Effects of Pessimism on the Social Engagements of Senior High School

Students in Tuburan National High School

S.Y 2022-2023

A Research Study
Presented to
The Senior High School
TUBURAN NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
Tuburan, Cebu

In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements
INQUIRIES, INVESTIGATIONS, AND IMMERSION
ACADEMIC- HUMSS

Dada, Jericho
Ggoc-ong, Roldan
Langyon, Dina
Lauglaug, Niña
Librado, Angelika
Nuñeza, Aira
San Juan, Lee
Taneo, Reyna Leah
Villamor, Nicole
Zanoria, Jaspher

April 2023
 CHAPTER 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE

INTRODUCTION

Rationale of the Study

As Taylor Swift mentioned in her song "Anti-Hero" (2023), "I wake up

from dreaming; life will lose all its meaning", many people felt that. People can

experience a variety of things every day, both joyful and devastating, either

positive and negative. But occasionally, there are conditions or circumstances

that can cause someone to give in to pessimism.

Pessimism is the perspective of negative thinking and doing things

cynically. It can be viewed as a psychological problem or a metaphysical issue.

This problem has brought many changes to an individual who has experienced it

as it can greatly affect many areas of life to the point that it can make someone’s

life miserable.

Pessimism is a concerning perception that typically sees the worst in

situations. According to Scott (2022), pessimistic persons are more prone to

depression and anxiety disorders, have less social support, and are less resilient

and capable of handling stress. According to Global Governance (2017),

pessimism affects many people around the world, including South Africans who

are pessimistic by nature and believe that their outlook on life has been
negatively impacted by their experiences with the environment, society, poverty,

and even
 2

politics. The younger generation in Australia, according to OCED (2020), has a

pessimistic perspective of the state of the economy, which has an impact on their

mental health. People experience difficult circumstances on a daily basis as well.

Pessimism is a vulnerability for people in Australia, particularly those who are

younger.

Filipinos are known for their joyful and optimistic qualities. They even

manage to smile and laugh even in the direst of dire circumstances, and even

those living in poverty have lofty dreams for a brighter future. Unfortunately,

some people lose hope and are unable to experience joy because they show

doubt and uncertainty. People in the Philippines are experiencing pessimism as

the pandemic unfolds, which was at its peak when the pandemic struck due to

lockdowns and company shutdowns, making social engagements nearly

impossible. According to a Social Weather Stations (SWS) poll conducted in

June, the proportion of Filipinos expecting to be worse off in the next 12 months

reached a new high in May, reaching 43 percent.

The Coronavirus also has a negative economic impact. The Philippine

Statistics Authority (2023) reports that the inflation rate has risen from 3.4% in

2018 to 8.6% in February 2023. This also contributes to changes in the prices of

goods. According to the National Economic and Development Authority (2023),

rising consumer prices will slow the country’s economic growth and keep many

Filipino families in poverty even if they earn more. It truly affects everyone,

particularly the poor and marginalized. Some see the silver lining in adversity,

while others are discouraged, and many wonders if they will ever be able to
escape poverty, given that inflation is rising and they are underpaid. As a result,

many Filipinos are torn between being optimistic and pessimistic.

The well-being of the students is one of the objectives of the school.

They aim to nurture students' greater potential and help them become more

competitive. Tuburan National High School is a public school under the

Department of Education (DepEd). They produced a great number of astounding

individuals who have made contributions both domestically and abroad.

Tuburan National High School caters to a wide variety of students from

various family backgrounds. The school truly exudes positivism, which can be

observed in everyone from the teachers to the students. Many students are

enthusiastic about their educational experiences, yet some are unsure. Several

students at Tuburan National High School are dreary, often see life negatively,

and believe that unpleasant events are unavoidable and unchangeable.

Pessimistic students are a result of their negative attitudes toward their education

and future; they are constantly considering the "what ifs," they put off achieving

their goals because they believe they will almost certainly fail, and the risks are

almost always greater than the benefits.

Many senior high school students are experiencing a transition into

adulthood, and having anxiety about their future is not an exception. It can have

a negative impact on their mental health and affect not only their academic

performance but also their social engagements.

