Lab Experiments Finalee

Experimental Psychology Lab
Section: H
Haram Sadique 192520005(Group Leader)
Rimsha Qurban 192520006
Khadeeja Fatima 192520007
Kinza Malik 192520002
Fatima Saeed 192520003
Maryam 192520004
Submitted to:
Ma’am Sana Rehman

Experiment no.1
Muller-Lyer Illusion
Introduction
Definition
The Muller-Lyer illusion is a well-known optical illusion in which two lines of

the same length appear to be of different lengths. The concept of Muller Lyer Illusion
was introduced by Franz Carl Muller Lyer (German Psychologist) in the year 1889. It
was first published by the physiology journal Archi furAnatomy und Physiologies,
Physiologist Abteilung in 1889.
Materials:
 Three stylized arrows
Explanation:
The Muller Lyer Illusion experiment is also called optical illusion due to its
characteristic feature which is the identification of the length of two lines. The illusion
occurs due to the embezzlement of size constancy scaling. The difference between the
sticks is apparent due to the size constancy, in this the lines near our eyes form a bigger
image at the retina in comparison to the one placed at far
The arrow on the stitch which is pointing outwards is perceived to be near each
other, whereas the arrows pointing towards the line appears to be at a distance which
makes the middle line appear to be of a bigger size. The lines are placed in parallel to
each other with having three different combinations of the arrowheads.
Significance:
 It is based upon the Gestalt principle of convergence and divergence.
 This is an important tool for researchers as well as psychologists as it helps in

understanding the brain and perceptual processes.
 Piaget in his theory of development (1970) used it to identify the cognitive

changes happening in the brain of a child, he defined that the children in the
approaching concrete operational stage were able to identify the length of the
arrow.
Uses of Muller Lyer Experiment:
 Neuroscientific study
 To identify the artistic qualities of a child
 Apparel industry
Does culture affect the Muller-Lyer illusion?
Interestingly, there are major culture differences in the perception of line length in
the Muller-Lyer illusion. These differences were demonstrated by the English
anthropologist and neurologist W. H. R. Rivers in 1901. In his observation, he tested
different cultures, such as a population of native aboriginal people called the Melanesians
who live on Murray Island, a chain of volcanic islands just off Australia. In Rivers’
observations, these people were significantly less susceptible to the visual distortion
effect of the changing angles of the wings. They more accurately identified the midpoint
of the arrow, and were more likely to judge the two lines above as the same length
compared to European patients. Doctor John Berry published a study in the British
Journal of Psychology examining the Muller-Lyer response in a variety of populations,
including the Inuit people from the Northern Arctic countries, some Scots from the city,
and the Tenme people a West African people from Sierra Leone. A similar trend was
observed.
One of the major studies regarding the perception of the Muller-Lyer illusion was
published in 1966 (The influence of culture on visual perception). In this study, they
looked at a total of seventeen different populations of people including European and
American urban dwellers. In their experiment, they found that the urban Americans and
European are more vulnerable to the line-length modifying wings of the Muller-Lyer
illusion. In their explanation, the accuracy in perception for these people was due to their
environment. They lived in a less rectilinear world compared to their European
counterparts, whose right-angled buildings and streets made them more vulnerable to
perceptual tricks such as the Muller-Lyer illusion. The study first used the word
“carpentered,” which describes the type of squared atmosphere that the city-dwelling
Americans and Europeans experience on a regular basis.
Conduction: (procedure)
The subject is shown a line of a particular length with one fixed arrowhead and
the other two moveables. One of the moveable arrowheads (pointing outside) is used in
fixing a length with the fixed arrowhead. At the back of the apparatus, there is a scale that
is only visible to the experimenter and it helps in identifying if the subject has put the
moveable arrowhead at the correct distance or is there any difference between the length
of the line.
The subject is asked to move the other moveable arrowhead (pointing inwards) at
a length that is equal to the fixed length. The subject can adjust the arrow as per the
distance they observe/ assume.
The length fixed by the experimenter is considered as stimulus and the line to be
adjusted is considered as a response.
The difference between the calculated length and actual length is counted as an
error. The errors are calculated on both ends (right and left) being it less and more than
the actual length.
Literature review
The movement time hypothesis is suggested in some studies of the visual Müller-
Lyer illusion, though timing has not always been very precise. Visual Müller-Lyer figures
with divergent fins required a longer exposure time, and figures with convergent fins took
less time than expected (Erlebacher, 1969), suggesting that scanning time could also
explain the haptic illusion. Shorter eye movement saccades for convergent than divergent
figures) and correlations between eye movements and unseen arm (pointing) movements
have also been reported (Moses,DeSisto,1970).
Wong (1975) disputed the hypothesis that movement control mechanisms mediate
the similarity of the illusion in touch and vision, on the grounds that the degree of
excursive eye or hand movements had no effect on the visual or haptic Müller-Lyer
illusion. But latencies were not tested directly.
In the Müller-Lyer illusion, the evaluation of the length of a segment is modified

in independence of the orientation of the arrowheads situated at both ends (Gentaz, E,
2004). Thus, the segment with outward pointing arrowheads is overestimated as
compared to the one (identical) with inward pointing arrowheads. Prior studies showed
that the illusion is present in blind folded sighted participants both visually and haptically
(Heller et al., 2002), some studies found similar magnitude of errors in both visual and
haptic modalities whereas others observed a larger magnitude in vision. In a number of
studies, the presence of the Müller-Lyer illusion in vision and haptic seemed to result
from similar visual and haptic processes because several factors affected the magnitude
of the visual and haptic illusions in the same way (Gentaz,E, 2004).
First, Rudel and Teuber (1963) found that the errors in the visual and haptic
illusions decreased similarly as the number of trials increased although the participants
received no feedback (Gentaz, E, 2004). Over (1967) confirmed this decrease in haptic.
This suggests that the perceptual learning occurring very generally in vision is also at
work in haptic. Second, Rudel and Teuber (1963) observed that this decrement in the
magnitude of the illusion was equally transferable from haptic to vision and from vision
to haptic. Third, the errors get stronger as the acute angles formed by the arrowheads and
the segment to be evaluated get smaller in both vision and haptic (Heller et al. 2002).
Finally, Millar and Al-Attar (2002) showed that the same experimental
manipulations reduced the Müller-Lyer illusion in vision and haptic to the same
percentage error level. More precisely, detailed explicit instructions to ignore the
arrowheads because they are confusing and to use body-centered cues for spatial
reference reduced the Müller-Lyer illusion in both modalities to near zero. This illusion
was not reduced in the absence of instructions to use body-centered cues, even when
external reference cues were present. The authors suggested that an explicit ego centric
reference may be the common factor underlying the Müller-Lyer illusion in both visual
and haptic modalities. If such a common factor exists, positive correlations between the
visual and haptic errors of the participants should be observed. Curiously, this question
has never been studied: Previous studies on the Müller-Lyer illusion in both modalities
were always performed on independent groups of participants and therefore could not
provide data on the intra-individual consistency of the illusion across modalities (Gentaz,
E, 2004). However, the fact that this illusion is present in both modalities does not
necessarily imply that the errors are correlated when they are measured in the same
participants. For example, although the “oblique effect” (lower precision of the
reproduction of oblique orientations by comparison to the reproduction of the vertical and
horizontal orientations) is observed both in vision and haptics, no significant correlation
between this visual and haptic oblique effect has been found when the same subjects were
tested(Gentaz,.2001).Therefore, to address this issue, Edouard Gentaz examined whether
the Müller-Lyerillusion was correlated in visual and haptic tasks when the same
blindfolded sighted adults performed exactly the same task in both modalities. Of course,
the presence of a correlation will not demonstrate unambiguously that the same factor is
responsible for the errors in the two modalities, but it could provide some support to this
hypothesis. The same participants were asked to perform visually and then haptically (or
in the reverse order) the task proposed by Rudel andTeuber (1963). The participants were
asked to explore the display made of two arrowheads fixed at the end of rod which
pointed to their left. Then, the participants were asked to give verbal instructions to the
experimenter who moved the “central and third arrowhead” until they thought that its
apex bisected the length of the rod. Thus, participants benefit from information only in
the relevant modality. The counterbalanced order of presentation of the visual and haptic
tasks raises a main question because half of the participants viewed the display before
performing the haptic task, and we know from a number of previous studies that
blindfolded sighted people tend to use their visual imagery when processing haptic tasks
(Gentaz, 2003). Therefore, in the analyses of results, this possible effect of order will be
specially examined.
Problem Statement
To find out how much error is involved in discriminating the length of the lines?
Methodology
Hypothesis
Participates will under-estimate the size of arrow headed figure and feather
headed arrow is over-estimated.
Independent Variable
Arrow headed Figure
Dependent Variable
Feather headed arrow
Sample/subject
We took a participant and his age is 23 and he is in semester 8th with previous
knowledge was FSC.
Instrument/ Tools
Cards, Scissor, Paper, Pencil, Scale
Procedure
The person is given a card and is said to adjust the card in such a way when you
feel that both arrows are equal. Firstly, the person is said to move the dependent arrow
from inward to outward from the right hand in such a way when you feel that both arrows
are equal and then note the reading. Repeat this process 10 times. Then the person is said
to move the dependent arrow from outward to inward from the right hand in such a way
when you feel that both arrows are equal and then write down that reading. Repeat this
process 10 times. Then the person is said to move the dependent arrow from inward to
outward from the left hand in such a way when you feel that both arrows are equal and
then write down that reading. Repeat this process 10 times. Then the person is said to
move the dependent arrow from outward to inward from the left hand in such a way when
you feel that both arrows are equal and then write down that reading. Repeat this
process10 times. Note down all the readings.
Results
Table 1
Point of Subjective Equality
Right Hand Outward to Inward Left Hand Outward to Inward
Inward to Outward Inward to Outward
46 30 39 37
41 30 38 38
45 32 38 30
41 32 37 41
40 34 39 34
46 42 39 34
39 39 38 32
42 33 37 31
44 32 42 36
44 32 37 34
Average: 1501
=1501/40
=37.52
Magnitude of Illusion: 60 – 37.52 =23
Qualitative interpretation
This table shows the findings of the experiment done on the subject. The first 10
trials were carried out by right hand (inward to outward). The second 10 trials were done
again by right hand (outward to inward). The next 10 trials were carried out from left
hand (inward to outward) followed by the last 10 trials from left hand (outward to
inward). The table shows the average of all the 40 trials by adding all the trials which is
1501. Then the value was further divided by total trials (1501/40) and the average value
is 37.52. Magnitude of illusion was calculated by subtracting the average value by 60
(60- 37.52) and the total error (magnitude of illusion of subject) is 23.
Discussion
As our problem statement was to find out how much error is involved in
discriminating the length of the lines. So, our point of subjective equity was 60. As in the
above experiment, the magnitude of illusion was 23 and in the article from which we get
the literature review, the magnitude of illusion was 6.2.
This indicates that the people conducted more errors in the card’s movement from
outward to inward. Other suggested explanations of the Müller-Lyer illusion that have
received significant attention over the years are the eye-movement theory and the
assimilation theory (Gombrich et al., 1973). The eye- movement theory claimed that the
misperception of the central shaft arises from the different extents of eye movements
needed to view a figure adorned with arrow tails compared to a figure with arrowheads.
This older proposal has been generally dismissed because the illusion persists in the
absence of eye movements (Howe & Purves, 2005). The assimilation theory argues that
the length of the central shaft is misperceived because the visual system cannot
successfully isolate parts from wholes. In this scenario, the central shaft of the figure with
arrow tails is seen as longer because the stimulus is, in its totality, longer. This supports
the hypothesis, as we perceived the arrow headed as longer and we underestimated the
feather headed (Qiu et al., 2008). The results of other researchers summarized here
further support the hypothesis that visual perception is a fundamentally probabilistic
process that has evolved to contend with the inherent ambiguity of information in retinal
stimuli (Kornmeier & Bach, 2012). The otherwise puzzling perceptual effects of the
standard Müller-Lyer stimulus and several variants that have been especially difficult to
explain evidently arise because visual percepts are generated in a way that reflects the
statistical relationship between retinal images and their real-world sources (Todorović,
2010).
Limitations
The Müller-Lyer illusion is a well-known optical illusion the experiment involves

two lines of equal length with different arrowheads at each end. One line has arrowheads
pointing inwards while the other has arrowheads pointing outwards. The line with
arrowheads pointing outwards appears longer than the line with arrowheads pointing
inwards. There are a number of limitations of the experiment that may have affected its
validity and reliability. For example, there was potential for distraction throughout the
experiment as participants were in a classroom full of other participants completing it
simultaneously. This experiment performs only females and same age group people.
Participant didn’t perform actively and seriously.
Recommendations:
This experiment must be performed different age group of people and also
different sex because the widely generalized the results of this experiment. Create the
noise prove environment to enhance the interest of participants.
References
Hara, M, Kosaka, S. Huang, J. Bleuler, H. Yabuta, T, (2009). Muller-Lyer Illusion Effect

on a
Reaching Movement in Simultaneous Presentation of Visual and

Haptic/Kinesthetic Cues.International Conference on Intelligent Robots and
Systems.
Woloszyn, M, R, (2010). Contrasting Three Popular Explanations for the Muller-Lyer

