced
the basis of the scores for the importance indices. These included no or very few responses to newspaper advertise-
rankings are guidelines indicating top-management per- ments for supervisory staff, even though the same vacancies
ceptions, and they are therefore important in identifying were advertised more than once.
tactical approaches to the increasing of productivity. According to Reference 2, the Singapore construction
In analysing the questionnaire returns, the authors industry is not only losing experienced and skilled locals
classified the 17 items into three categories: to other sectors, but also attracting less fresh talent.

52 International Journal of Project Management 1995 Volume 13 Number 1

 Construction productivity: issues encountered by contractors in Singapore: E C Lim and J Alum

Table 2 Factors affecting construction productivity

Has your company encountered

the following problems at Total number Importance
construction sites? Very often Often Sometimes Rarely Never of replies index Ranking
Difficulty in recruitment of 18 24 22 2 1 67 0.77 1
supervisors (27 %) (36%) (33%) (3%) (1%)
Difficulty in recruitment of 14 21 20 9 2 66 0.71 2
workers (21%) (32%) (30%) (14%) (3%)
High rate of labour turnover 7 24 21 11 2 65 0.67 3
(11%) (37%) (32%) (17%) (3%)
Absenteeism at the worksite 2 11 32 19 1 65 0.58 4
(3%) (17%) (49%) (29%) (1%)
Communications problems with 3 6 41 15 2 67 0.58 4
foreign workers (4%) (9%) (61%) (23%) (3%)
Inclement weather (requiring work 4 11 32 18 0 65 0.55 6
stoppage of one day or more) (6%) (17%) (49%) (28%) (0%)
Health issues (e.g. mosquito 2 3 23 30 8 66 0.48 7
breeding) (3 %) (5%) (35%) (45%) (12%)
Materials shortages 2 2 26 28 7 65 0.47 8
(3%) (3 %) (40%) (43 %) (11%)
Alcoholism and similar problems 1 1 21 36 7 66 0.46 9
among workforce (1%) (1%) (32%) (55%) (11%)
Disruption of power/water 0 1 18 44 4 67 0.45 10
supplies (0%) (1%) (27%) (66%) (6%)
Labour disruptions (e.g. manpower 1 1 20 30 14 66 0.43 11
shortages, strikes) (1%) (1%) (31%) (46%) (21%)
Delays in materials deliveries to 0 0 21 28 16 65 0.42 12
site (0%) (0%) (32%) (43%) (25%)
Work stoppages because of 0 0 11 25 30 66 0.34 13
insolvency of subcontractors/ (0%) (0%) (17 %) (38%) (45 %)
suppliers
Stop-work orders because of 0 0 4 38 23 65 0.34 13
accidents on site (0%) (0%) (6%) (59%) (35%)
Stoppages because of rejection of 0 2 4 24 36 66 0.32 15
work by consultants (0 %) (3 %) (6 %) (36%) (55%)
Stop-work orders because of 0 0 2 26 37 65 0.29 16
infringements of government (0%) (0%) (3%) (40%) (57%)
regulations
Work stoppages (for one day or 0 2 2 20 41 65 0.28 17
more) because of disputes with (0%) (3%) (3%) (31%) (63%)
owners/consultants

Reference 2 further added that, while construction em-
ployers reported shortages of labour and difficulty in
recruitment, trained civil engineers, civil construction
engineers and other construction personnel could be found
in all types of job outside the construction industry, such as
in banking, finance and sales.
Apart from the difficulties of recruiting supervisors and
workers (ranked first and second in the survey,
respectively), the other three important factors were the
high rate of labour turnover, absenteeism, and communica-
tions problems with foreign workers. At the end of 1991,
the total Singapore construction workforce was about
120 000, of which over 80 000 were foreign workers.
Regarding the high rate of labour turnover, the local
workers have no difficulty in moving from one job to
another as they are not bound by any regulations relating
to changes of employment. Foreign workers are employed
on a 2-year work permit, but, unfortunately, a large
percentage leave their jobs to return home before the expiry
of their contracts. This trend is being repeated with workers
from Malaysia and Thailand, as these two countries are
enjoying a construction boom. With regard to the high rate
of absenteeism, most of the workers who do not turn up for
work are reported to be on medical leave or just taking the
day off. The issue of communications problems with
foreign workers has indeed taken its toll on labour
productivity. As mentioned above, the industry's high
dependence on foreign workers is due to the fact that many
Singaporeans shy away from the construction sector. The
biggest block of foreign workers are Malaysians, who
constitute 34 % of the total number of construction workers,
followed by Thais (25%), Bangladeshis (10%), Indians, Sri
Lankans, Myanmarese, and those from North Asian
countries such as South Korea, China and Taiwan. From
the list of nationalities of those working on Singapore
construction sites, it can be seen that different languages are
spoken, and it is obvious that there will be communications
problems. Although English is used among the pro-
fessionals and subprofessionals, other languages are also
used on site, mainly Mandarin, Malay and Thai.
The issue of communications problems is most prevalent
among general workers, of whom 88% are foreigners, as