 4

For teenagers, social engagements are crucial. It is important that young

people establish ties with their surroundings. Opportunities for social and

emotional interaction shield people from mental illnesses, many of which start in

youth (Crone and Dahl, 2012). Teenagers may be driven into antisocial

behaviors (including violence, substance misuse, and extremism) if these

possibilities aren't present, which is detrimental to their health and the well-

being of their communities (Patton et al., 2016). Furthermore, social

engagements can help teenagers grow as individuals, but if they are pessimistic,

they will be unable to function properly and contribute to society and themselves.

This study aims to identify the effects of pessimism on the social

engagements of senior high school students at Tuburan National High School.

Therefore, this study is being conducted to know the effects of pessimism on

students. It can be a medium for students to release their perspective to provide

countermeasures that can help the students elevate and mitigate their conditions.

It is very necessary to protect the well-being of students so that they can focus

on their studies and can dynamically interact with the people around them.

Theoretical Background

Hopelessness and motivation are remarkable cycles where a pessimist

and a motivator create relationships and connections with each other. A negative

person needs someone who’ll cheer them up and motivate them. The reason

behind motivating someone is to observe whether they make changes to the

victim of this condition.

PESSIMISTICT SOCIOCULTURAL
LEARNED COGNITIVE
HEORY COGNITIVE
HELPLESSNESS THEORY OF
DEVELOPMENT
THEORY DEPRESSION
Arthur THEORY
Schopenhauer Martin Seligman Aaron T. Beck
Lev Vygotsky
(1818) (1967) (1967)
(1962)

Effects of Pessimism on the Social Engagements of Senior High School

Students in Tuburan National High School
S.Y 2022-2023

Action Plan

Figure 1. Theoretical Framework

 6

Pessimism takes on the metaphysical view that negativity is the dominant

and motivating force in society rather than the world being motivated by positivity.

That is to say that the universe is indifferent to human life and the effects of such

are pessimistic; pain, suffering, conflict, and the negative side of the human

experience are a more accurate description of our world, and as such this

negativity can be seen as a motivator.  

This study is anchored on the Pessimistic Theory by Arthur

Schopenhauer, the vision follows from his account of the inner nature of the

world as aimless blind striving. Schopenhauer believed that a person's will and

desires are the roots of all their troubles and misfortunes. Schopenhauer goes on

to say that when a goal or want is attained, it brings about satisfaction, but when

it is not, it brings about suffering. Individuals either suffer from not having their

desires satisfied or from boredom when their desires are satisfied. Since

existence is marked by want or deficiency, and since the satisfaction of this want

is unsustainable, existence is characterized by suffering. This conclusion holds

for all of nature, including inanimate natures, insofar as they are at essence will.

However, suffering is more conspicuous in the life of human beings because of

their intellectual capacities. Human intellect does not relieve pain; rather, it brings

suffering home with greater clarity and consciousness. Human beings are unable

to change how miserable they are, not even with reason; in fact, reason just

makes their agony worse. So, all of humanity's normal endeavors are pointless

and unreal insofar as they are directed at appeasing an insatiable, blind will.
 7

Since the essence of existence is insatiable striving, and insatiable striving

is suffering, Schopenhauer concludes that nonexistence is preferable to

existence. However, suicide is not the answer. One cannot resolve the problem

of existence through suicide, for since all existence is suffering, death does not

end one’s suffering but only terminates the form that one’s suffering takes. The

proper response to recognizing that all existence is suffering is to turn away from

or renounce one’s own desire. In this respect, Schopenhauer’s thought finds

confirmation in the Eastern texts he read and admired: the goal of human life is

to turn away from desire. Salvation can only be found in resignation.

In "The Art of Failure: The Anti-Self-Help Guide" by Burton (2013), he

emphasizes much importance of how we can find greater fulfillment and growth

in our lives. He discusses some principles in his book such as how we need to

embrace our failures Burton argues that the fear of failure often holds us back

from taking risks and pursuing our goals and that embracing failure as a natural

part of the learning process can actually help us to grow and develop. He also

states that embracing a certain degree of pessimism can help us to avoid

disappointment and develop a more realistic view of the world. He suggests that

pessimism can help us to prepare for the worst while still hoping for the best. He

also emphasizes the importance of cultivating humility and recognizing our own

limitations, rather than overestimating our abilities or achievements. He suggests

that this can help us to avoid the disappointment and disillusionment that often

accompany unrealistic expectations. Lastly, he suggests that focusing on the

present moment and being mindful of our experiences can help us to find
meaning and fulfillment in even the most challenging circumstances. By

accepting the present moment as it is, rather than constantly striving for

something else, we can find a sense of peace and contentment in the midst of

difficulty.