Illusion.
Current Research in Psychology.
Gentaz, E, Camos,V, Hatwell,Y , Jacquet,A,Y, (2004). The Visual and the Haptic Müller-
Lyer
Illusions: Correlation Study. Current psychology letters

.https://doi.org/10.4000/cpl.431
Gombrich, E. H., Hochberg, J., & Black, M. (1973). Art, perception, and reality (Vol.
1970). JHU Press.
Howe, C. Q., & Purves, D. (2005). The Müller-Lyer illusion explained by the statistics of
image–source relationships. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102(4),
1234- 1239.
Qiu, J., Li, H., Zhang, Q., Liu, Q., & Zhang, F. (2008). The Müller–Lyer illusion seen by
the brain: An event-related brain potentials study. Biological psychology, 77(2), 150-
158.
Kornmeier, J., & Bach, M. (2012). Ambiguous figures–what happens in the brain when
perception changes but not the stimulus. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 6, 51.
Todorović, D. (2010). Context effects in visual perception and their explanations. Review
of psychology, 17(1), 17-32.
Experiment no.2
Blind spot
Problem Statement
To observe the subject will make a simple prop and use it to find their blind spot.
To locate and identify the blind spot
Introduction
At the back of your eye is the retina. Your retina is made up of light-sensitive cells which
send messages to your brain about what you see. Everyone has a spot in their retina
where the optic nerve connects. In this area there are no light-sensitive cells so this part
of your retina can’t see. We call this the blind spot.
Mostly you don’t notice your blind spot because the spot in one eye doesn’t match
the spot in the other eye. Each eye supplies information to the brain, filling in what’s
missing. Also, sometimes the brain will fill in the missing information with what it thinks
should be there. That causes one kind of optical illusion.
One of the most dramatic experiments to perform is the demonstration of the
blind spot. The blind spot is the area on the retina without receptors that respond to light.
Therefore, an image that falls on this region will NOT be seen. It is in this region that the
optic nerve exits the eye on its way to the brain. To find your blind spot, look at the
image below or draw it on a piece of paper:
To draw the blind spot tester on a piece of paper, make a small dot on the left side
separated by about 6-8 inches from a small + on the right side.
Close your right eye. Hold the image (or place your head from the
computer monitor) about 20 inches away. With your left eye, look
at the +. Slowly bring the image (or move your head) closer while
looking at the +. At a certain distance, the dot will disappear from
sight...this is when the dot falls on the blind spot of your retina.
Reverse the process. Close your left eye and look at the dot with
your right eye. Move the image slowly closer to you and the + should disappear.
Literature review
This report introduces blind spot warming of vehicles that uses cameras mounted
to reduce traffic accidents. In recent years, there have been many new blind spot warning
systems designed for vehicles which mainly use radar technology. This report will firstly
describe the reason why intelligent surveillance systems need to be used so as to observe
blind spots of vehicles through several cameras. These will be followed by the definition
and importance of blind spot detection and its technical background. Next, an example
will be used to explain based on histogram and SIFT algorithms in blind spot monitoring
and HMM is employed to calculate the probability of accidents occurring in the blind
spots. After that, RNN will be used as a model of deep learning to predict the cars that
will turn up in the blind spots. Finally, the limitations of this technology will be explored
and future work will be briefed (Yiting Shen, 2018)
The pupil can be used as an objective measure for testing sensitivities across the
visual field (pupil perimetry; PP). The recently developed gaze-contingent flicker PP
(gcFPP) is a promising novel form of PP, with improved sensitivity due to retina
topically stable and repeated flickering stimulations, in a short time span. As a diagnostic
tool gcFPP has not yet been benchmarked in healthy individuals. The main aims of the
current study were to investigate whether gcFPP has the sensitivity to detect the blind
spot, and upper versus lower visual field differences that were found before in previous
studies. The physiological blind spot typically has a width of 8- and height of 10 degrees
in visual angle (Armaly, 1969, Safran et al., 1993). Experiment consisted of 130 trials (65
stimulus location; one block for pupil measurements, another block for visibility ratings).
Trials were randomized and each trial consisted of one stimulus presentation for 6 s. In
the subjective part of the experiment we asked the participants to rate the visibility of
each flickering disk on a 11-point Likert scale (0 = fully invisible, 10 = fully visible),
whereas in the objective part of the experiment we asked the participants to fixate the
bull’s eye. A total of thirty individuals were tested with gcFPP across two separate
experiments. The results showed that pupil oscillation amplitudes were smaller for
stimuli presented inside as compared to outside the blind spot. Amplitudes also decreased
as a function of eccentricity (i.e., distance to fixation) and were larger for upper as
compared to lower visual fields. We measured the strongest and most sensitive pupil
responses to stimuli presented on dark- and mid-gray backgrounds, and when observers
covertly focused their attention to the flickering stimulus. GcFPP thus evokes pupil
responses that are sensitive enough to detect local, and global differences in pupil
sensitivity. The findings further encourage (1) the use of a gray background to prevent
straylight without affecting gcFPPs sensitivity (BrendanL. Portengen,CarlienRoelofzen et
al., 2021)
Due to a lack of photoreceptors where the optic nerve exits the eye during
monocular viewing, a portion of the peripheral visual field is blind. Like several other
blind spots, this one still seems to be filled up. Recently, there have been several unique
reports of filling in at the blind spot. Here, many of these effects' consequences are
reexamined critically. It is specifically claimed that many blind-spot phenomena (such as
pop-out and changes in apparent motion) that are thought to support early filling in are
actually consistent with the idea that the visual blind spot is treated by early perceptual
processing as a region of reduced or absent information. To prove this point, it is
demonstrated that many perceptual effects seen in blind-spot completion are similar in
detail to the completion of partially obscured objects seen from a distance. The objectives
were to highlight the striking parallels between amodal completion of occluded portions
of surfaces and blind-spot completion, and to offer a shared theoretical framework for
comprehending these phenomena in the context of surface segregation and perceptual
interpolation (Srimant P. Tripathy, Dennis M. Levi, Frank H Durgin, 2016).
Methodology
Hypothesis:
Blind spot is a part on retina where there are no photoreceptors
Independent Variable:
Movement of chit
Dependent Variable:
Disappear and appearance of object (dot or cross).
Sample/subject:
1 participant, 22 years old, 8th semester

Instruments/Tools
 One 3 x 5-inch card (or other stiff paper) per student.
 Black markers.
 1 ruler per student.
Procedure
In this experiment the person taking the experiment and closed the right eye. Hold
the image about 20 inches away. With the left eye, look at the +. Slowly bring the image
closer while looking at the +. At a certain distance, the dot will disappear from sight after
11 seconds. This is when the dot falls on the blind spot of subject retina. Reverse this
process and close the left eye and look at the dot with your right eye. Move the image
slowly closer and the + disappear after 13 seconds. Then we take a black chit and chit
holder and said the person to close your left eye and we start moving the black chit from
left to right side we continuously moving the chit and where the black chit disappear we
mark that and we start moving the chit in upward direction and note the area where blind
spot appear same thing we done in the downward side, left and right side when this
process is complete a circle is formed and then we note the circle diameter in
centimeter(cm) and also note the circle outside distance of right, left, upward and
downward side from the paper end in centimeter.
Results
Table 1
Point of subjective blind spot
Scale Circle Circle Circle Circle left Circle right

length diameter Upward Downward side side
14cm 9.5cm 0.6cm 15cm 3.8cm 6.5cm
Qualitative Interpretation
After doing this experiment our results are the scale we draw is 14cm long and
moving from left to right side where our blind spot appear is in distance of 4.9cm or the
diameter of the circle we get is 9.5cm and the distance we get from the paper end to circle
corner in upward side is 0.6cm, downward is 15cm, left side we get 3.8cm and from right
side 6.5cm when this process is complete a circle is formed and the we note the circle
diameter in centimeter(cm) and also note the circle outside distance from the paper end in
centimeter and hence proved the hypothesis Blind spot is a part on retina where there are
no photoreceptors.
Discussion
The experiment measured the blind spot of the object with the help of blind spot
experiment. The results from the test revealed that the object will disappear after some
distance that mean at the back of your eye is the retina where the optic nerve connects
(Ramachandran, 1992). In that area there is no light-sensitive cells so this part of your
retina can’t see and the blind spot appears (Kawabata, 1984). Through this experiment we
proved the hypothesis that Blind spot is a part on retina where there are no
photoreceptors. And hence proved the hypothesis Blind spot is a part on retina where
there are no photoreceptors.
Limitations
 Environmental noises cause distractions

 Limited age group didn’t explore older adults and adolescents
 Psychological conditions also made the experiment lack of interest like the
motivation level of each participant's matter
 Participants biases towards instructions of instructor
 Lack of instrument tools
Recommendations
 Try to create a peaceful environment so that participants take interest in

experiment.
 Environmental noises should not make distractions
 The experiment should conduct equally on both genders.
 Should explore different age groups and explore different phases of development.
 There should be complete instrument tools so participants didn't face any problem
in completing the experiment.
References
Shen, Y., & Yan, W. Q. (2018, November). Blind spot monitoring using deep learning.
In 2018 International Conference on Image and Vision Computing New Zealand
(IVCNZ) (pp. 1-5). IEEE.
Tripathy, S. P., Levi, D. M., & Ogmen, H. (1996). Two-dot alignment across the
physiological blind spot. Vision research, 36(11), 1585-1596.
Durgin, F. H., Tripathy, S. P., & Levi, D. M. (1995). On the filling in of the visual blind
spot: Some rules of thumb. Perception, 24(7), 827-840.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2020.10.005
Ramachandran, V. S. (1992). Blind spots. Scientific American, 266(5), 86-91.
Kawabata, N. (1984). Perception at the blind spot and similarity grouping. Perception &
Psychophysics, 36, 151-158.
Appendix
Experiment no.3
Bilateral Transform of Training
Problem Statement
To demonstrate the phenomenon of bilateral transform by performing a sensory

task.
Introduction
Transfer of Learning is used to describe the effects of past learning upon present
acquisition. In the laboratory and in the outside world, how well and how rapidly we
learn anything depends to a large extent upon the kinds and number of things we have
learned previously. Transfer may be defined as “the partial or total application or
carryover of knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes from one situation to another situation”.
Hence, carryover of skills of one learning to other learning is transfer of training or
learning. Such transfer occurs when learning of one set of material influences the learning
of another set of material later. For example, a person who knows to drive a moped can
easily learn to drive a scooter. Transfer of Learning has three type’s Positive transfer of
learning and Negative transfer of Learning and Neutral transfer of learning.
The bilateral transfer of learning is the transference of physical performance

