GENE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION LEADING TO FETAL

MALNUTRITION

EFFECTS OF SOME SPECIFIC CHEMICALS

PHATHALATES:
Phthalates are used as softeners in vinyl polymers, solvents in personal care products, and
coatings in pharmaceuticals, among other things. The levels that have been reported only reflect
recent exposures because phthalates only have a 12- to 24-hour half-life in humans. The levels of
phthalates are typically greater in pregnant women who are older, use more personal care and
cleaning products, and consume more fat. Early exposure to phthalates has been associated to
preterm birth, altered neurodevelopment, endocrine disruption, shorter anogenital distance in
newborn boys, and allergy issues.
Metabolites of phthalates are regularly seen in the urine of pregnant women. Ninety to one
hundred percent of maternal urine samples contain the majority of the investigated metabolites
during pregnancy and the first few weeks following delivery. The placental barrier can allow for
the passage of phthalates and their derivatives. In addition to meconium, cord blood, amniotic
fluid, breast milk, and at low concentrations in cord blood and amniotic fluid, phthalate
metabolites have been discovered in up to 18 phthalate metabolites in newborn urine. Despite the
possibility that they may cross the placenta, the research suggests that phthalates or their
metabolites do not accumulate in the developing foetus. The levels of phthalate in neonates' urine
were frequently the same as or lower than those in their mothers', according to one study. Despite
the fact that the levels in the cord were a little lower, the second investigation found that the
levels of MEHP in cord blood were strongly correlated with maternal levels. It is unclear
whether pregnancy affects placental translocation or phthalate metabolism. In two studies of
maternal urine phthalate metabolites, there were either no differences by gestational age or
results that differed per metabolite. However, two additional studies discovered that the
concentrations of certain phthalate metabolites in both maternal urine and amniotic fluid may
increase with gestational week.

PHENOLS:
Phenols are used to line food cans, plastic bottles, dental sealants, and other consumer items as
well as antimicrobials and preservatives. Phenols are non-persistent substances that are quickly
metabolised and eliminated from the body. They have half-lives in the human body between 6
and 30 hours. Examples include parabens, triclosan, and bisphenol A (BPA). Higher phenol
levels in pregnant women are associated with higher BMI, higher education levels, mouthwash
and cosmetic use, and mouthwash use. Prenatal BPA levels have been associated with younger
ages, lower socioeconomic position, black race, and canned vegetable use. Early BPA exposure
has been associated to cardiometabolic illnesses, poor neurodevelopment, endocrine disruption,
childhood asthma, and more. Other phenols, such as triclosan and parabens, whose effects on
human health are less well known, may have endocrine-disrupting effects.

BPA can be found in maternal urine throughout pregnancy and the postpartum period, frequently
in 80–100% of samples. Breast milk and maternal serum also contain it. Mothers' urine, serum,
and breast milk frequently contain triclosan. Methyl and propyl parabens are virtually always
identified in maternal urine and breast milk, but butyl and ethyl parabens are less usually found.

PERFLUORINATED CHEMICALS:
PFCs are durable industrial substances that make consumer items resistant to water and stains.
PFCs bioaccumulate and stay in the human body (and the environment) for a very long time after
exposure because of their incredibly stable chemical structure. They cling to proteins like
albumin with preference. Pregnancy-related PFC levels are positively correlated with age and
living in an industrialised environment, although parity and the duration of prior nursing are
adversely correlated. Results for BMI, smoking, and nutrition have been inconsistent. Only
possible endocrine disruption in females and decreased foetal growth have been definitively
linked to developing exposure to PFCs' adverse effects on infant health.
PFCs, including PFOS, PFOA, PFNA, PFDA, and PFHxS, are consistently found in the serum of
nearly all pregnant women; longer-chain compounds are also frequently discovered, albeit
sporadically at lower concentrations. PFCs have also been discovered in breast milk. The
widespread identification of PFCs in cord blood, amniotic fluid, and placental tissue suggests
that PFCs can cross the placenta. Each congener's metabolic traits have variable degrees of
impact on placental translocation. PFCs with short chains and those that link to fatty blood
proteins are the ones that move from maternal serum to cord serum most readily. Depending on
the congener, maternal PFC levels can be anywhere between 1 and 6 times higher than cord
levels. Placental transfer may exceed maternal exposure even though foetal levels normally
remain below maternal levels. PFC levels in the maternal serum decrease during pregnancy by
more than 10%, with certain congeners falling by more than a third from pre-pregnancy levels.
Both placental transfer and dilution from the pregnancy's increased blood volume are likely to be
to blame for these trends.
Breastfeeding is also thought to be a substantial source of neonatal PFC exposure. Because of
changes in lipid composition, PFC levels in breast milk may be higher than those in maternal
serum. Women who have previously breastfed also have lower serum PFC levels. PFC levels in
the mother's serum and breast milk continue to decrease with breastfeeding. The duration of
nursing and exclusive breastfeeding are also related to infant serum PFC levels.