Pessimism is an issue that deserves to be discussed, and everyone should

be educated about it. It can affect a large number of people, particularly

adolescents who have had unfortunate events in life. It is common for humans to

thrive in something, succumb to negative thinking, and suffer, but that doesn't

imply they will always be in that position; they can use it to discover greater

significance and steady growth in life. The studies of Schopenhauer and Burton

are useful to this research study in order to learn more about pessimism. It can

assist researchers to comprehend and identify pessimism, especially in students

in this situation.

This study is anchored on the revised Learned Helplessness Theory of

Martin Seligman, he states that a pessimistic attributional style increases the

likelihood of developing learned helplessness. In addition, prolonged exposure to

uncontrollable and inescapable events can lead people to develop a pessimistic

attributional style and to become apathetic, pessimistic, and unmotivated, even if

they are not that way to start.

In early 1965, psychologist Martin Seligman and his colleagues"

accidentally" discovered an unexpected phenomenon related to human

depression while studying the relationship between fear and learning in dogs.
Seligman's study involved watching what happened when a dog was allowed to

escape an impending (and aversive but non-damaging) shock so long as it

escaped from a designated area of its enclosure upon hearing a tone.

Seligman's subsequent theory of Learned Helplessness was then

extended to human behavior as a model for explaining depression. According to

Seligman, depressed people have learned to be helpless. In other words,

depressed people feel that whatever they do will be futile and that they have no

control over their environments.

Useful as it was for explaining why some people became depressed, the

initial learned helplessness theory could not account for or explain why many

people did not become depressed even after experiencing many unpleasant life

events. With further study, Seligman modified the learned helplessness theory to

incorporate a person's thinking style as a factor determining whether learned

helplessness would occur. He suggested that depressed people tended to use a

more pessimistic explanatory style when thinking about stressful events than

non-depressed people, who tended to be more optimistic.

Individuals tend to view the causes of negative events as internal, global,

and stable. An internal attribution is any attribution that gives the cause of an

event something to do with the person, as opposed to something in the outside

world. A stable attribution is one that doesn't change over time or across

situations. A global attribution is a belief that the factors affecting the outcome
apply to a large number of situations, not just one of them. (Nemad, Reiss,
10
Dombeck 2007)

It is necessary to know the status of adolescents in order to protect them.

There is a need to guarantee that individuals are not ignored because they are

resilient, but because they need help. Seligman's theory increases the

researcher's understanding of pessimism, and it is particularly relevant to this

study because it can be applied to many various areas of psychology, including

depression, anxiety, and stress. It has also been used to explain why some

people are more resilient than others, as well as why some people are more

likely than others to develop learned helplessness.

This study is also anchored on the Cognitive Theory of Depression of

Aaron Beck, who stated that depression-prone individuals possess negative self-

beliefs. Beck's main argument was that depression was instituted by one's view

of oneself, instead of one having a negative view of oneself due to depression.

This has large social implications for how we as a group perceive each other and

relate our dissatisfactions with one another. Abela and D'Alessandro's (2002)

study on college admissions is a good example of this phenomenon. In their

study, they found that the student's negative views about their future strongly

controlled the interaction between dysfunctional attitudes and the increase in a

depressed mood. The research clearly backed up Beck's claim that those at risk

for depression due to dysfunctional attitudes who did not get into their college of

choice then doubted their futures, and these thoughts lead to symptoms of

depression. Therefore, the students' self-perceptions became negative after

failing to get into college, and many showed signs of depression due to this
11
thinkin1 g.

Another way to look at these cognitive thoughts is through Beck's

Negative Cognitive Triad, which explains that negative thoughts are about the

self, the world, and the future. For example, in a study done by Brown et al

(1995), they centered their focus on college students receiving poor exam

scores. A study done by Boury et al. (2001) studied Beck's theory by monitoring

students’ negative thoughts with the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). They gave

an overview of Beck's ideas: "Individuals who are depressed misinterpret facts

and experiences in a negative fashion, limiting their focus to the negative aspects

of situations, thus feeling hopeless about the future. A direct relationship is

postulated between negative thoughts and severity of depressive symptoms."