International Journal of Project Management 1995 Volume 13 Number 1 53

Construction productivity: issues encountered by contractors in Singapore: E C Lim and J Alum

Table 3 Deployment of foreign workers by trade
Trade
Structural trades
Finishing trades
Building services
Plant and equipment operation
General workers
Others
[Source: 1992 Annual Report Construction IndustryDevelopmentBoard,
Singapore. ]
shown in Table 3.
The other two items in the manpower category are
• alcoholism and similar problems among the workforce,
• labour disruptions.
These two items are ranked ninth and eleventh, respec-
tively. Alcoholism and similar problems are not of any
significant concern on construction sites. Such problems do
occur from time to time, but the site management staff keep
such issues under control. Problems such as labour
disruptions rarely occur in Singapore. When they occur,
labour disruptions relate to manpower shortages and acute
levels of job hopping, rather than to strikes called by trade
unions. The survey results relating to manpower issues are
given in Figure 1.
Management issues
Most of the eight management problems identified by the
authors are of little concern to the respondents. Indeed, all
have importance indices of below 0.5:
• materials shortages (importance index: 0.47);
• disruption of power/water supplies (importance index:
0.45);
Workers, %
• delays in materials deliveries to site (importance index:
71 0.42);
56 • work stoppages because of insolvency of subcontrac-
43 tors/suppliers (importance index: 0.34);
46
88 • stop-work orders because of site accidents (importance
57 index: 0.34);
• stop-work orders because of infringement of govern-
ment regulations (importance index: 0.29);
• work stoppages because of work being rejected by
consultants (importance index: 0.32);
• work stoppages because of disputes with owners/con-
sultants (importance index: 0.28).
There are occasional materials shortages problems (impor-
tance index: 0.47), such as shortages of materials (e.g.
cement, bricks, steel reinforcement), which can be of
concern as they may cause work disruption on site. As for
the disruption of power/water supplies (importance index:
0.45), the problems are more often than not caused by the
contractors themselves, for example when underground
power cables are struck by excavators, and water pipes are
burst during excavation work. Another cause of power
disruption is the damage of supply lines during the
relocation process. Often, drawings are not available for
services laid several decades ago, and this often makes
identification and relocation work difficult.
With regard to work stoppages due to delays in materials
deliveries to sites (importance index: 0.42), these problems
have to be resolved between the suppliers and the
main/subcontractors. In urban Singapore, timely delivery
of materials is important because of a shortage of storage
space at construction sites. When materials are delivered

Overall
ranking*
27%
Difficulty in recruitment (1) . ~[tl] 36%
of supervisors ~ ~ i . ~ 33~
21%
Difficulty in recruitment (2) . . . . 32%
of workers ~ ~ ' : . ~ 30%
11%
High rate of labour turnover (3) l.[I]llll 37°/*
2%

Absenteeism at worksite (4)

49%

Communication problems with (4)

foreign workers 61%
ii 1%
Alcoholism and similar type (9)
problems ~ 3 2 %
| 1%
Labour disruptions (11)
~ 3 1 %

* Overall ranking of 17 factors

as given in Table 2
~ % indicating problem occurring very often
% indicating problem occurring often
% indicating problem occurring sometimes