FLAME RETARDANTS:
Flame retardants are used in electronics, fabrics, and upholstered furniture. Since the bulk of
PBDE flame retardants are no longer utilised in the United States, replacement flame retardants
(RFRs) have been developed as substitutes. Since flame retardants are lipophilic persistent
chemicals with half-lives in adult human adipose tissue ranging from a few months to over 10
years, PBDEs and RFRs are still detected by biomonitoring. When pregnant women have more
electrical appliances and filled furniture in their homes, are non-Hispanic in ethnicity, and have
resided in the nation for longer periods of time, they are more likely to be exposed to PBDEs.
The flammability requirements for California furniture are likely to blame for the increased risk
to low-income pregnant women living in the state. While the health effects of RFRs are still not
completely understood, PBDE exposure has been associated to reproductive harm, thyroid
hormone alterations in both pregnant women and newborns, and poorer mental and psychomotor
growth in children, including decreases in IQ and attention.
The most prevalent PBDEs, BDEs -47 and -153, were identified in the serum of almost all
pregnant women. Furthermore, PBDEs are frequently seen in breast milk. RFR metabolites can
be found in maternal urine, and tests have been done on RFRs in maternal serum and breast milk
as well. Flame retardants are able to cross the placenta even when maternal levels are steady
during pregnancy. The placenta, amniotic fluid, colostrum, and cord serum are also used.
RFRs in the placenta and cord serum have been studied. Both the maternal and foetal matrices
contain PBDE metabolites (OH-PBDEs), but at significantly lower levels. Chemical variations
have various degrees of impact on placental transit and potential accumulation (and is affected
by lipid adjustment). According to various PBDEs with reliable transfer patterns, BDE-153 is
more common in maternal serum, BDE-99 is more common in cord serum, BDE-100 is similar
across matrices, and OH-PBDEs may be more common in cord serum. Others, such BDE-47 and
-28, exhibit a less consistent pattern. The RFRs are comparable; some are influenced more by
maternal serum while others are influenced more by cord serum. According to several research,
higher brominated PBDEs enter the placenta more easily than lower brominated PBDEs,
although a comprehensive review did not verify this.

PCBs:
PCBs, which were once widely used as coolants and lubricants, are still present in the
environment despite being illegal. PCBs have long half-lives in adipose tissue and are
particularly persistent lipophilic chemicals. They accumulate in both the environment and
people. Mothers of Inuit and northern Norwegian infants, as well as women who consume a lot
of fatty fish and game, are particularly vulnerable since PCBs bioaccumulate and maternal levels
are correlated with age and birth year. Since PCBs are reproductive toxins, exposure to them
during development may have a deleterious effect on thyroid hormones, a child's
neurodevelopment, and birth weight. The most often found congeners include PCB-138, -153, -
170, and -180, which are typically found in 80% to 100% of maternal serum samples, colostrum,
and breast milk. PCBs can pass the placenta and are frequently found in amniotic fluid, cord
blood, placenta, meconium, and cord blood. At lower concentrations than the parent PCBs,
hydroxylated PCB metabolites (OH-PCBs) have also been found in numerous matrices. Only a
few congeners are detected at same levels or greater in cord, and almost all PCBs are found at
levels higher in maternal serum than cord serum.
In one study, it was discovered that primiparous women transferred PCB-157 to the foetus more
frequently than multiparous women did, suggesting that parity may also play a part in the inter-
individual variability in placental transfer. Although most studies indicate that lipid-adjusted
PCB levels decrease during pregnancy, this effect is likely the consequence of dilution as blood
volume increases. After delivery, PCBs are probably administered to the infant through nursing.
Colostrum contains a little more PCB than mature milk, and multiparous women had lower
levels of PCB in their blood. Two studies discovered a considerable decrease in PCB levels in
breast milk throughout breastfeeding, despite the fact that a third study revealed no change in
blood or milk levels.

ORGANOCHLORINE PESTICIDES:
In adipose tissue, OCs build up and are persistent lipophilic chemicals. As a result, despite being
banned for many years, OCs are still present in the environment and human tissue. Women in
Latin America and other areas where OCs are used for agriculture or pest control had
significantly higher OC levels, which are strongly correlated with recent pesticide exposure. Poor
psychomotor and attentional development, immunological suppression, and endocrine disruption
may all be consequences of OC exposure. Over 90% of samples from a range of matrices,
including maternal serum and breast milk, typically contain trans-nonachlor, hexachlorobenzene
(HCB), and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE). Oxychlordane and hexachlorocyclohexane
(HCH), though less frequent, are nonetheless regularly observed in more than half of maternal
samples. OCs have been identified in amniotic fluid, cord serum, meconium, and placenta, and
they can cross the placenta. Wet weights demonstrate that OC levels are higher in maternal blood
than in cord blood, despite the fact that the difference is marginal for several compounds. When
utilising lipid-adjusted measures, OC levels are frequently somewhat higher in cord than
maternal serum, but the differences are not significant enough to suggest foetal accumulation.
The levels of DDE and DDT in the maternal serum are also the same during all three trimesters
of pregnancy.
OCs could potentially be passed on by breast milk. OC levels in breast milk are higher than those
in maternal serum, and breast milk fat levels decline during the first month following birth.
Uncertainty exists over whether breastfeeding affects the mother's serum OC levels.