(Allen 2003)

In "Emotion regulation difficulties, youth-adult relationships, and

depression/anxiety symptoms in adolescence" Zalewski et al. (2014) examine the

relationship between emotion regulation difficulties, youth-adult relationships, and

depression and anxiety symptoms in adolescence. The study involved a sample

of 168 adolescents between the ages of 12 and 17, who completed

questionnaires measuring their emotion regulation difficulties, relationships with

parents and other adults, and symptoms of depression and anxiety. The

researchers analyzed the data to investigate the associations between these

variables. The results showed that emotion regulation difficulties were

significantly associated with higher levels of depression and anxiety symptoms in

adolescents. In addition, positive youth-adult relationships were found to be a

protective factor against depression and anxiety symptoms and also served to

moderate the association between emotion regulation difficulties and these

symptoms. The study suggests that emotion regulation difficulties may contribute

to the development of depression and anxiety symptoms in adolescence and that

positive relationships with adults may serve as a protective factor. The findings

highlight the importance of addressing emotion regulation difficulties and

strengthening positive relationships in the prevention and treatment of

depression and anxiety in adolescents.

Since pessimism and depression are frequently linked, the theory of

depression is important for the study of pessimism. People who are depressed

frequently engage in negative thought patterns, which might involve pessimistic

future predictions. According to Szafranski et al. (2015), people with pessimistic

attributional styles were more likely to suffer from depression, particularly when

stressful life events were present. Pessimism was one of the negative cognitive

biases that people with depression were more likely to exhibit, and these biases

were linked to attentional control deficiencies (Bouhuys et al. 2015). People who

are depressed are more likely to think negatively and anticipate bad things

happening. This kind of pessimistic thinking can spiral into sadness and

pessimism as a self-fulfilling prophecy. The study of pessimism benefits from an

understanding of the theory of depression because it enables researchers and

clinicians to create efficient treatments for people who experience pessimism and
depression. Reducing pessimistic thinking and enhancing general well-being may
13
be attainable by treating depression.

In addition, this study is supported by the theory of Sociocultural Cognitive

Development by Lev Vygotsky, who believed that social interaction plays a vital

role in cognitive development. Vygotsky stated, “Every function in the child’s

cultural development appears twice: first on the social level, and later, on the

individual level; first between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child

(intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, logical memory,

and the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual

relationships between individuals,” (Vygotsky, 1978).

In Vygotsky's theory, culture influences children's cognitive development

in two ways. First, children learn the majority of their knowledge (thought

contents) through culture. Furthermore, culture not only teaches youngsters what

to think but also how to think. Intellectual development results from a dialectical

process in which problem-solving experiences are shared with parents,

instructors, siblings, peers, and so on. Some problems can be solved by children

on their own, but others require the assistance of social agents. The zone of

proximal development was named by Vygotsky as the distinction between what

children can and cannot perform on their own. The zone of proximal

development concept is used to explain a child's cognitive development and

capacity when they are directed through a task rather than asked to complete it

alone. If a child is given a task that is somewhat above their level of skill, the

zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to their ability to complete it with the
help of a more competent individual. This concept explains why some skills

emerge in a more social situation when the youngster is unable to demonstrate

them on their own. The zone of proximal development is defined as the distance

between the actual developmental level when measured individually and the

prospective developmental level when assessed collaboratively with peers,

mentors, or under the supervision of a teacher.

Social cognition is the ability to comprehend and interpret the social world,

including other people's thoughts, feelings, and intentions. It is a multifaceted

cognitive process that evolves with time. It develops in stages, beginning with

birth and continuing into puberty. These stages entail growing levels of

complexity and sophistication in social knowledge, which is influenced by

biological, social, and environmental elements such as genetics, brain

development, social experiences, and cultural context. Children and adolescents

who have excellent social cognition skills may navigate the social world more

effectively, build positive relationships with others, and regulate their emotions.