Figure 1 Manpower problems affecting construction productivity

54 International Journal of Project Management 1995 Volume 13 Number 1

 Construction productivity: issues encountered by contractors in Singapore: E C Lim and J Alum
too early, this often results in double handling, while delays
in deliveries also have an adverse effect on productivity.
There appears to be little concern about possible work
stoppages due to the insolvency of subcontractors/
suppliers. The great majority of respondents also rarely
experienced stop-work orders being handed down by the
Factory Inspectorate of the Ministry of Labour because of
accidents on site. Stop-work orders are normally issued in
the case of accidents on construction sites that result in
death. However, it is mandatory for the following types of
accident to be reported to the Chief Inspector of Factories:
• accidents resulting in the death of a person;
• accidents disabling a worker for more than three days;
• accidents which cause an injured worker to be hospital-
ised for at least 24 h.
Serious site accidents seldom occur, but those that have
occurred usually relate to the collapse of falsework or
caveins during excavation work. The enforcement of the
Factories Act and the promotion of safe work practices by
the Department of Industrial Safety of the Ministry of
Labour have greatly reduced the number of construction-
site accidents. As for stop-work orders being issued by
government departments for infringements of other
regulations, the great majority of respondents have never
encountered such problems.
The other two issues relate to work being rejected by
consultants and disputes with owners/consultants. To
understand these issues, it is necessary to understand the
nature of the construction contracts used in Singapore. The
owner (commonly known as the developer or employer)
engages a consultant, who is normally the architect for
building works and the engineer for civil-engineering
works, to design and inspect the construction of the project.
Under a separate contract, the owner engages a contractor
to execute the works. This 'traditional' contract structure is
still the most popular and most widely used type of contract
today. The other contract type often used in specialised
civil-engineering works is the 'design-and-build' approach,
in which the design function is included among the
responsibilities of the contractor.
The respondents to the survey generally referred to the
traditional contract structure in which the owner's
representative (the superintending officer for building
works or the resident engineer for civil/structural
engineering works) is entrusted with certain powers and
functions and the discretion to execute the works. Although
contractors do complain of the high-handed behaviour of
some owners' representatives, by and large, misunder-
standings are resolved before they become major issues. As
a result, the respondents to the survey rarely encountered
stoppages because of the rejection of work by consultants.
The survey respondents also did not report work
stoppages due to disputes with owners/consultants. This
was a healthy sign. Claims by contractors are checked by
the consultants (normally the quantity surveyor) before they
are recommended to the owners for payment. Of course,
there have been reported cases of arbitration due to
disputes, but these issues rarely blow up into litigation
cases. Indeed, one of the reasons for the claims is that extra
work is done by contractors because of variations in design.
Obviously, the design of a project may vary during the
course of its construction. There are several reasons for
this, but one important one is that the complexity of most
International Journal of Project Management 1995 Volume 13 Number 1
construction projects makes it extremely difficult to define
with precision all the needs of the project during the initial
design stage, particularly where it is intended that the work
should start as quickly as possible. For this reason, there
are provisions in contracts to allow for the design to be
changed, and there is thus an avenue for the contractor to
make claims when necessary. The results of the survey
relating to management issues are given in Figure 2.
Environmental issues
Two final issues are inclement weather and health (e.g.
mosquito breeding on site). Inclement weather cannot be
controlled, but contractors can overcome the problems by
prefabricating some of the works (e.g. precasting) in
factories so that the work will not be affected by poor
weather. The respondents ranked inclement weather sixth.
Health issues were ranked seventh. Problems such as
mosquito breeding could be due to poor housekeeping on
site, or to ponding of water at adjacent vacant plots. In the
latter case, the blame does not lie with the contractor.
Comments by respondents
Respondents were also invited to identify other factors that,
in their opinion, impeded construction productivity. The
items listed by some of the respondents were as follows:
• late decisions and changes by owners/consultants;
• poor coordination between various project consultants
(e.g. architects, structural engineers, mechanical and
electrical engineers, interior designers, landscape
consultants);
• the unwillingness of site staff representing owners to
inspect works after normal office hours, and on Sundays
and public holidays;
• unreasonable insistence on compliance to specifications
without due regard for practicality/site conditions (e.g.
insistence on zero tolerance, 100% inspection);
• the unrealistic deadlines for project completion set by
some owners;
• late certification of progress payments by consultants;
• some designs not being buildable and hence not
enhancing productivity.
Contractors sometimes encounter late decisions and
changes made by either the owner or the consultants. These
can cause delays and impede productivity, and both parties
have to compromise to enable the project to progress
smoothly. On average, civil-engineering and building
projects take 2 - 4 years to complete, and hence it would be
unreasonable to expect there to be no changes during that
period of time. Occasional late decisions and changes can
be accommodated by contractors, but frequent late
decisions and changes must be resisted by contractors, who
should, quite rightly, be entitled to claims in these
circumstances.
The question of poor coordination between various
project consultants was raised by some contractors, whose
works progress had obviously been affected. Most projects
in Singapore are executed according to the terms of the
traditional construction contracts in which the owner
engages a team of consultants to design the works, and then
awards the contract to a construction company. The main
consultants are the architect, the civil and structural
55
Construction productivity." issues encountered by contractors in Singapore: E C Lira and J Alum

