MIGRATION TO THE CARIBBEAN

It is very important to examine how and why different ethnic groups migrated to the Caribbean
and thus how they contributed to the cultural diversity of the Caribbean region.

THE AMERINDIANS
The people who settled in the West Indies were called Indigenous Americans: ‘Indigenous’ –
refers to the fact that they were the first of many people who have developed American way of
life. They are also referred to as Amerindians – this is because when Columbus came to the
Caribbean, he thought he had arrived in India, and thus the people were ‘Indians’ .They were
nomads who followed animals [caribou, buffalo and seals etc.] across the Bering Strait, over
land or ice bridge which then joined Alaska to Siberia in Asia. Before the ice bridge disappeared
many other groups of hunters followed and pushed those who had come before further south.
The Indigenous people dispersed themselves all over the Americas.

It has been determined that the Tainos traveled through the Orinoco region in South America,
up through Trinidad, where they passed through the Lesser Antilles until they settled in the
Greater Antilles. These islands were bigger, with more room for hunting, agriculture, and
development. The Kalinagos followed a similar path to the Caribbean as did the Tainos, but they
settled on the islands of the Lesser Antilles

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Refer to handout ‘Impact of Historical Process’.

SYSTEM OF PRODUCTION

The Amerindians had a Communal System, where production of crops was a community effort
for the benefit of the entire village. However, when the Europeans came the Amerindians were
forced to abandon this labour system in favour of the Encomienda System. Under this system
the Tainos were used as labourers in mines and farms, in return they were offered protection,
Roman Catholic education, housing and food.

THE EUROPEANS
MOTIVATING FACTORS

The Europeans came to the Americas in the late 15th century and they were facilitated by
development/events in Europe such as: (i) Renaissance (ii) improvements in navigational
instruments (iii) improvements in cartography and shipbuilding. In essence they were
motivated by (i) gold (ii) glory (iii) god.

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Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa Italy in 1451 and he was interested in exploring
beyond the borders of Europe. However, he could not represent his homeland, and Portugal
was not interested in his plan to travel west to reach the East; as a result he approached Spain.
The rulers of Spain were King Ferdinand of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile and they
sponsored Columbus’ voyages.

Columbus left Spain in 1492 to embark on his first voyage; he travelled southwards from Spain
to the Canary Islands. From the Canary Islands he voyaged in his three ships: Santa Maria, Pinta
and the Nina and the crew to the Americas, propelled by the winds and ocean currents of the
Atlantic. Columbus arrived on the island that he named San Salvador [Watling Island in the
Bahamas]. On this voyage Columbus also went to the island of Hispaniola where his flagship the
Santa Maria was shipwrecked; as a result the two remaining ships could not carry everyone
back to Spain, and thus thirty-nine [39] man had to be left behind and they became the first
European settlers in the Caribbean.

After Columbus returned from his first voyage Spain wanted to ensure that no other country
could gain access to the ‘New World; as a result Spain went to the main arbitrator at the time:
Pope Alexander VI. The Spanish Pope Alexander VI issued on May 4, 1493 the Inter Caetera Bull;
this Papal Bull fixed the demarcation line along a circle passing 100 leagues West of the Cape
Verde Islands and through the two poles. This division gave the entire New World to Spain and
Africa and India to Portugal. The margin of the manoeuvre given to Portugal by the papal bull
was small.

Portugal protested the 1493 Papal Bull and as a result the pope issued the Treaty of Tordesillas
which shifted the demarcation line to a circle passing 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde
Islands and thus set the legal base for the colonization of the eastern coast of Brazil by the
Portuguese explorer Pedro Alvarez Cabral.  He landed there on April 22, 1500.

COLUMBUS’ VOYAGES

1. First Voyage [3rd August, 1492 – 15th March, 1493]

 Bahamas  Hispaniola
 Cuba

2. Second Voyage [25th September, 1493 – 11th June, 1496]

 Jamaica  Marie Galante

 Puerto Rico  Guadeloupe
 Dominica  Monsterrat
 La Desirade  Antigua

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  St. Christopher  St. Croix
 Nevis  Virgin Islands
 St. Martin  Isle of Pines [off the coast of
Cuba]

3. Third Voyage [31st May, 1498 – December 1500]

 South  Grenada  Cubagua

America  St. Vincent  Tobago
 Trinidad  Margarita

4. Fourth Voyage [9th May, 1502 – 6th November, 1504]

 St. Lucia  Martinique  Central

America

CHALLENGE TO SPAIN’S MONOPOLY

Other Europeans such as France, Holland and England became jealous of Spain’s new wealth
because:

1. Wealth obtained by Spain from the Americas was used to finance its wars with other
European nations; and thus the extension of its supremacy in Europe
2. France though Catholic challenged the terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas, on the basis
that the Pope did not have the power to give all lands and peoples to Spain
3. Spain had total monopoly of the Americas and only Spaniards were allowed to move or
trade there. Europeans who wanted to access goods from the Americas had to purchase
them after Spain added taxes
4. Europeans counter Spain’s arguments against challenging her monopoly by the theory
of “effective occupation”. Small territories were not adequately supplied with things
needed for normal living. This is because Spain was preoccupied with territories that
supplied treasures. Colonies deficient in mineral wealth were neglected; and sometimes
months would go by without supplies from Spain to meet basic needs, which created
real hardships. Spain’s rivals could fill the void.