learned by one side of the body to the opposite side of the body. For instance, once a
person has learned to shoot a basketball with their right hand it is not difficult to transfer
that learning to the left hand.
This transfer of learning is made possible by the two-way information traffic that
exists through the corpus callosum, the band of fibers in the brain that allows the two
hemispheres to communicate and transfer information. William M Land (2016),
conducted a study on bilateral transfer suggests that imagery training can facilitate the
transfer of motor skill from a trained limb to that of an untrained limb above and beyond
that of physical practice.
E.H. Weber had begun the process of transferring science. He noticed that some
kids who had been taught to write with the right hand were able to create extremely
effective mirror writing with the left hand without any additional instruction. The
cerebral hemisphere appears to be the location of practice effect practically without a
doubt. The brain structure or state changes as a result of practice. According to the
Callosal Access Model, regardless of the hand used for training, motor programmers are
stored in the dominant hemisphere. The transfer of motor learning between hemispheres
is mostly mediated by the Supplementary Motor Area.
Literature Review
On a test requiring eye-hand synchronization, 50 participants received 50 trials

with the left hand, followed by 500 trials with the right hand. 50 trials with the left hand
afterwards revealed an improvement of 61% on average. An average amount of transfer
due to practice with the right hand was 32.6% in the control group of 50 individuals, who
had baseline skill comparable to that of the experimental group. During training, subjects
tended to formulate the issue. This formulation also applied to left-handed performance.
According to the author, the transfer effect may have been exacerbated by the beginning
movements of the left hand while the right hand was being employed (Munn, N. L, 1932)
Recent study on bilateral transfer reveals that, in addition to physical exercise,

imagery training can help with the transfer of motor skill from a trained limb to that of an
untrained leg. The current study looked at how practice time and task difficulty affect
how much imagery training and physical training affect bilateral transfer of a sequential
key pressing task in order to further explore this impact. Participants in experiment 1
practiced pushing keys with their non-dominant arm under one of three circumstances
(physical practice, imagery practice, and no practice). Participants completed the
sequential task with their untrained dominant arm in either the original order or a mirror-
ordered sequence in a subsequent bilateral transfer test. In experiment 2, the same
procedures were followed as in experiment 1 except those participants trained with their
dominant arm and performed the bilateral transfer task with their non-dominant arm.
Results indicated that with extended practice beyond what has been employed in previous
studies, physical practice is more effective at facilitating bilateral transfer compared to
training with imagery. Interestingly, significant bilateral transfer was only observed for
transfer from the non-dominant to the dominant arm with no differences observed
between performing the task in an original and mirror ordered sequence. Overall, these
findings suggest that imagery training may benefit bilateral transfer primarily at the initial
stages of learning, but with extended training, physical practice leads to larger influences
on transfer (William M. Land, Binya Liu, et al; 2016)
Bilateral transfer of skill as a function of speed and accuracy was examined in
self-classified left-handed (n = 20) and right-handed (n = 40) subjects. Two transfer
conditions (non-preferred to preferred hand, preferred to non-preferred hand) were
manipulated in a mirror-drawing task and data were treated with Groups (left, right
hander) × Transfer type (speed, accuracy) × Side (non-preferred to preferred hand,
preferred to non-preferred hand) mixed factorial ANOVA with repeated measure in
Transfer and Side factors. Percentage of bilateral transfer (First 5 trials−Last 5
trials/First 5 trials × 100) was the dependent measure. Left and right-handers did not
differ in the magnitude of bilateral transfer. Bilateral transfer was greater (a) from non-
preferred to preferred side as compared to the reverse, and (b) was greater with respect
to speed but not with accuracy (Sameer Kumar, Manas Mandal, 2010).
Methodology
Hypothesis
Practice by preferred hand will help performing the task by other hand
Preferred hand
Dependent Variable
Mistake or Error
Sample/subject:
2 participant, 22 years old, 8th semester
Instruments/Tools
 Sheet
 Mirror
 Black markers.
 Stop Watch
Procedure
This experiment constitutes two group; control group and experimental group.
One participant was in control group and was drew the star by looking in the mirror and
performed three trails. This participant drew star with hand other than preferred hand the
no of error in each trail were recorded in seconds which indicated the efficiency or
transfer of training in content of motor learning.
Experimental group
In this group participant drew star by looking in mirror with preferred hand. That
participant had performed three trails. Every trail was recorded number of errors in time
which was in seconds. After this, that same participant drew the star with hand other than
preferred hand. There were three trails for this which were recorded in terms of number
of errors in seconds. The number of errors in each trails indicates transfer of training in
the content of motor learning.
Control group
The instructions were clearly given and the experiment was conducted with ease.
Initially, I found it difficult to draw the star with left hand (not preferred hand) but
participant managed it well. That participant had performed three trails. Every trail was
recorded number of errors in time which was in seconds.
Results
Table 1
Point of subjective blind spot
Hand Used Number of trails Time in seconds Number of errors
Experimental group
Preferred hand 1 160 sec 8 errors
Left hand 1 80 sec 9 errors
Left hand 3 65 sec 2 error
Control group

After doing this experiment our results show that bilateral transference of learning
enhances the skills and function of speed and accuracy of other hand. According to our
experiment result show the experimental group first trail of preferred hand (right hand)
perform in 160 seconds and did 8 errors and we see in 3rd trail time and errors less than
first trail and the same thing see in left hand of experimental group perform first trail in
80 second and did 9 errors. In third trail of left hand both time and errors are reduced.
The other hand control group did perform first trail with left hand in 250 seconds and did
14 errors. When the participant reaches in third trail both the time and errors reduced.
Our result shows that bilateral transform of training help to performing the task in other
hand.
Discussion
After doing this experiment our results show that bilateral transference of learning
enhances the skills and function of speed and accuracy of other hand. Through this
experiment we proved the hypothesis that Practice by preferred hand will help
performing the task by other hand. Also the literature research, a study on a test requiring
eye-hand synchronization, (Munn, N. L, 1932) in which the results revealed that practice
with untrained limb has an improvement of 61% on average after trials so this also
supports our hypothesis that learning is transferred from trained to untrained limb. And
hence proved the hypothesis Practice by preferred hand will help performing the task by
other hand.
Limitations
 Environmental distractions
 Time limitations
 Lack of instruments
Recommendations

experiment.
 Proper time should be given
 Proper availability of all instruments
References
Munn, N. L. (1932). Bilateral transfer of learning. Journal of experimental

psychology, 15(3), 343.
Land, W. M., Liu, B., Cordova, A., Fang, M., Huang, Y., & Yao, W. X. (2016). Effects
of physical
practice and imagery practice on bilateral transfer in learning a sequential

tapping
task. PloS one, 11(4), e0152228.
Kumar, S., & Mandal, M. (2005). Bilateral transfer of skill in left-and right-
handers. Laterality:
Asymmetries of Body, Brain and Cognition, 10(4), 337-344.
Appendix
Experiment no. 4
Perception Reversible Figure
Introduction
The last decade has seen a resurgence of theoretical and empirical activity related
to certain types of visual illusion. This is most commonly called a reversible geometry
(Long et al., 1983). Reversible figures such as the Necker Cube, Rubin's Face/Vase, and
Bowling Girl/Old Woman are ambiguous visual patterns that support at least two distinct
perceptual organizations or interpretations. During continuous viewing, the observer
experiences a perception that alternates between possible interpretations of the characters,
although the stimulus patterns themselves do not change. Interest in this class of illusions
can be traced at least to a paper published by Necker (1832, cited in Long et al., 1983).
Our continued interest in these numbers stems from the belief that understanding their
multi-stability provides insight into how the underlying perceptual mechanisms work
(Toppino, 2003). Reversible numbers have attracted much research interest because they
are said to offer insights into how perceptual systems work due to their curious multi-
stability. Unfortunately, the longstanding popularity of the inversion diagram in the
literature reflects the lack of consensus among researchers as to the exact nature of what
this mode of operation is. There are researchers in favor of cognitive processes such as
learning and problem-solving. This can affect illusion reversal in a top-down fashion
(Long et al., 1992). Some researchers prefer a more passive or 'bottom-up' process of
neural fatigue and recovery between cortical structures as a determinant of shape reversal
(Long et al., 1992).
Literature Review
In an experiment by Girgus et al. (1992) the role of knowledge of the reversibility

of reversible figures was tested in four experiments. Two ambiguous figures, the vase-
face figure and a depth-reversing pyramid-hallway figure were shown to high school
students. In the Uninformed condition, subjects were not told that the figures were
reversible. A sampling procedure was used in which subjects reported what they
perceived at 5-sec intervals. Viewing durations of up to 3 min were used, and
approximately half of all subjects did not reverse at all during the uninformed condition,
whereas virtually all subjects reversed quickly and frequently once they knew that the
figures were reversible.
In another experiment by Toppino (2003) the observers exerted a degree of

intentional control over the perception of reversible figures. Also, the portion of the
stimulus that is selected for primary or enhanced processing (focal-feature processing)
influences how observers perceive a reversible figure. Two experiments investigated
whether voluntary control over perception of a Necker cube could be explained in terms
of intentionally selecting appropriate focal features within the stimulus for primary
processing. In Experiment 1, varying observers' intentions and the focus of primary
processing produced additive effects on the percentage of time that one alternative was
perceived. In Experiment 2, the effect of varying the focus of primary processing was
eliminated by the use of a small cube, but the effect of intention was unaltered. The
results indicate that intentional control over perception can be exerted independently of
focal-feature processing, perhaps by top-down activation or priming of perceptual
representations. The results also reveal the limits of intentional control.
Problem statement
To study experimentally the organization of figure-ground relationship by means

of two reversible figures.
Methodology
Hypothesis
H1; The perception shifts easily when the image is reversed from its original view.
H2; if we focus deeply on one part of the image, the other things in the image are
considered as the background of the image.
Two reversible figure, paper and pencil
Dependent Variable
Organization of figure ground relationship
Procedure
A subject of 23-year-old was instructed by the experimenter to interpret the 2

reversible images from every angle. Her responses were noted by the experimenter.
Results
Table 1
Laws of perception
Laws No. of response word Reaction time
Law of similarity 4 12sec
Law of contiguity 2 10sec
Law of contrast 0 0
Law of frequency 1 10sec
Law of primacy 2 13sec
Law of recency 1 15sec
Law of vividness and interest 1 17sec
Total 11 77 seconds
Formula:
Average response time = total time of response / total number of response word
ART= 77/11 = 7
In first figure the participant took her personal experience in which she said that
it’s look like ball and in reserves its look like umbrella. The law of similarity is having
been used. In figure two the participant again from her personal experience state that its
looks like stairs and in reverse looks like double sided or 3d pencil. There's again law of
similarity has been used.
For the first figure when it was non-reversed first participant reported the upper
two white and black triangles to be same in shape and size and the lower white and black
triangle to be same in shape and size. The second participant reported the same results but
she reported that the black triangles on the right and left side seem to be same in shape
and size too. In reversed condition the figures were reported by the participant as to be
similar in shape and size from the upper white and black triangles and the lower black
and white triangles whereas in the non-reversed condition the triangles on the right and
left sides were also reported to be same in size and shape from both the participants.
For the second figure in the non-reversed condition the first participant reported
all the stairs to be same in shape and size and to be similarly attached to the upper and
bottom part of the figure. Same results were reported by the other participant. In the
reversed condition same results were reported by both the participants and in non-
reversed condition.
Discussion
The figures were presented two the participants in the non-reversed and reversed
conditions. In some conditions the participants reported similar results to each other in
both of the conditions and in a few conditions the results were different to each other in
case for both the figures and in non-reversed and reversed presentation. The results of the
experiment are not according to or aligned to the results reported by the experiments
conducted by Girgus et al. (1997) and Toppino (2003) as they depict different results in
terms of the variables used and the purpose of their studies.
Limitations
Recommendations

experiment.
 Proper way of representing stimulus.
References
Wubbels, G. G., & Girgus, J. S. (1997). The natural sciences and mathematics. Gaff, JG,
Ratcliff, JL.
Toppino, T. C. (2003). Reversible-figure perception: Mechanisms of intentional

control. Perception & psychophysics, 65(8), 1285-1295.
Cohen, L. (1959). Perception of Reversible Figures After Brain