Social cognition can be improved through intervention and training programs. We

may be able to improve social and emotional outcomes for this population if we

provide chances for children and adolescents to practice and develop social

cognition abilities. (Nelson and Guyer 2018)

In light of the theories mentioned and discussed above as well as the

reviewed literature and findings of prior studies, it gears to help, support, and

give a detailed grasp of what pessimism is. The foundation of this study is

provided by the theories. Going back to its roots, which are the causes of
pessimism, it offers the researcher insight into how they might assist those who

are not having a good time in life. With the use of these theories, which offer

several avenues in this study, the researchers get a clearer picture of what are

the effects of pessimism on social engagements among Senior High School

Students and how they might help them alleviate and cope with their suffering.

THE PROBLEM

Statement of the Problem

This study aims to determine the effects of pessimism on the social

engagements of Senior High School Students in Tuburan National High School

during the school year 2022-2023 as a basis for an action plan.

Specifically, this study seeks to answer the following questions:

1. What is the profile of the respondents in terms of:

1.1. age;

1.2 gender; and

1.3. strand?

2. What are the effects of pessimism on the social engagement of the

respondents in terms of:

2.1 behavior;

2.2 social interaction;

2.3 social relation; and

 2.4 cognitive development?
16
3. What are the issues and concerns met by the respondents?

4. Based on the findings, what action plan could be proposed?

Significance of the Study

This study will be of great benefit to the following:

Students. The result will provide the students with some knowledge on

being a pessimist and its effect on their studies and social engagements. It will

give students a realization that being a pessimist is impractical in dealing with

matters. At the end of the study, students may finally know why pessimism is a

major problem in society.

Teachers. The data that will be soon presented here may guide the

teachers in understanding the student’s behavior so as their performance in

class. With this study, they may know how to deal with their pessimist students

and later on, help them.

Parents. Like the teachers, the parents also may understand the condition

of their child through the data that soon will be presented in the study. Moreover,

the data would help them formulate some preventive means to assist their

son/daughter and help them regarding the actions of their child.

Tuburan National High School. The results of this study will be

beneficial to the school and all of its employees since they will provide further
guidance and aid in the initiation of a more favorable environment that can
17
ensure the child's health and promote better learning development.

Future Researchers. This investigation will be helpful to them as a

foundation for future research. And this research will lead them to a new

discovery, answering new questions and revealing challenges in the field of

psychology, particularly pessimism.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Design

This study employs the descriptive method of a research design, which

tries to correctly and systematically describe a phenomenon, to collect data and

information needed for analysis. By looking for correct information, the

descriptive method is employed to present and discuss the profile, factors

influencing respondents' social engagement, and issues and concerns met by the

respondents, The information collected will be presented, examined, and

interpreted, and this information served as the foundation for the presentation of

the findings, conclusions, and recommendations.

The Flow of the Study

The purpose of this study is to determine the effects of pessimism on the

social engagements of Senior High School Students at Tuburan National High

School. As shown in Figure 2, the study used the systems model utilizing the

input, process, and output approaches. The input includes the profile, factors
influencing respondents' social engagement, and issues and concerns raised by

respondents. Through questionnaires, relevant data were collected. The

accomplished questionnaires were tailed and tabulated. The data were

presented, analyzed, and

 18

interpreted. The output is an action plan to help the students understand and

alleviate their situation.

 INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

1. Profile of the Transmittal Letter

Respondents
age, gender,
and strand
Analysis of the input
2. Effects of Thru:
pessimism on the
social engagement Questionnaires Action Plan
of the respondents in
terms of:
behavior, social Statistical
interaction, social Computation
relation, and
cognitive
development Report of Finding

3 Issues and
concerns met by the Drawing up
respondents Conclusion and
Recommendations.

Figure 2. Flow of the Study

 20

Environment

Tuburan is a derivative of the Cebuano-Bisaya word " Tubod" or "Spring"

in English. The origin of its name is justified for it is well-known for its crystal-

clear cold springs. People are also enticed by the beaches, creeks, rivers, caves,

and natural attractions to visit. Tuburan is a coastal municipality and is

considered the largest municipality in terms of land area in the province of Cebu.

It is 82 kilometers from Cebu City and is bordered to the North by the town of

Tabuelan and Asturias on the South. It has 54 barangays which lead to being

considered the greatest number of barangays for a Municipality in the Province of

Cebu.

This study was conducted at Tuburan National High School which is

located at Baranggay 7 (Poblacion), Tuburan. This High School is neighboring

the Tuburan Elementary School and Tuburan District Hospital. This school is

composed of Junior High School and Senior High School and the latter is the

respondent of this study.