Overall
ranking*
40 %
Material shortage (8)
11"/* 43%

27%
Disruption of power/water
supply
(10) ~ 66%

32%
Delays in material delivery to site (12)
25% 43%

17%
Work stoppage due to insolvency (13)
of subcontractors/suppliers 45%

6%
Stop-work order due to (13) 59%
accidents on site 35%

6%
Work stoppage due to (15) IIIIIIIIlllIHIlIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIItlIIIIIIII]IIIIIIItlIlIIIIIIIIIIII
- - . -, ~ - 36% , ' : , - 55%
rejection of work by consultants

Stop-work order due to (16)

infringement of govt. regulations 57%

3%
W o r k - s t o p p a g e due to (17) 31%
disputes with owners/ 63%
consultants

* Overall ranking of 17 factors

as given in Table 2
~ % indicating problems sometimes occuring
% indicating problems rarely occuring
% indicating problems never occuring

Figure 2 Management problems affecting construction productivity

engineer, the mechanical and electrical engineer and the
quantity surveyor. Each firm of consultants works on
several projects simultaneously, and, during boom periods,
firms are overstretched, and often do not find sufficient time
to meet and regularly coordinate the design.
Contractors also remarked that consultants' site staff are
unwilling to work after normal office hours and on Sundays
and public holidays. A consultant's site staff comprise the
resident engineer and the clerk of works. Under Singa-
pore's Building Control Regulations 1989, a resident en-
gineer must be appointed for any building works for which
the project cost exceeds S$10M, while a clerk of works
must be appointed for projects with a cost of less than
S$10M. The resident engineer must possess such
qualifications as will entitle him/her to be registered as a
professional engineer under Singapore's Professional
Engineers Act. Clerks of works must have relevant
qualifications and at least one year's practical experience in
full-time site supervision.
Depending on the setup and size of a consultant's site
staff, a duty roster can be set up whereby the clerks of
works are rostered to perform overtime work and are given
time off in lieu. However, on small projects where there is
a manpower constraint, it would be unreasonable to expect
a single clerk of works to work late into the night and also
on Sundays and public holidays. As the clerks of works are
normally paid by the owners, the exact numbers of such
personnel not only depend on the size of the project, but
also on the funds allocated by the owner for such
expenditure.
Contractors also complained of unreasonable insistence
by the consultants' site staff on total compliance with
specifications without due regard to site conditions. Such
difficulties can be resolved on an individual site basis, as the
situation varies from project to project. Consultants who
write contract specifications must be aware of prevailing
conditions in Singapore, and, when they obtain speci-
fications written for the industrialised countries, they must
modify them to suit local conditions. For example,
technical specifications for the use of concrete must con-
form to Singapore's hot humid climate, and specifications
on concreting in the temperate zones must be modified
when they are used for projects in Singapore.
As for unrealistic deadlines set for project completion by
some owners, the onus must be on the contractors, as they
are the ones that are tendering for the project and they risk
paying liquidated damages for late completion. Again,
there is no overall solution to such problems, and they must
be examined case by case. In traditional construction-only
contracts, the consultants establish the overall work
programme and advise the client on the project duration.
Contractors then tender according to the project duration
worked out by the consultants, and they are not expected to
recommend longer construction periods, although some