Injury.doi:10.1001/archneurpsyc.1959.02340180099013
Wagemans J. (2012). A century of Gestalt psychology in visual perception: Perceptual

grouping and figure-ground organization. Psychology
Appendix
Experiment no. 5
Code learning
Problem Statement
Experimentally demonstrate about the progress of code learning with the help of
code learning substitution sheets.
Introduction
The concept of coding, which refers to what is stored in memory during learning,
is defended as an important and necessary conceptual advance in learning-memory theory
during the last decade. It is maintained that the concept covers a wide variety of
functionally different coding operations, with many specifics of its operation still to be
experimentally determined, and that attempts to restrict its meaning to arbitrary
transformational coding, as suggested by Rustle, should be rejected (Melton. A.W, 1973).
Morse code chart is a method to encode all the 26 English letters from A to Z. The
English letters are transformed into standardized sequences of dots and dashes. They are
the same for uppercase as well as lowercase letters. Invented by Samuel Morse in the
1830s, Morse codes were used in World War II for radiotelegraphy. This means the codes
were used to transmit messages between naval bases and warships. The Morse code chart
comprises code symbols with lengths approximately inverse to corresponding character
occurrences. It is this arrangement that makes Morse code more efficient than most other
encoding systems. It was developed from transliteration as the Latin alphabet includes 26
letters. Encoding with Morse code can be more efficient as it does not specify durations
for the code elements. The codes are transmitted at the highest rate. The standard speed
of transmission as of 2011 is 34 words per minute.
Literature review
According to the idea of dynamical optimization, practice makes a response more

effect or specific since individual effect or information is coded together with and maybe
linked to sequence information (Shea, C.H, 2011). According to Keele and Verwey, the
motor and cognitive levels of response production have become intertwined to the point
where they are no longer independent, or the motor commands are so well-tuned that
additional cognitive processing is not needed while producing the movement sequence
(Shea, C.H,2011). As a result, the optimized response sequence is more particular to the
precise conditions encountered during the optimization phase of practice, but as practice
progresses, it becomes increasingly rigid under transfer situations (Shea, C.H, 2011).
Hikosaka et al. (1999, 2002) proposed that the processing of a movement sequence is
distributed in the brain in independent motor and spatial coordinate systems, with
different neural substrates serving each class of processing (e.g., sequence of
agonist/antagonist muscle activation patterns and/or achieved joint angles). This
viewpoint contends that learning movement sequences consist of two parts: a rapidly
emerging effect tor-independent component represented in visual-spatial coordinates, and
a slower developing effect or dependent component reflected in motor coordinates. We
believe that with some adjustments, this viewpoint could offer a unified framework for
comprehending the different elements that affect the coding and transmission of
movement sequences.
The effects of symbolic coding and various methods of repetition on under

graduate students' memory of observationally learned responses over various temporal
intervals were examined (Bandura 1973). The maximum level of response retention was
reached by Ss’ who, upon input, verbally or numerically coded the model's actions and
then promptly practiced the memory codes from which the behavior might be
reconstructed. On the other hand, physical practice did not on its own help students
remember the model led replies. Delay in imitative performance was found to be
critically influenced by both coding and symbolic rehearsal. Retention of modeled
behavior was not increased by either coding without rehearsal or coding without rehearsal
of the codes in immediate memory. Symbolic coding continued to be a significant
predictor of matching ability in tests done a week later, with the facilitative effects mostly
owing to codes that had previously been stored in persistent memory (Bandura 1973).
The findings are consistent with a social learning theory of observational learning that
places an emphasis on the central processing of response data during the acquisition
phase and motor reproduction and incentive processes during the overt application of
what has been learned (Bandura 1973).
Methodology
Hypothesis
As the number of trials increase the accuracy of responses also increase.
Number of trials
Dependent Variable
Accuracy of response
Sample/subject
We took 1 participant of age 22 and her semester is 8th. Her previous degree was
FSC premedical
Instruments/Tools
Code sheet, Paper, Pencil and Stop Watch
Procedure
In a classroom context, the experiment was conducted on a human subject.

Complete directions for the experiment were given to the subject. The subject was given
a total of five minutes with the coding sheet and instructed to learn the codes for the
alphabets before performing the experiment by adding the codes under the appropriate
alphabet. The identical person underwent a total of five trials, and each trial's time was
recorded. After five trials, the total number of trials, errors, and correctly answered
questions were recorded.
Results
Table 1
Scoring of sheet
Trails Number of Errors Time taken
1 11 4 min
2 8 2:50 sec
3 6 2:11
4 5 2:11
5 5 2:01
The participant's trial scores, error totals, and trial times are displayed in the table.
The first trial took 4 minutes and included 15 correct answers compared to 11 mistakes.
The participant completed the second trial in 2 minutes and 50 seconds, answering 18 of
the 26 alphabet-related questions correctly while making a total of 8 mistakes. The person
finished the third trial in 2 minutes and 11 seconds, giving 20 correct answers and 6
incorrect ones. The fourth trial was completed in 2 minutes and 11 seconds, with 5 errors
and 21 correctly answered questions, which was a significant improvement. The fifth and
final trial was finished in 2 minutes and 1 second with 21 correct answers, the same as the
fourth trial, and 5 mistakes. As a result, our hypothesis that as the number of trials rises,
response accuracy will follow is confirmed.
Discussion
The results of the experiment are matching with the hypothesis hence it is proved
that if the practice of an individual increases his learning get improved and error get
reduced. Jordan (1995) proposed the notion of dynamical optimization, with an increased
amount of practice a response becomes increasingly effect or specific due to the specific
effect or information that is being coded along with and perhaps linked to sequence
information. Previous studies have less focused on both practice and error in code
learning. Previous studies like banduras have researched how learning can be improved
using coding and bandura showed how practice and coding together improve the
retention of memory (Janelle et al., 2003)
Limitations
 Participants lack of interest

 The female participants were more than boys so gender biases created and results
were generalized on both genders.
 Limited age group Didn't explore older adults and adolescents
Recommendations

experiment.
 Proper way of display.
References
Melton, A.W (1973).The concept of coding in learning-memory theory. Memory &
Cognition. Shea, C.H, Kovacs, A .J, Panzer, S. (2011).The Coding and Inter-
Manual Transfer of Movement Sequences.
Bandura, A., & Jeffrey, R. W. (1973). Role of symbolic coding and rehearsal processes
in observational learning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 26(1),

122–130.
Mattle, K., Weinfurter, H., Kwiat, P. G., & Zeilinger, A. (1996). Dense coding in
experimental quantum communication. Physical Review Letters, 76(25), 4656.
Saldaña, J. (2014). Coding and analysis strategies. The Oxford handbook of qualitative
research, 581-605.
Siegel, J. A. (1974). Sensory and verbal coding strategies in subjects with absolute pitch.
Journal of experimental psychology, 103(1), 37.

Janelle, C. M., Champenoy, J. D., Coombes, S. A., & Mousseau, M. B. (2003).
Mechanisms of attentional cueing during observational learning to facilitate motor
skill acquisition. Journal of Sports Sciences, 21(10), 825-838.
Appendix
Experiment no: 6
Human Maze Learning
Introduction
Learning refers to the process by which experience or practice results in

relatively permanent behavior change. When ones faced with a difficult problem, we
attempt to solve it by adopting alternative methods. The solution occurs eventually,
sometimes accidentally. Thorndike formulated the Law of Effect to explain how, in
the course of solving a problem, the correct responses reintegrated and the wrong
responses are eliminated. This type of learning is
Called “Trial and Error Learning” With every trial there are improvements, this is due
to practice. The correct responses are gradually strengthened and the wrong responses
are eliminated, with the element of chance of the solution getting minimized.
A maze is a path or collection of paths, typically from an entrance to a goal.
The word is used to refer both to branching tour puzzles through which the solver
must find a route, and to simpler non-branching (“unicursal”) patterns that lead
unambiguously through a convoluted layout to a goal. (The term “labyrinth “is
generally synonymous, but also can indicate specifically aunicursal pattern). The
path way sand walls in a maze are typically fixed, but puzzles in which the walls and
paths can change during the game are also categorized as mazes or tour puzzles.
The most popular kind of learning experiment has been done with mazes.
Amaze is essentially a series of alloys some leading to the goal and others leading to
dead ends. From the starting place to the goal, the subject meets several points where
he must choose one or two alternatives.
Literature Review
Herbert & Harsh (1944) conducted an observational learning experiment in

which cats observed the puzzle-solving activities of other cats. They found that the
observers profit more from the demonstrator's trial-and-error performance during
learning than they do from skilled performances. Klopfer (1959) used birds who
observed partners who were learning a discrimination task. He found that the
observers benefited more when the demonstration was presented by trained bird
during acquisition rather than by an unskilled bird. Research on individual human
learning (McGeoch &Irion, 1952) suggests that the performance of inadequate
responses during acquisition facilitates the acquisition process. The hypothesis can
therefore be offered in the present context that error-making demonstrators will
facilitate learning in contrast to the skilled demonstration.
Social stimuli provided by silent observers (one or two) had no significant
effect on the efficiency of human maze learning. No statistically reliable differences
were found between the stimulated and the control groups used. There was some
evidence that learning in the presence of spectators produces greater variability of
performance among subjects. (Pessin,J.,&Husband,R. W.1933)
In 1930, Tolman with his associates Charles Honzikex permeated to
demonstrate such learning. In this experiment, hungry rats learning to solve a maze
were divided into three groups. The first group was always rewarded for correctly
passing through the maze, the second group was never rewarded and the third was not
rewarded until the eleventh day of the experiment. The rats of the third group did not
demonstrate any signs of learning till the introduction of food as a reward on the
eleventh day. However, as soon as the food was introduced, these rats improved their
performance rapidly and soon caught up with the group that had been continuously
rewarded.
The results of this experiment thus demonstrated the existence of learning
(although not translated into performance) before the introduction of reward in the
form of food. The existence of such latent learning thus remains latent in the individual
until a happening in the environment required him to make use of these hidden stores.
Trial and error learning in humans can be studied by giving students at ask that is
analogous to that faced by rats in mazes. Historically, students have participated in this
learning task by tracing finger mazes while blindfolded (Soderstrom & Bjork, 2015).
Methodology
Hypothesis
• Increasing the number of trials, resulting in decreasing the number of errors.
• Increasing the number of trials results in a decrease in the time taken.