METHODS USED TO CHALLENGE SPAIN’S MONOPOLY

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 1. Letters of Commission were given to English privateers and Lettres de Marque were
given to French privateers ; it gave privateers who were willing to venture to Spanish
settlements the authority to attack enemy ports and ships.
2. Smugglers/Trader could easily smuggle goods to Spanish island territories as they were
‘far flung’, and thus it made it hard for Spain to shield all ports and harbours from
smugglers
3. Establish colonies which were neglected by Spain

The Dutch

1. They came to the Americas, they found settlers eager to trade in their goods that were
cheap and could be bought on easy terms. Soon they started trading their salted cod,
basic foodstuff and necessities for hides, ginger etc.
2. 1626 – 1627 Piet Heyn used thirty –one ships and 4000 men to capture an entire
Spanish fleet carrying silver worth millions. 1627 Van Uytgeest captured ships carrying
riches from Honduras; in 1628 Pieter Ita captured two Honduras galleons

The English

1. John Hawkins
 He stepped in to fill the labour gap caused by the flaws in the Asiento
 He took slaves from West Africa and traded them for hides, ginger, sugar and
some pearls. If colonists refused to trade with him, he would use force – for
example 1565 in Borburata [Venezuela] and 1567 in Rio de la Hacha [northern
Colombia]
2. Francis Drake
 His ‘Operation Isthmus’ from 1572 – 1573 captured a mule train carrying silver to
Nombre de Dios [Atlantic coast of Panama]. He captured so much treasure that
he did not have enough ships to take them back to England. He had to bury
some , till he returned the next year
3. Walter Raleigh
 In 1594 he reached Trinidad, and he raided the Spanish settlement and took the
governor as prisoner; he was returned after a ransom was paid

The French

1. 1522 Jean d’Ango seized four Spanish ships which contained some of Montezumas
riches and in 1537 he captured nine ships carrying silver from Peru
2. 1553 Francois Le Clerc used ten ships to pillaged almost every Spanish island settlement
3. 1555 Jacques Sores captured Havana, which was a major sea port for Spain in the
Americas. He raided the city and then burned it to the ground
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ATTEMPTS TO PROTECT SPANISH INTEREST

1. 1582 Pedro Menendez de Aviles introduced the Aramadilla, which was a squadon of
light fast ships that flank the convoys for protection
2. Only important ports of trade were fortified, this was due to high cost of construction.
Fortification was the reason Drake was not able to attack San Juan in 1585

EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS

Despite all of Spain’s efforts to protect her interest in the Americas, by the mid 17 th century
Spain’s monopoly was broken. The other Europeans were able to establish colonies in the
Americas.

SPANISH SETTLEMENTS

1. Hispaniola [1493]
2. Cuba [1511]
3. Jamaica [1509] – Juan de Esquivel established the first settlement
4. Puerto Rico [1508] – Ponce de Leon establish settlements
5. Trinidad [1718] – 1797 Britain took control of this settlement as it was being underused
by the Spanish
6. Mexico [1535]
7. Peru [1542]
8. Panama [Spanish Main] – settlements established in waves from 1502 – 1512
9. Islands of the Lesser Antilles were settled by explorers on their way to the mainland.
Presence of aggressive indigenous peoples hindered settlers from the Lesser Antilles;
and this left them open for other Europeans

NON IBERIAN SETTLEMENTS

English Settlements

1. St. Kitts [1624] – Thomas Warner is responsible for the first English settlement and
tobacco was grown for export. The tobacco boom did not last, due to competition from
Virginia
2. British Guiana [1650] – The then governor of Barbados established as small settlement
3. Barbados [1627] – John Powell created the first settlement in Barbados with 80 settlers
4. Jamaica [by 1670] – Jamaica was conquered in 1655, and by 1662 it was given authority
over the Cayman Islands. By1670 the territories were settled.
5. Montserrat [1632] – settlement initiated by Anthony Briskett

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 6. Antigua [1632] – settlement initiated by Edward Warner; settlers were brought in and
tobacco cultivation was initiated
7. British Honduras [1798] – the area was never settled by Spain due to its topography and
the existence of militant indigenes and little mineral wealth. However British loggers
braved the elements and the resistant indigenes and established small settlements.
8. Bahamas [1648] ex- governor of Bermuda William Sayle used 70 settlers to initiate
settlement
9. Nevis [1628]- settlement initiated by Anthony Hilton
10. Virgin Islands [1680]