56 International Journal of Project Management 1995 Volume 13 Number 1

 Construction productivi~: issues encountered by contractors in Singapore: E C Lim and J Alum
contractors suggest alternative designs to shorten the
construction period and reduce project cost. As consultants
are not involved in the construction work, they may not be
in the best position to advise the owners on project
duration. If projects were tendered on a 'design-and-build'
basis, the contractor would be in a very good position to
advise the owners as to the most appropriate contract
period. Unfortunately, only a few 'design-and-build'
contracts are awarded in Singapore each year.
The question of late certification of progress payments
by consultants was also raised by some respondents. A
quantity surveyor, acting for the owner, checks the monthly
progress claims made by the contractor. The quantity
surveyor normally visits the site to ascertain the amount of
work done to date as well as the quantities of materials
stored on site. Obviously there are occasions when there is
disagreement between the contractor's site agent and the
quantity surveyor as to the amount to be certified for
payment by the owner.
Finally, a few respondents claimed that some designs
are not buildable and hence do not enhance site produc-
tivity. Buildability has been defined by the UK Con-
struction Industry Research and Information Association 3
as 'the extent to which the design of a building facilitates
ease of construction, subject to the overall requirements
for the completed building'. Reference 3 stresses two
points:
• good buildability leads to major cost benefits for clients,
designers and builders;
• the achievement of good buildability depends upon both
designers and builders being able to see the whole con-
struction process through each others' eyes.
The 'buildability' culture must be brought into a project
right from the start, i.e. during the conceptual planning
stage. Decisions made during the conceptual planning stage
have the greatest influence on project costs. The items that
influence project costs, in descending order of importance,
are
• conceptual planning;
• design;
• procurement;
• construction;
• startup (i.e. commissioning).
It is evident from the above arguments that the contractor
should be brought into the project as early as possible so
that its opinions can be taken into consideration by the
consultants during the planning and design stages.
Unfortunately, in the case of traditional construction
contracts, the contractor does not enter the project arena
until the design stage, at the earliest. Often, the contractor
is not a member of the project team until the designs are
substantially complete, by which time the designers will be
reluctant to entertain alternative designs submitted by the
contractor.
Recommendations
The results of the survey indicate that the most important
issues are the recruitment of supervisors and workers. With
International Journal of Project Management 1995 Volume 13 Number 1
the current manpower shortage in Singapore at all levels,
and with job seekers avoiding the construction sector,
positive measures are needed to rectify the present
situation. Contractors must face up to competition for
manpower from other more aggressive and attractive
sectors. The difficulty in recruitment may be due to
outdated strategies used by employers. For example, very
few contractors recruit engineering trainees before they
graduate from the universities and polytechnics, as is
practised by large corporations in other sectors of industry.
The answer to the manpower problems encountered by the
construction industry in Singapore lies in better trained and
skilled manpower, more attractive employment incentives,
improved management techniques, and increased use of
plant and equipment.
Singapore can ill afford to employ increasing numbers of
unskilled foreign workers. Some ways of keeping up with
the pace of construction, but at the same time controlling
the flow of foreign workers, are
• studying the long-term scope and viability of the
automation and semiautomation of the construction
process;
• starting a major standardisation effort to apply
prefabrication to replace labour-intensive activities;
• recruiting and training a younger generation of skilled
local workers;
• continuously upgrading the management and technical
skills of supervisory staff.
In recruiting and training a younger generation of skilled
local workers, the aim must be to develop a core of
skilled workers. Even if the level of mechanisation and
prefabrication is increased, a productive industry still needs
a core of skilled workers in relevant trades.
Conclusions
Low productivity in construction is attributed to varying
factors. In the context of this survey, a shortage of suitably
trained skilled workers and supervisors, a large unskilled
foreign workforce, and a weakening local workforce base
will lead to more inefficient manpower deployment. The
productivity issue and related problems faced by Singapore
contractors will need to be considered and viewed from
various angles. Suitable policies should be adopted to
address the main contributing factors. If construction
activities continue to increase, the need to employ more
foreign construction workers will also increase, at least
until such time as improved management, the use of
automated construction processes, and labour substitution
methods gain a strong foothold in the industry.
References
l 'Raising Singapore's construction productivity' CIDB Construction
Productivity TaskJbrce Report Construction Industry Development
Board. Singapore (1992)
2 Construction Manpower Update 1991 Construction Industry
Development Board. Singapore (1992)
3 Buildabili~': An Assessment Construction Industry Research and
Information Association. UK (1983) (CIRIA Special Publication
26)
57
Construction productivity: issues encountered by contractors in Singapore: E C Lim and J Alum

Ewe-Chye Lira is a graduate in civil Associate Professor Jahidul Alum

engineering from the University of
London, UK. He is a senior lecturer
at the School of Civil and Structural
Engineering, Nanyang Technological
University, Singapore. He has worked
with consulting engineering companies
in Singapore, Malaysia and the UK,
and is a registered professional
engineer in Singapore and Malaysia.
His interests are in civil-engineering
construction, including the con-
struction of tall buiMings, bridges and
flyovers, and deep basements, and the
appraisal and repair o f concrete structures. He is involved in research
into construction productivity and buildability.
is the director of the Centre for
Advanced Construction Studies at
Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore. He has more than 30
years of practical and academic
experience in construction tech-
nology and management, and has
written many papers in this field.
He has also organised international
conferences on computer applications
in concrete, structural failures, and
modern techniques in construction. He B~
am is engaged in consultancy and research relating to his area of
specialisation.

58 International Journal of Project Management 1995 Volume 13 Number 1