Dependent Variable
Time is taken/Number of errors committed by a subject in each trial
Independent Variable:
Number of trials on the maze
Sample/Subject:
2 Participants one in the control group and 1 in the experimental group, 24-year-
old, 8th semester

Instrument:
Manual Maze, pencil, stop-watch
Procedure:
There were two groups one is the experimental group and another is the
control group in this experiment. The task is to navigate through the maze.
Participants are provided with a straight-ahead view from their current position in the
maze. The view shows the open doors or paths that can be chosen. Participants use the
stylus to reach the end point from the starting point. When participant reach dead end
the only active choice will be a backward movement. There are two dependent
measures for this study. Timing is the first measure and reflects the elapsed time for
completion of the maze. If participants return to the start box before entering the finish
box, the timing is not restarted.
The second dependent variable is an error. The number of errors is recorded
during each trial. Each time an incorrect movement, which results in a deviation from
the correct path, is made, it counts as one error. Each subsequent movement along that
incorrect path is not counted as an additional error.
Control Group:
The subject is 24years old and did one trial for a human maze learning
experiment. The subject did 2 errors in 120seconds in doing the entire trial.
Experimental Group:
There was 1subject recruited for experimenting The age of the participants was
24years. The experimenter performed three trials on the same participant by giving
instructions and guidance in choosing the right pathway in the manual human maze. In
the first trial, the subject completed the maze in 210 seconds and did3 errors. In the
second trial, the subject completed the maze in 190 seconds and did 1 error while in
the3rd.trial; the participant performed the experiment in 120 seconds and did no error.
Quantitative interpretation
Table 1
No of trials Tally No. of errors Time in

marking seconds
Experimental Group
1 III 3 210
2 I 1 190
3 0 0 120
Control Group
1 II 2 120
In the experimental group, the number of errors was reduced in each trial
as illustrated above and the time taken was also reduced by each trial. So, the
hypothesis is proved that increasing the number of trials, results in decreasing the
number of errors and increasing the number of trials results in a decrease in the
time taken.
Discussion
The experiment is to navigate through the maze. It was seen in the experiment
that as the effort increased, his wasted activities became less and the time also
decreased. After several attempts, it was observed that when a hungry cat was put
in a cage, it would press the lever and when the door was opened, it came out to get
its favorite food. So, the cat learned based on the stimulus-response relationship.
(Thorndike, 1913). Hence, proved the hypothesis increasing the number of trials
results in decreasing the number of errors, and increasing the number of trials
results in a decrease in the time taken.
Limitations
 Participant lack of interest.

 The female participants were more than boys so gender biases created and results
were generalized on both genders.
 Limited age group Didn't explore older adults and adolescents
 Lack of instruments
Recommendations

experiment.
 Proper availability of all instruments
References
Trowbridge,M.H.,&Cason,H.(1932).An experimentalstudyofThorndike'stheoryof
learning.TheJournalofGeneralPsychology,7(2),245-260.
Panman,R. A., Arenson,S.J.,&Rosenbaum,M. E.(1962).TheValueofDemonstration

in HumanMazeLearning.In ProceedingsoftheIowaAcademyof
Science(Vol.69,No.1, pp.490-495).
Tolman,E.C.,& Honzik,C. H.
(1930).Introductionandremovalofreward,andmazeperformancein
rats.UniversityofCaliforniapublicationsin psychology.
Scott,T. C.(1955).Timerecordsinhumanmazelearningandtheircomparisonwithmaze
records.TheJournalofGeneticPsychology,87(2),265-275.
Pessin,J., & Husband,R. W.

(1933).Effectsofsocialstimulationonhumanmazelearning.TheJournal
ofAbnormalandSocialPsychology,28(2),148.
Lefton, L. A., &Brannon, L. (2005). PSYCHOLOGY, 9/e.
Soderstrom, N. C., & Bjork, R. A. (2015). Learning versus performance: An integrative
review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 176-199.
Experiment 7:
Digit Span
Introduction
The Digit Span test is one of the most commonly used measures of immediate
verbal recall, intentional capacity, and working memory in neuropsychological research
and clinical evaluations. (Feggy Ostrosky-Solis, 2006). This test comprises two
modalities, digits forward and digits backward. It has been established that age,
education, and culture are important variables that affect performance on this test. (Feggy
Ostrosky-Solis, 2006).
Digit Span measures verbal short-term memory, defined as the system that allows
for the temporary storage of information, and is crucial in everyday tasks such as
remembering a telephone number or understanding long sentences. Digit Span involves
numbers, but performance is indicative of verbal short-term memory because it requires
dealing with items in a specific order, as opposed to spatial short-term memory. Often
included in traditional IQ tests, Digit Span has a long history in neuropsychological
assessments. Early theories of memory identified the “phonological loop” as a verbal
storage and rehearsal system underlying properly functioning verbal short-term memory.
More recent research has identified regions of the brain, such as the mid-ventrolateral
frontal cortex, that must be recruited to perform well in Digit Span.
Measures of forward and backward digit span (DS) are among the oldest and most
widely used neuropsychological tests of short-term verbal memory (Richardson, 2007).
For decades they have been a component of the widely used Wechsler memory scales
(WMS) and Wechsler intelligence scales for adults and children (Wechsler, 1997a,
1997b). In each case, digit span is measured for forward and reverse-order (backward)
recall of digit sequences. Digit sequences are presented beginning with a length of two
digits and two trials are presented at each increasing list length. Testing ceases when
the subject fails to accurately report either trial at one sequence length or when the
maximal list length is reached (9 digits forward, 8 backward). The total number of lists
reported correctly is combined across forward span (FS) and backward span (BS) to
produce a Wechsler total correct score.
Literature Review
Digit Span (RDS) is a heavily researched symptom validity test with a recent
literature review yielding more than 20 studies ranging in dates from 1994 to 2011.
(Schroeder, 2012). Unfortunately, limitations within some of the research minimize
clinical generalizability. This systematic review and cross-validation study was
conducted to address these limitations, thus increasing the measure’s clinical utility.
Sensitivity and specificity rates were calculated for the ≤6 and ≤7 cutoffs when data were
globally combined and divided by clinical groups. The cross-validation of specific
diagnostic groups was consistent with the data reported in the literature. Overall, caution
should be used when utilizing the ≤7 cutoffs in all clinical groups and when utilizing the
≤6 cutoff in the following groups: cerebrovascular accident, severe memory disorders,
mental retardation, borderline intellectual functioning, and English as a second language.
Additional limitations and cautions are provided. (Schroeder, 2012)
Leung 2011 studied digit span tasks in his study when there was no valid
instrument currently in use at acute-care hospitals in Hong Kong to aid in the detection of
cognitive impairment. The objectives of this study were to (1) validate the Digit Span
Test (DST) in the identification and differentiation of dementia and delirium; and (2)
determine the prevalence of major cognitive impairment in elderly people in an acute
medical unit (Leung, 2011). During the study period from January to February 2010, 144
patients aged 75 years or more who had had unplanned medical admissions were assessed
by nurses, using the Digit Span Forwards (DSF) and the Digit Span Backwards (DSB)
tests. The DST scores were compared with the psychiatrists’ DSM-IV-based diagnoses.
The Receiver Operating Characteristics curve (ROC) was used in conjunction with
sensitivity and specificity measures to assess the performance of DST (Leung, 2011). The
prevalence rates of dementia alone, delirium alone, and delirium superimposed on
dementia were 21.5%, 9%, and 9% respectively. The prior case-note documentation rate
was 13.2% for dementia and 2.8% for delirium. Regarding the detection of major
cognitive impairment, the ROC curve of DSB showed a sensitivity of 0.77 and specificity
of 0.78 at the optimal cutoff of <3. A significant association between scores on the DST
and the Cantonese version of the Mini-Mental State Examination (CMMSE) was found in
this study (p < 0.05 for DSF, p = 0.00 for DSB). Dementia and delirium were prevalent,
yet under-recognized, in acute medical geriatric inpatients. The DSB is an effective tool
in identifying patients with major cognitive impairment. (Leung, 2011)
Ramsay and Reynolds (in press) reviewed 76 studies of performance on digit span
tasks and concluded that forward and backward digit span had some similarities, but the
differences in the two tasks were greater than their similarities; and, the differences
appear to have important diagnostic and neurologic implications (Reynolds, 1997). This
possibility has been suggested for some time and has prompted the publisher of the
Wechsler scales to provide some limited information, for the first time, on how the two
tasks might differ (Wechsler, 1991). Wechsler (1991) provides tables (B.6 and B.7) that
provide information on cumulative percentages of longest digit span, separately for
forward and backward span, and the cumulative percentage of the difference between
longest digits forward and digits backward span. As many as 3% of children, at some
ages, actually have a longer backward than forward span. The fact that children show a
forward span greater than a backward span at a 33:1 ratio (in raw score form) suggests in
itself that the two tasks are far from equivalent, but these tables provide little information
of any clinical utility. A table of scaled score comparisons would be more useful.
(Reynolds, 1997)
Jensen has suggested that the two tasks (Forward Digit Span, FD, and Backward
Digit Span, BD) differ in the requirement of an element of transformation on BD that is
not present on FD (Reynolds, 1997). Jensen and Figueroa (1975) found the two tasks to
behave rather differently across ethnic groups as well. The Black-White difference in
their study was twice as large on BD as FD. BD was also found to be correlated with IQ
at a much higher level than FD. Several studies suggest that FD may have a verbal
element and BD a visuospatial element. The two tasks may also be differentially impaired
by damage to different cortical and subcortical structures (Reynolds, 1997).
Problem Statement
To study the forward and backward memory for digit span.
Methodology
Hypothesis
The memory span is larger for forward digits than the memory span for backward
digits.
Sequence of retrieval
Dependent Variable
Memory Span
Sample/subject
We took 1 participant of age 22 and her semester is 8th. Her previous degree was
FSC premedical.
Instruments/Tools
Paper, pencil, Digit span list
Procedure
In this experiment, two groups were formed. The one group is called the control
group and did one trial of this experiment. The experiment was divided into two phases.
In the control group, the subject was a female aged 22. In the first phase of the control
group, the subject completed a trial for forward memory span and the score was recorded
depending on the number of digits recalled. In the second phase, the subject completed
her trial for backward memory span and the number of scores was recorded in terms of
digits recalled.
In the experimental group, the same experiment was performed with another
subject who was also female aged 24 years. This subject performed the experiment twice
(2 trials). In the first phase, the subject completed her forward memory span and the
scores were recorded in terms of the digits she recalled.
The second phase comprised of backward memory span in which the subject
completed it and the scores were recorded in terms of the number of digits recalled. The
same experiment for the experimental group was performed again with the same subject
and the scores for forward and backward me span was recorded in term of the number of
digits recalled.
Results
Control group
Table 1
Forward Memory Span
Stimulus Trial Recall Score

3,4,8 1 3,4,8 3
2,3,4,8 1 2,3,4,8 4
3,4,2,9,7,1 1 3,4,2,9,7,1 6
9,3,6,4,5,7,1 2 9,3,6,4,5,7,1 7
9,4,6,3,5,2,1,8,7
Table 2
Backward Memory Span

3,4,8 1 843 3
2,3,4,8 1 8,4,3,32 4
3,4,2,9,7,1
9,3,6,4,5,7,1 2
9,4,6,3,5,2,1,8,7
Table 3
Total Memory Recall for Forward and Backward Span for Control Group
The sequence of Recall Memory Span

Forward memory span 7
Backward memory span 6
Experimental group ( 1st trial )
Table 4
Forward Memory Span Without Rehearsal

3,4,8 1 3,4,8 3
2,3,4,8 1 2,3,4,8 4
3,4,2,9,7,1 1 3,4,2,9,7,1 6
9,3,6,4,5,7,1 1 9,3,6,4,5,7,1 7
9,4,6,3,5,2,1,8,7
Table 5

3,4,8 1 843 3
2,3,4,8 1 8,4,3,32 4
3,4,2,9,7,1 2 1,7,9,2,4,3 6
9,3,6,4,5,7,1 2 1,7,5,4,6,3,9 7
9,4,6,3,5,2,1,8,7
Table 6
Total Memory Recall for Forward and Backward Span for experiment Group without
rehearsal