Figure 3. Map of Cebu
Figure 4. Location Map of the Research Environment
 23

Respondents

The Senior High School Students from Tuburan National High School in

Poblacion, Barangay 7, Tuburan, Cebu, participated in this study. The population

was divided into two groups, primarily grade 11 and grade 12 students. Grade 11

had a total student population of 1085, while grade 12 had a total student

population of 753. The sampling size was determined using Slovin's Formula,

which equals 328 students. The data was then mathematically distributed across

all categories. This study's participants were chosen using stratified random

sampling.

Table 1
Distributions of the Respondents
n=328
TNHS- SHS Students f %
Students Enrolled
Grade 11 1085 194 59
Grade 12 753 134 41
TOTAL 1838 328 100%

Instrument

This study utilizes a researcher-made questionnaire entitled "Effects of

Pessimism on the Social Engagements of Senior High School Students in

Tuburan National High School S.Y. 2022-2023". The researchers used a survey
questionnaire to determine the respondents' profiles, including their age, gender,

grade, section, and strand, as well as the effects of pessimism on their social

engagement in terms of behavior, social interaction, social relations, and

cognitive development. The researchers will conduct the study online and offline.

Data Gathering Procedure

To perform the study, a transmittal letter will be sent to the appropriate

authorities. Following acceptance, a letter will be written to the principal

requesting permission to conduct the research at Tuburan National High School.

If the request is granted by the principal, the researchers will distribute the survey

questionnaire both online and offline, as well as provide clear instructions on how

to complete it to the respondents. The respondents will be given the choice of

participating or not participating in the survey, as well as the option to accept or

reject it. The data will be managed with the utmost confidentiality to ensure the

accuracy of the findings.

Statistical Treatment

Following the retrieval of the questionnaires, the frequency of responses will be

determined, collated, tabulated, and submitted to the subsequent statistical

procedures and analysis.

1. Simple Percentage - This will be used to determine the respondents'

profiles, including their age, gender, and strand.

2. Weighted Mean – This statistical tool was used to determine the effects
 of pessimism on the social engagement of the respondents in terms of

behavior, social interaction, social relation, and cognitive development.

25
3. Simple Ranking - This was used to determine the issues and concerns

of students in pessimism.

Scoring Procedure

The respondent's responses will be evaluated based on the weighted

scale, range, category, and verbal description as part of the scoring method

outlined below, which used a five-point Likert scale to assess the data.

Weight Range Category Verbal Description

When the
5 4.24 - 5.00 Strongly Agree respondents’
involvement is
100%
When the
4 3.23 - 4.23 Agree respondents’
involvement is 75%
When the
3 2.62 - 3.22 Neutral respondents’
involvement is 50%
When the
2 1.81 - 2.61 Disagree respondents’
involvement is 25%
When the
1 1.00 - 1.80 Strongly Disagree respondents’
involvement is 0%

Definition of Terms

With reference to this study, the researchers used both conceptual and
 26
operational definitions of terms to fully state the elements used in the study.

Antisocial Behavior – these are actions that are considered to violate the rights

of others by committing a crime, such as stealing and physical attack in addition

to other noncriminal behaviors such as lying and manipulation.

Behavior- the manner of conducting oneself: anything that an organism does

involving action and response to stimulation: the response of an individual,

group, or species to its environment.

Cognitive Development- is the construction of thought processes, including

remembering, problem-solving, and decision-making, from childhood through

adolescence to adulthood.

Emotional Interaction- describes the way emotions affect each other.

Marginalized- (of a person, group, or concept) treated as insignificant or

peripheral.

Metaphysical- relating to the part of philosophy that is about understanding

existence and knowledge.

Pessimism- a tendency to see the worst aspect of things or believe that the

worst will happen; a lack of hope or confidence in the future.

Psychological- of, affecting, or arising in the mind; related to the mental and

emotional state of a person.

Social Engagement- refers to one's degree of participation in a community or

society.
 27

Social Interaction- is the process of reciprocal influence exercised by individuals

over one another during social encounters.

Social relation- is the fundamental unit of analysis within the social sciences,

and describes any voluntary or involuntary interpersonal relationship between

two or more individuals within and/or between groups.