French Settlements

1. St. Domingue [1664]

2. French Guiana [1643]
3. St. Kitts [1625] – both ends of this island settled by d’Esnambuc
4. Guadeloupe [1635] – settled by settlers from St. Kitts
5. Martinique [1663]
6. St. Lucia [1756]
7. St. Martin [shared in 1648]

Danish Settlements[by 1733]

1. St. Thomas [1672] –territories used as a trading base with the help of the Dutch
2. St. John
3. St. Croix

Dutch Settlements

1. St. Maarten [1620]

2. Suriname [1674]
3. Guiana, from the Essequibo to the Amazon Rivers [1610 &1611] – settlers grew
subsistence crops and tobacco; they also encouraged Amerindian farming
4. Aruba [1634]
5. Bonaire [1634] – ABC islands used as ports to the Spanish mainland and the northern
territories which were close to Spanish territories in the Greater Antilles
6. Curacao [1634] – seen as a suitable place to launch attacks on Spain and also find salt
7. St. Eustacius [1632]
8. Saba [1640]

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SYSTEM OF PRODUCTION

After the colonies were settled by the Europeans tobacco cultivation was adopted, especially by
the English, as they were the most motivated to develop their colonies for profit. European
indentured labourers who came on contract were used as labourers. They consisted of poor
Irish, Welsh and Scottish men along with English who were imprisoned for minor charges. As a
result between 1624 – 1650 about 2000 to 3000 Europeans were coming to the islands as
indentured labourers. By 1650 there were: (i) 56,900 Europeans in the British colonies
(ii) 15,000 Europeans between French and Dutch colonies.

THE AFRICANS
Africans were taken from a large area of West Africa expanding from Senegal to Angola [5000
miles]. Africans were taken from seven main areas:

(i) Senegambia (iv) Gold Coast

(ii) Sierra Leone and Windward (v) Slave Coast
Coast (vi) Niger Delta
(iii) Bight of Benin (vii) Cameroons

The Africans were taken to be unwilling participants of the Transatlantic Trade; this was a trade
where European goods were taken to Africa and traded for Africans. The Africans were
transported across the Atlantic [Middle Passage] to work on sugar plantations; the muscovado
sugar along with other tropical goods were taken to Europe to be sold and or manufacteured.

SYSTEM OF PRODUCTION

The European indentureship was not successful, partly because of deficiencies of the labourers
and mostly because tobacco from the islands was getting competition from the British North
American colony of Virginia. Therefore by 1650 a new system of production was required. The
Dutch who were referred to as the ‘fosterfathers’ introduced change from tobacco to sugar
cane cultivation with enslaved Africans as the labourers. The Africans were controlled by slave
laws. By the 1800s over 15,000,000 Africans were taken to the Americas as to work as unfree
labourers.

Eventually the trade in Africans was abolished: (i) British 1807 (ii) Dutch 1814 (iii) French 1818.
After the slave trade was abolished attempts were made to improve the conditions of enslaved
Africans with the Amelioration: (i) British 1823 (ii) French 1833. Attempts to improve the
condition and treatment of enslaved Africans were not very successful and soon after the
Europeans gave their unfree labourers complete freedom, the French and British had a period
of Apprenticeship, to prepare Africans for complete freedom. Nevertheless by the end of the

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19th century all enslaved Africans in the Caribbean were emancipated: (i) Haiti 1793 (ii) British
1838 (ii) French 1848 (iii) Dutch 1863 (iv) Cuba 1886.

POST EMANCIPATION IMMIGRANTS

After emancipation many of the ex-slaves especially in the British colonies did not want to
continue working on the plantations and they became peasant farmers, higglers and chose to
live in free villages. In anticipation of a labour shortage the planters sought labourers from
overseas. Immigrants came from Europe, Africa, Madeira, China and India, and consisted of
poor people who were promised a better life in the West Indies. Indentures to the French
colonies were taken from the French colony of Pondicherry in India. The Dutch after
emancipation got immigrants from the island of Java to their colony of Dutch Guiana
[Suriname]; they also got immigrants for that colony from British India. Today the Javanese who
are Muslims comprise 15% of Suriname’s population while the East Indians who are Hindus
[referred to as Hindustanis] comprise 37% of the population.

Copy pg. 11o in Mohammed.

SYSTEM OF PRODUCTION

The immigrants were referred to as indentured labourers. They worked (i) passage to the
colonies paid for (ii) under contract for a period of 5, 7 or 10 years (ii) minimum wage (iii) choice
at the end of contract to accept return passage home or of land. They were not considered as
being enslaved, just under ‘contract’. They were allowed to practice their religion; however,
they were required to work and live on the plantations; often times planters would deduct food
and accommodation costs from their minimum wages. Immigrants from India were the most
successful and by 1917 there were: (i) 239,000 in British Guiana (ii) 144,000 in Trinidad
(iii) 36,000 in Jamaica.

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