( 2nd trial )
Table 7
Forward Memory Span with Rehearsal

3,4,8 1 3,4,8 3
2,3,4,8 1 2,3,4,8 4
3,4,2,9,7,1 1 3,4,2,9,7,1 6
9,3,6,4,5,7,1 1 9,3,6,4,5,7,1 7
9,4,6,3,5,2,1,8,7
Table 8

3,4,8 1 843 3
2,3,4,8 1 8,4,3,32 4
3,4,2,9,7,1 2 1,7,9,2,4,3 6
9,3,6,4,5,7,1 2 1,7,5,4,6,3,9 7
9,4,6,3,5,2,1,8,7 2 7,8,1,2,5,3,6,4,9 9
Table 9
Total Memory Recall for Forward and Backward Span for experiment Group with
rehearsal

Discussion
The experiment measured the short-term memory span of the subject with help of
a digit span memory test. The results of our experiment proved that our hypothesis is
rejected. As in the above experiment, the forward memory span was 7 and the backward
memory span was 9. The literature review was cross-validated and they find that a
normal human can memorize and the cutoff score is 7 or less than 7 (Greiffenstein et al.,
1994). So, in this way, our experiment is not completely supported by previous research
and experiments. As in our experiment, the participant could memorize more than 7
digits and she recall more backward as compared to forward. The highest scores for
backward recalls were 9. The results of this experiment were not in line with previous
literature as both forward and backward recall have some similarities according to the
result of my study for example Ramsay and Reynolds (2011) claim both forward and
backward have more differences. Previous studies conducted mostly by Reynolds (1997)
were performed on large samples of children and dementia patients by Leung (2011) but
this experiment was conducted on a single and healthy subject. Jensen and Figueroa in
1975 also say two tasks are different across ethnic groups.
Limitation
In this experiment the participant shows the lack of interest to performing

experiment. The environmental noise distraction to better performing experiment. The
female participants were more than boys so gender biases created and results were
generalized on both genders. Limited age group didn’t explore older adults and
adolescents. Participants didn’t comfortable with instructors.
Recommendations
This experiment should be on different gender and sex and also different age
group of people the validity and reliability of this experiment. Must be providing the lab
to perform the experiment and also overcome the environmental distractions.
References
Ostrosky‐ Solís, F., & Lozano, A. (2006). Digit span: Effect of education and
culture. International Journal of Psychology, 41(5), 333-341.

Woods, D. L., Kishiyamaa, M. M., Lund, E. W., Herron, T. J., Edwards, B., Poliva, O.,
Hink, R.
F., & Reed, B. (2011). Improving digit span assessment of short-term verbal
memory. Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 33(1), 101–111.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2010.493149
Schroeder, R. W., Twumasi-Ankrah, P., Baade, L. E., & Marshall, P. S. (2012). Reliable
digit
span: A systematic review and cross-validation study. Assessment, 19(1), 21-30.
Leung, J. L., Lee, G. T., Lam, Y. H., Chan, R. C., & Wu, J. Y. (2011). The use of the
Digit Span
Test in screening for cognitive impairment in acute medical inpatients.

International psychogeriatrics, 23(10), 1569-1574.
Reynolds, C.R. (1997). Forward and Backward Memory Span Should Not Be Combined
for
Clinical Analysis. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology.
Greiffenstein, M. F., Baker, W. J., & Gola, T. (1994). Validation of malingered amnesia
measures with a large clinical sample. Psychological assessment, 6(3), 218.
4
Experiment no 8
Proactive Inhibition
Problem Statement
To determine the effect of prior learning on new learning by function of two

non-sense syllables lists.
Introduction
Proactive interference, also known as proactive inhibition, occurs when old

memories interfere with your ability to encode and retrieve new information.
Psychologists theorize it’s difficult to create a new memory that contradicts or is too
similar to older memories, like the Spanish or French translation of the same word.
There are two types of interference: proactive and retroactive interference. If

you have experienced interference like in the situation I mentioned earlier, you
experienced proactive interference. This is a type of interference where old
memories interfere with your ability to make new memories. Proactive interference is
also commonly known as proactive inhibition.
Older adults are more likely than young adults to experience proactive
interference. It makes sense – they’ve got a lot more memories stored away that can
interfere with new memories. Maybe when the phrase “you can’t teach an old dog
new trick” was created, the old dog was just unable to learn the tricks due to proactive
interference!
4
For example, learning multiple languages can be hard. The oldest information
– the language you are fluent in – may frequently interfere with the new information
that you are trying to learn. But if you are learning a third or fourth language, that
second language may also try and interfere.
Let’s say you are learning Spanish, but you’re already fluent in English and
have spent many years learning Italian. If you accidentally let an English or Italian
word slip while trying to speak Spanish, you can blame proactive interference for the
flub. Hanley and Scheirer were the first scientists to look at proactive interference
back in 1975.
While multiple studies have looked at the existence of proactive interference,

there is still work to be done about how it happens in the brain. Some studies suggest
that Proactive Interference could happen to any memory, whether it has been stored
away for a long time or is freshly learned. Other studies suggest that Proactive
Interference only occurs in working memory.
4
Literature Review
Proactive inhibition is an important cognitive process that allows individuals

to actively prevent interfering information from being encoded into memory. It has
been extensively studied in the field of cognitive psychology, with numerous
experiments aimed at understanding how proactive inhibition works and how it can be
improved. In this literature review, we will discuss some of the key studies on
proactive inhibition and their findings.
One of the earliest studies on proactive inhibition was conducted by Anderson

and Neely (1996). The researchers investigated the role of proactive inhibition in
word recognition by presenting participants with a series of words and asking them to
respond as quickly as possible to a target word. They found that response times were
slower when the target word was preceded by a semantically related word, indicating
that proactive inhibition was occurring. This study provided important evidence for
the role of proactive inhibition in preventing interference from semantically related
information.
Mayr and Kliegl (1993) conducted a study on proactive inhibition in task

switching. Participants were asked to switch between two different tasks and were
either given a cue that indicated which task to perform next or were required to switch
without any warning. The researchers found that proactive inhibition played an
important role in reducing interference from the previous task and that it was more
effective when participants received a cue. This study provided evidence for the role
of proactive inhibition in reducing interference from previous tasks.
Lustig and colleagues (2001) investigated the effects of aging on proactive

inhibition. Young and older adults were asked to remember lists of words, with some
lists containing items that were similar to previous lists. The researchers found that
older adults had more difficulty inhibiting interference from previous lists, indicating
that proactive inhibition declines with age. This study provided important evidence
for the age-related decline in proactive inhibition.
4
Rissman and colleagues (2008) investigated the neural mechanisms underlying

proactive inhibition. Participants were asked to remember a series of faces while
ignoring distracting background images. The researchers found that proactive
inhibition was associated with increased activation in the prefrontal cortex, a region of
the brain involved in cognitive control and inhibition. This study provided important
evidence for the neural mechanisms underlying proactive inhibition.
Overall, these studies highlight the importance of proactive inhibition in

various cognitive tasks and provide insights into how it works and how it can be
affected by factors such as aging and neural mechanisms. The findings of these
studies have important implications
Methodology
Hypothesis
Retrieval of newly learned material is hindered due to previously learned

material.
List (A and List B)
Dependent Variable
Subject recall
Sample/subject
2 participant, age 24years, 8th semester
Instruments/Tools
Two lists of non-sense syllables.

4
Procedure
Experimental group
This experiment is done in 2 rounds. There are two groups which completed
two rounds, one is control group and the second is experimental group.
Round one
In the experimental group, the subject was of 22 years old and completed 7
trails. In each trial the subject was shown with list A which constituted nonsense
words and retrieve the words and the number of words which were retrieved in each
trail were recorded. And then in errors and time was recorded.
After that, the subject was shown with list B which constituted again new non
sense words and done 7 trials. Each trial was recorded in terms of words retrieved by
the subject. Then errors and time in the seconds were recorded.
Control group
The control group constituted a subject of age 22 and shown with the list B
and did 7 trials and the words retrieved were recorded on the sheet and times in the
second were also noted by the experimenter.
The Round 2
After the Completion of Round 1, the experimental subject and control group
subject were asked to tell the nonsense words again in single trial which is
remembered in list B and the words were recorded. The errors and the time in the
second were recorded by the experimenter of both subjects.
Results
4
Round 1
Table 1
Experimental Group non-sense Syllables List (A)
Non-sense Trail 1 Trail 2 Trail Trail 4 Trail 5 Trail Trail 7

Syllables 3 6
1- MEZ       
2- XOW       
3- FIV     
4- PEQ     
5- RAV   
6- NUZ     
7- GIR  
8- SOF      
9- WEP       
10- CIB      
11- XAY       
12- VUF     
Table 2
Observational Table level 1 (List A)

4
Trails Experimental group

Time (sec) Errors
1 20 sec 4
2 20 sec 4
3 16 sec 4
4 8 sec 3
5 9 sec 2
6 7 sec 1
7 5 sec 0
Table 3
Experimental Group non-sense Syllables List (B)
Syllables 3 6
1- ZEH      
2- PEK      
3- FID      
4- DIT     
5- LOM    
4
6- AUD    
7- CEN    
8- GAK   
9- PIK   
10- PUG      
11- KIF   
12- NUB    
4
Table 4
Control Group non-sense Syllables List (B)
Syllables 3 6
1- ZEH       
2- PEK       
3- FID       
4- DIT       
5- LOM       
6- AUD       
7- CEN       
8- GAK       
9- PIK      
10- PUG      
11- KIF       
12- NUB       
4
Table 5
Trails Experimental group Control group

Time (sec) Errors Time (sec) Errors
1 20 sec 4 22 sec 1
2 20 sec 4 23 sec 0
3 16 sec 4 18 sec 0
4 8 sec 3 9sec 1
5 9 sec 2 9 sec 0
6 7 sec 1 8 sec 0
7 5 sec 0 6 sec 0
Round 2
4
Table 6
Experimental Group Non-Sense Syllables List (B)
Words Recall
Experimental Control Group
Group
ZEH  
PEK  
FIV  
DIT  
LOM  
AUD  
CEN 
GAK  
PIK  
PUG  
KIF  
NUB 
Table 7
4
Trails Experimental group Control group

Time (sec) Errors Time (sec) Errors
1 20 sec 2 22 sec 0
Discussion
The study consisted of two groups one was experimental and the other was the
control group who performed a recalling experiment with the help of non-sense
syllables words list A and B which they had to recall after they were shown them.
Results were shown that the experimental group has more visible errors in recalling
the non-sense syllables words list B then A list hence proved that Retrieval of newly
learned material is hindered due to previously learned material list A. Control group
perform better in recalling the nonsense words list B. In round two the experimental
group did more errors than control group of recalling the nonsense syllables list B.
The experiment produced same results compared to the experiments conducted by one
of the studies on proactive inhibition was conducted by Anderson and Neely (1996).
The researchers investigated the role of proactive inhibition in word recognition by
presenting participants with a series of words and asking them to respond as quickly
as possible to a target word. They found that response times were slower when the
target word was preceded by a semantically related word, indicating that proactive
inhibition was occurring.
Limitations:
In this experiment we perform the new learning inhibits the pervious learning.
Limitations in this experiment we perform only same age group people and same
gender and sex. And also perform meaningful word list or non-meaningful word list
experimental group perform both list but control group perform only one list.
4
Recommendations:
group of people. And also perform both lists which are meaningful word and non-
meaningful word list perform control group.
References
4
Anderson, M. C., & Neely, J. H. (1996). Intereference and inhibition in memory

retrieval In EL Bjork & Bjork, RA (Eds.), Memory (pp. 237-313).
Lustig, C., May, C. P., & Hasher, L. (2001). Working memory span and the role of
proactive interference. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130(2), 199.
Mayr, U., Kliegl, R., & Krampe, R. T. (1996). Sequential and coordinative processing
dynamics in figural transformations across the life span. Cognition, 59(1), 61-90.
Rissman, J., Gazzaley, A., & D'Esposito, M. (2004). Measuring functional

connectivity during distinct stages of a cognitive task. Neuroimage, 23(2), 752-763.
4
Experiment no 9
Retroactive Inhibition
Problem Statement
To determine the effect of new learning on prior learning by function of two

non-sense syllables
Introduction
Retroactive inhibition is the negative effect of an activity following

memorization on the retention of the material memorized. If memorization is followed
by some other activity, recall of the material may not be as complete as when the
memorization is followed by rest (Smirnov, 1973). This deterioration of recall is due
to the “inhibitory” effect of the activity following the memorization. Therefore, the
inhibition involved has been designated retroactive inhibition. Obviously, this
“retroactive effect” cannot be interpreted literally as an influence on the actual process
of memorization (Smirnov, 1973). By the time the next activity begins, this process
has already been completed, and therefore we are dealing not with an influence on the
process itself, but only on the “traces” resulting from the memorization (Smirnov,
1973).
Retroactive inhibition became the object of extensive study (printed in a

considerable number of publications) in which the effects of the most diverse
conditions on this phenomenon of great scientific interest were examined. Retroactive
inhibition is of substantial theoretical interest, since it pertains directly to the problem
of the causes of forgetting. Some investigators even believe that retroactive inhibition
is, if not the only, then at least the main cause of forgetting. In this regard, the French
psychologist Foucault (Britt, 1935) states that "what causes forgetting is not time
itself, but how this time is occupied." Storring (1931) holds the same views, asserting
4
that "not time in itself, but the impressions received in the course of time lead quite
naturally to the forgetting of old impressions (Smirnov, 1973).
Literature Review
4
Retroactive interference experiment was conducted by Postman (1960, as cited

in McLeod, 2018) to investigate how retroactive interference affects learning. In
other words, to investigate whether information you have recently received interferes
with the ability to recall something you learned earlier. A lab experiment was used.
Participants were split into two groups. Both groups had to remember a list of paired
words – e.g., cat - tree, jelly - moss, book - tractor. The experimental group also had
to learn another list of words where the second paired word if different – e.g., cat –
glass, jelly- time, book – revolver. The control group was not given the second list.
All participants were asked to recall the words on the first list. The recall of the
control group was more accurate than that of the experimental group (Postman, 1960,
as cited in McLeod, 2018).
Another experiment by McKinney (1935) tested a series of 4 full-page
advertisements which were presented to 40 undergraduates. Some subjects were
tested for recall before and after a 10-minute "work" interval occupied in studying
two advertisements. Other subjects were tested for recall similarly, but with an
interpolated "rest" period involving number cancellation. Retroactive inhibition was
observed among participants for a whole advertisement with percentage 5.39. The
average effect of retroactive inhibition in descending order from 23.5% to 0% on
various parts of the advertisement is as follows: slogan, picture, title, reading content,
and name of product.
Methodology
Hypothesis
Subjects’ performance on recall of meaningful words will be better than the

recall of non-sense words.
The list of non-syllables, Meaningful word

4
Dependent Variable
Subject recall
Sample/subject
No of participants, age, semester, previous knowledge
Instruments/Tools
List of non-syllables, memory drum paper pencil, and stop watch
Procedure
The experiment was conducted from two groups experimental group and
control group. First the subject of experimental group was showing the list of non-
syllables which he had to recall and then the meaningful words were shown which he
had to recall. Then the control group was called and same procedure was conducted
by them. Results were noted in the form of responses and errors by both the groups
and comparison were made.
4
Results
Round 1
Table 1
Experimental Group non-sense Syllables List (A)
Non-sense Syllables Trail 1 Trail 2 Trail 3 Trail 4 Trail 5 Trail 6 Trail 7
MEZ √ √ √ √ √ √
XOW √ √ √ √
FIV √ √ √
PEQ √
RAV √ √ √
NUZ
GIR
SOF
WEP
CIB √ √ √ √
XAY √ √ √ √ √
VUF √ √ √ √ √ √
4
Table 1 of experimental group non-sense syllables list A indicates that subject

was unable to recall all the words accurately. As in trail 1 the subject responded only
2 non-sense words and in trial 7 the subject responded 5 words. The number of errors
reduces by the number of trials.
List B
Table 2
Experimental Group Meaningful Words List (B)
Meaningful Trail 1 Trail 2 Trail 3 Trail 4 Trail 5 Trail 6 Trail 7

word list
CAT √ √ √ √ √ √ √
FUR √ √ √ √
MAN √ √ √ √ √
SUN √ √ √ √
RAM √ √ √ √ √
BOY √ √ √ √ √
FAT √ √ √ √ √ √
TOY √ √ √ √ √ √
GOD √ √ √ √
MAT √ √ √ √
FAN √ √ √ √ √
SIT √ √ √ √ √
4
Table 2 of experimental group meaningful word list B indicates that subject
was more able to recall all the words. As in trail 1 the subject responded meaning full
words by missing some of them. In trial 2, 3 and 4 the subject missed only 2 and 3
items. In trial 7 the subject accurately responded all the meaning full words. The
number of errors reduces by the number of trials.
List B
Table 3
Control Group Meaningful List (A)
Trail 1 Trail 2 Trail 3 Trail 4 Trail 5 Trail 6 Trail 7
CAT √ √ √
FUR √ √ √ √ √
MAN √ √ √ √ √ √
SUN √ √ √ √ √ √
RAM √ √ √ √ √ √
BOY √ √ √ √ √ √
FAT √ √ √ √ √ √ √
TOY √ √ √ √ √ √
GOD √ √ √ √ √ √
MAT √ √ √ √ √ √
FAN √ √ √ √ √ √
4
SIT
Table 2 of experimental group meaningful word list B indicates that subject
was more able to recall all the words. As in trail 1 and 2 the subject responded
meaning full words by missing some of them. In 3 the subject missed more items. In
last trial the subject accurately responded all the meaning full words.
Meaningful Words vs Non-sense Syllables
List Trial Responses Errors
Experimental group non-sense syllables A 1-7 2-6 10-6
Experimental group non-sense syllables B 1-7 6-12 6-0
Experimental group meaningful words A 1-7 9-11 3-1
Qualitative interpretations
This table shows the comparison between the experimental group’s non-sense
syllables list (A, B) and experimental group meaningful words list (A, B). Seven trails
were taken in each experiment. Experimental group non-sense syllables List A shows
that 1st trail recorded 2 responses and 10 errors while the 7 th trail shows 6 responses
and 6 errors. Experimental group non-sense syllables List B shows that 1 st trail
recorded 6 responses and 6 errors while 7th trail reported 12 responses and 0 errors.
On the other hand, the experimental group meaning words list A shows that 1 st trail
recorded 7 responses and 5 errors while 7th trail shows 8 responses with 4 errors.
Experimental group meaningful words List B shows that 1 st trail recorded 9 responses
and 3 errors while 7th trial reported 11 responses with 1 error.
4
Round 2
Table 1
Experimental Group non-sense syllables List (A)
Non-sense Trail 1
Syllables
MEZ √
XOW
FIV √
PEQ √
RAV
NUZ
GIR
SOF
WEP
CIB
XAY
VUF
Table 1 of experimental group non-sense syllables list A indicates that subject
was unable to recall all the words accurately. As in trail 1 the subject responded 3
non-sense words.
4
Table 2
Control Group Meaningful words (B)
Trail 1
CAT √
FUR
MAN √
SUN √
RAM
BOY √
FAT
TOY
GOD
MAT
FAN
SIT √
Table 2 of the control group’s meaningful words indicates that the subject was
more able to recall all the words.
Experimental vs Control Group

4
Trial Responses Errors
Control group non-sense syllables 1 3 9
Control group meaningful words 1 5 7
Experimental Vs Control Group
Groups Trial Responses Errors
Experimental group non-sense 7 2-6 10-6

syllables
Experimental group Meaningful words 7 9-11 3-1
Control group non-sense syllables 1 3 9
Control group Meaningful words 1 5 7
The results indicate that the subjects of the experimental group and control
group were more able to respond to meaningful words than the non-sense words.
Discussion
The study consisted of two groups one was experimental and the other was the
control group who performed a recalling experiment with the help of non-sense
syllables and meaningful words which they had to recall after they were shown to
them after intervals. Results were shown that both the experimental group and control
4
group perform better in recalling meaningful words than the nonsense words. Both
groups have more visible errors in recalling both the meaningful words and the non-
sense syllables as well. The experiment produced different results as compared to the
experiments conducted by Postman (1960, as cited in McLeod, 2018) and McKinney
(1935) as they conducted experiments on interference by providing their experimental
groups with interfering information on a recall list they were advised to learn earlier,
this experiment thus only checked subject’s errors in memory recall for meaningful
and non-sense words. So, the research hypothesis is accepted.
Limitations
In this experiment we perform the previous learning inhibits the new learning.
Limitations in this experiment we perform only same age group people and same
gender and sex. And also perform non meaningful word list experimental group
perform seven trail but control group perform only one trail. Environmental noises
cause distractions in experiment. In this experiment our control group participant
extra ordinary IQ level but experimental group participant has normal IQ level.
Recommendations
group of people. And also perform 7 trails which is non-meaningful word list perform
control group. This experiment should be on different IQ level people like high and
low IQ level.
References
Ankala, Vinishaa. (2013). Retroactive Interference and Forgetting. Undergraduate

Journal of
Mathematical Modeling: One + Two. 3. 10.5038/2326-3652.3.2.4.

4
Harden, L. (1929), “A quantitative study of the similarity factor in retroactive

inhibition,” J. Gen.
Psychol., Vol. 2.
Experiment no. 10
Free association
Problem Statement
To identify the nature of association along with retention time

4
Introduction
Free association in psychology refers to a process of discovering your genuine

thoughts, memories, and feelings by freely sharing all the seemingly random thoughts
that pass through your mind. Usually, you are given a prompt like a word or an image
without context then, you say what it makes you think of. The person leading the
exercise tries to create links between the prompt and your response to learning about
how your brain makes connections between ideas. Sigmund Freud was the first
pioneer of the psychoanalysis technique of free association. Freud worked on
developing this technique further between 1892 and 1898. This new method became a
cornerstone of psychoanalytic therapy. Freud based free association on the theory of
psychic determinism that informed all his work.
Association test, the test used in psychology to study the organization of

mental life, with special reference to the cognitive connections that underlie
perception and meaning, memory, language, reasoning, and motivation. There are two
kinds of Association: free association one idea suggests another which again suggests
another, and so on without any check. Reverie affords the best example of free
association. Ideas freely suggest other ideas in a continuous train of ideas during
reverie. In building ‘castles in the air’ ideas freely suggest one another without any
check. Here there is free association. But it is motivated by emotions. An experiment
can test free association. The subject is given a series of words as stimuli and is asked
to respond to each word by speaking some other word that is suggested to his mind.
He must speak out the first word, recalled. In the free-association test, the subject is
told to state the first word that comes to mind in response to a stated word, concept, or
another stimulus. In “controlled association,” a relation may be prescribed between
the stimulus and the response (e.g., the subject may be asked to give opposites).
Though more complex analyses may be used for special purposes, the reaction time
for each response and the words the subject gives are the basic data provided by the
test. Association tests also are a common procedure in psychoanalysis and are used to
investigate personality and its pathology. In the latter the subject’s reaction to
4
emotionally charged memories and ideas provoked by certain of the test stimuli may
produce atypical or revealing associations or, more often, unusually long or short
reaction times.
There are three Laws of Association: The Law of Contiguity: Experiences

that happen together, or which closely follow one another, tend to cohere and form an
association. Experiences which occur together either simultaneously or in close
succession tend afterward to revive one another. If B has always been perceived
together with A, or immediately after A, then the perception or idea of A will revive
the idea of B. The visual perception of a ripe mango suggests the ideas of its sweet
taste and flavor because they were perceived together in the past. The Law of
Similarity: Similar experiences tend to suggest each other. An object perceived tends
to revive another object with resembles it and was perceived in the past. In such an
ideal revival one object may recall another with which it has never been connected in
previous experience. I see a man who reminds me of an intimate friend of mine by
some resemblance in his personal appearance. I have never had occasion to think of
these two persons together so that their ideas might be associated in my mind. The
Law of Contrast: Opposites tend to suggest each other. Adversity reminds a person
of his days of prosperity; similarly, prosperity reminds one of one’s adversities. The
heat of summer suggests the cold of winter. The law of frequency: The more often
two things or events are linked, the more powerful will be that association. If you
have an éclair with your coffee every day, and have done so for the last twenty years,
the association will be strong indeed -- and you will be fat. Law of Recency: Recent
acts are lasting. Law of Privacy: Learning, in the beginning, is the best. Law of
vividness/interest: the deeper, the more intense, or the more vigorous the original
impression, the more permanent is its retention, and the easier its reproduction.
4
Literature Review
The first recorded psychological investigations into free association were

conducted by Francis Galton in the late 19th century (Galton, 1879). In a now-famous
walk down London’s Pall Mall (Forrest, 1977), Galton became fascinated by the
manner in which ideas rushed into his mind when stimulated by objects in the
environment. Subsequent repetitions of the walk and concordant repetitions of
previous associations suggested to Gal-ton that his mind was returning to the same
well-trodden associative links in memory. By compiling a list of stimulus words and
4
revealing each to himself in random order, then recording the first ideas to arise in
association to each word, Galton sought to investigate the nature of his associations.
Galton’s analyses of his associations convinced him that associations formed earlier
in life were more likely to arise repeatedly, in comparison to those linked to more
recent events. Associations from childhood were particularly prominent. He also
noted the variety of material that was aroused: single words, phrases, sensorial images
and re-experiences of past events. Furthermore, he claimed it would be “absurd” to
reveal all of his associations to the reader, so truthfully and vividly did they convey
the nature of his inner thoughts (Galton, 1879). In addition, Galton was clearly
impressed by what he saw as the unconscious and automatic mental operations
prompted by the stimuli, to which consciousness seemed merely a helpless spectator.
In the closing passages of his 1879 papers, he stressed that free association revealed
unconscious mental content, an idea Freud would later emphasize. Indeed, it seems
reasonable to suggest that Freud would have read these papers, as he subscribed to
Brain at the time that Galton published such ideas there and read later papers that
referred to Galton’s work (Eysenck, 1985). Wilhelm Wundt and his collaborators
were quick to develop Galton’s work in a more systematic manner.
In Wundt’s laboratory, participants were typically instructed to give a one-word

response to stimulus words as quickly as possible (Cattell, 1887). These experiments
expanded the scope of
Galton’s work by using large numbers of participants, drawn from different

laboratories. With larger sample sizes, Cattell and Bryant (1889) were able to
compare the frequency of, and time is taken to produce, particular types of
associations. This fed into a larger research program that placed particular emphasis
on reaction times (RTs) and ultimately, the inference of different cognitive operations
based on differential response times. This work was a progenitor of much
contemporary RT research (Murphy & Kovach, 1972). Although these studies
established the free-associative method as amenable to experimental analysis, some of
the depth seen in Galton’s conceptualization of free association was lost. This
4
experimental research developed into larger research efforts to apprehend word

meanings, word association norms, and the semantic structures of languages (Deese,
1965). Although this comprises an extensive body of research, it explores the
linguistic and semantic features of words. The focus in this article is on the use of free
association to gain insight into how people represent issues such as climate change,
earthquakes, and emerging infectious diseases, though it can apply to the content of
how people represent a wide range of psychologically relevant issues. ( Joffe and
Elsey, 2014)
Methodology
Hypothesis
Responses for law or similarly would be higher than other forms of laws
Stimulus words
Dependent Variable
Subject response, Association time
Subject/ sample
We took a participant of age 23 studying in 8th semester of BS Psychology.

Her previous education is F. Sc pre medical
Tools
Paper having stimulus words on it, pen, stop watch

4
Procedure
Here we have asked our subject to tell whatever comes to her mind as she
heard a stimulus word. This technique is intended to learn more about what a
person thinks and feels, in an atmosphere of non-judgmental curiosity and
acceptance. The subject who participated in this experiment is of 22 years of age.
The experimenter gave the instructions to do this experiment to the subject.
The subject’s response time is also recorded. First, the experimenter asks
about the stimulus word and at the same time measures the response time of the
participant. And the subject has to say a word that comes in mind instantly upon
hearing that particular word. The reaction time taken to say the word was also
noted. After completion of list of words, the words was viewed in context of 7
laws of free association and they are recorded according to these laws and the
time is also noted in the table. The experiment is quite easy to conduct and
interesting.
Results
Table 1
The Following Table Illustrates the Subject’s Response along with
the Associated Time
Stimulus Words Subject Responses Association Time
Daylight Sun 1
Pretty Me 1
4
Sunflower Sun 1
Wedding Friend 1
Red Love 1
Space Moon 1
Body Beautiful 1.5 sec
Pigeon Letter 1
Tree Apple 1
Man Dishansed 1
House Protection 1.5
Ghost Black 1
Girl Pretty 1
Yellow Calm 1.5
Baby Minha 1
Flag Pakistan 1
Summer Hot 1
Dra Line 1
4
Good Nice 1
Rose Love 1
Table 2
Scoring Sheet
Sr. No Law of Association No. of Responses Reaction

Words Time
1 Law of Similarity 12 12.5 sec
2 Law of Contiguity 0 0
3 Law of Contrast 1 1.5 sec
4 Law of Frequency 1 1.5 sec
5 Law of Primacy 1 1 sec
6 Law of Recency 3 3 sec
7 Law of Vividness and 2 2.5 secs
Interest
ART = Total time of responses/ Total no. of responses words
ART= 72/ 20
ART= 3.6
4
This table shows that the participant scores 12 responses in 72 seconds

for the law of similarity with 3.6 ART (Total time of responses / Total no. of
responses words). During the experiment, the highest scores were recorded in the
law of similarity by participants’ responses. Existing literature claims that since
the law of similarity is at the top of the primary laws, therefore the chances of its
occurrence are high. Our results prove the hypothesis and support the law of
similarity.
Discussion
The results of this experiment approve our hypothesis that said free
association refers to a person’s unconscious thoughts and ideas about himself and
his surroundings. It means that our results are in line with the literature review
given by (Kelly, 1991, p. 91). According to him, man perceives reality according
to one own self and also associates himself and his surrounding on the basis of his
unconscious and the mental schemas already present in his mind. The person’s
responses in this task depict her personality and the more the response time has
taken the more responses are closer to her unconscious and personality aspects.
Limitations
4
Recommendations

experiment.
 Should explore different age groups and explore different phases of
development.
 Proper way of representing stimulus.
4
References
Britannica, T. Information Architects of Encyclopedia (2022, August 13). Association

test. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/facts/association-test
Joffe, H, Elsey, Jamie. (2014). Free Association in Psychology and the Grid
Elaboration Method.
Review of General Psychology.
Gombrich, E. H., Hochberg, J., & Black, M. (1973). Art, perception, and reality (Vol. 1970).
JHU Press.
Greiffenstein, M. F., Baker, W. J., & Gola, T. (1994). Validation of malingered amnesia
measures with a large clinical sample. Psychological assessment, 6(3), 218.
Howe, C. Q., & Purves, D. (2005). The Müller-Lyer illusion explained by the statistics of
image–source relationships. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,
102(4), 1234-1239.
Janelle, C. M., Champenoy, J. D., Coombes, S. A., & Mousseau, M. B. (2003). Mechanisms of
attentional cueing during observational learning to facilitate motor skill acquisition.
Journal of Sports Sciences, 21(10), 825-838.
Kawabata, N. (1984). Perception at the blind spot and similarity grouping. Perception &
Psychophysics, 36, 151-158.
Kornmeier, J., & Bach, M. (2012). Ambiguous figures–what happens in the brain when
perception changes but not the stimulus. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 6, 51.
Qiu, J., Li, H., Zhang, Q., Liu, Q., & Zhang, F. (2008). The Müller–Lyer illusion seen by the
brain: An event-related brain potentials study. Biological psychology, 77(2), 150-158.
Ramachandran, V. S. (1992). Blind spots. Scientific American, 266(5), 86-91.
Soderstrom, N. C., & Bjork, R. A. (2015). Learning versus performance: An integrative review.
Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 176-199.
Todorović, D. (2010). Context effects in visual perception and their explanations. Review of
psychology, 17(1), 17-32.

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Experimental Psychology Lab

Haram Sadique 192520005(Group Leader)

Rimsha Qurban 192520006

Khadeeja Fatima 192520007

Kinza Malik 192520002

Fatima Saeed 192520003

Ma’am Sana Rehman

The Muller-Lyer illusion is a well-known optical illusion in which two lines of

 Three stylized arrows

 This is an important tool for researchers as well as psychologists as it helps in

 Piaget in his theory of development (1970) used it to identify the cognitive

Uses of Muller Lyer Experiment:

 To identify the artistic qualities of a child

Does culture affect the Muller-Lyer illusion?

In the Müller-Lyer illusion, the evaluation of the length of a segment is modified

Arrow headed Figure

Feather headed arrow

Cards, Scissor, Paper, Pencil, Scale

Point of Subjective Equality

Right Hand Outward to Inward Left Hand Outward to Inward

Inward to Outward Inward to Outward

Magnitude of Illusion: 60 – 37.52 =23

The Müller-Lyer illusion is a well-known optical illusion the experiment involves

Hara, M, Kosaka, S. Huang, J. Bleuler, H. Yabuta, T, (2009). Muller-Lyer Illusion Effect

Reaching Movement in Simultaneous Presentation of Visual and

Woloszyn, M, R, (2010). Contrasting Three Popular Explanations for the Muller-Lyer

Current Research in Psychology.

Illusions: Correlation Study. Current psychology letters

Blind spot is a part on retina where there are no photoreceptors

Disappear and appearance of object (dot or cross).

1 participant, 22 years old, 8th semester

 One 3 x 5-inch card (or other stiff paper) per student.

 1 ruler per student.

Point of subjective blind spot

Scale Circle Circle Circle Circle left Circle right

 Environmental noises cause distractions

 Try to create a peaceful environment so that participants take interest in

Ramachandran, V. S. (1992). Blind spots. Scientific American, 266(5), 86-91.

Bilateral Transform of Training

To demonstrate the phenomenon of bilateral transform by performing a sensory

The bilateral transfer of learning is the transference of physical performance

On a test requiring eye-hand synchronization, 50 participants received 50 trials

Recent study on bilateral transfer reveals that, in addition to physical exercise,

2 participant, 22 years old, 8th semester

Point of subjective blind spot

Hand Used Number of trails Time in seconds Number of errors

Preferred hand 1 160 sec 8 errors

Preferred hand 2 71 sec 6 errors

Preferred hand 3 69 sec 2 errors

Left hand 1 80 sec 9 errors

Left hand 2 61 sec 6 errors

Left hand 3 65 sec 2 error

Left hand 1 250 sec 14 errors

Left hand 3 201 sec 6 errors

 Try to create a peaceful environment so that participants take interest in

Munn, N. L. (1932). Bilateral transfer of learning. Journal of experimental

practice and imagery practice on bilateral transfer in learning a sequential

task. PloS one, 11(4), e0152228.

Perception Reversible Figure

In an experiment by Girgus et al. (1992) the role of knowledge of the reversibility

In another experiment by Toppino (2003) the observers exerted a degree of

To study experimentally the organization of figure-ground relationship by means