Industrial Psychology 621 PDF

INDUSTRIAL
PSYCHOLOGY 621
Year 2 Semester 1
i
FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT
SCIENCES
STUDY GUIDE
MODULE: INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY 621

(1ST SEMESTER)
Copyright © 2023
Richfield Graduate Institute of Technology (Pty) Ltd
Registration Number: 2000/000757/07
All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, including photocopying
machines, without the written permission of the Institution
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topics Page no
Section A: Preface
1. Welcome vi
2. Title of Modules vi
3. Purpose of Module vii
4. Learning Outcomes vii
5. Method of Study vii
6. Lectures and Tutorials viii
7. Notices viii
8. Prescribed & Recommended Material viii
9. Assessment & Key Concepts in Assignments and Examinations ix
10.Work Readiness Programme xii
11.Work Integrated Learning xiii
12. Interactive learning xviii
SECTION 1 : INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
1.1 Definition of Industrial Psychology 01
1.2 Subfields In Industrial Psychology 02
1.3 The Development of Industrial Psychology in South Africa 03
1.4 Professional Training and Practice 04
1.5 What is Scientific Thinking 04
1.6 Different Approached to Psychology 05
1.7 Review Questions 07
SECTION 2: PERSPECTIVES ON GENERAL AND WORK BEHAVIOUR
2.1 Industrial Psychological Theories or Schools of Thought 08
2.2 Main Trends in Post Modern Thinking 10
SECTION 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research methodology 13
3.2 Definition of Research 13
3.3 Qualities / Attributes of Scientific Research 13
3.4 Steps involved in the Research Process 14
3.5 Research Errors 18
3.6 Types of Research 19
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SECTION 4: BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR
4.1 Genetics 21
4.2 Cells, the Foundation of Development 21
4.3 Twins and Sex Determination 22
4.4 Genotype and Phenotype 23
4.5 Multiple Determinations 23
4.6 The Nervous System 24
4.7 The Neuron 25

4.8 Frontal Cortex 26
4.9 Thalamus 27
4.10 Hypothalamus 28
4.11 The Cerebellum 28
4.12 The Muscle System 29
SECTION 5: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT OVER THE LIFE SPAN
5.1 The Nature of Human Development 33
5.2 Reasons for the Study of Human Development 33
5.3 Domains of Human Development 34
5.4 Determinants of Human Development 34
5.5 Critical Periods in Development 36
SECTION 6: LEARNING
6.1 Definition of Learning 39
6.2 The Learning Process 40
6.3 Cognitive Learning Approach 41
6.4 Social Learning Approach 42
6.3 Cognitive Learning Approach 43
6.5 Learning in the Work Context
SECTION 7: PERCEPTION
7.1 Introduction 46
7.2 Psychophysics: Basic Concepts and Issues 47
7.3 Perception: The Focus of Attention 49
7.4 Perceptual Errors 50
SECTION 8: COGNITION
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8.1 Introduction 53
8.2 Forms of Productive Thinking 53
8.3 Intelligence 56
8.4 Comparison of Short- and Long-Term Memory 56
8.5 Models of Cognition 58
8.6 Review questions
SECTION 9: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
9.1 Introduction 59
9.2 External Activators 60
9.3 Internal Activators 60
9.4 Abraham Maslow and Needs 62
9.5 Alderfer’s ERG Theory 62
9.6 Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory 63
9.7 Mc Celland’s Needs Theory 64
SECTION 10: ADDENDUM 621 (A): CASE STUDY FOR TUTORIAL DISCUSSION 67
SECTION 11: ADDENDUM 621 (B): TYPICAL EXAMINATION PAPER GLOSSARY OF TERMS 68
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SECTION A: PREFACE
1. WELCOME
Welcome to the Faculty of Business and Management Sciences at Richfield. We trust you will find the
contents and learning outcomes of this module both interesting and insightful as you begin your academic
journey and eventually your career in the business world.
This section of the study guide is intended to orientate you to the module before the commencement of
formal lectures.
2. TITLE OF MODULES, COURSE, CODE, NQF LEVEL, CREDITS & MODE OF DELIVERY
1nd Semester
Title Of Module: Industrial psychology 621

Code: IOP 621
NQF Level: NQF 6
Credits: 10
Mode of Delivery: Contact / Distance
3. PURPOSE OF MODULE
3.1 Industrial Psychology 621

The purpose of this module is to provide you with foundational knowledge of important psychological
concepts and processes and, to illustrate the application of psychology in the work and other contexts. This
module deals with the human processes, behaviour and attributes which people “bring” to their workplaces,
which are relevant in the systematic or interactional nature of employee and organizational functioning. The
aim is to inform you about the theory and practices utilised in Industrial-Organisational Psychology, an applied
field of Psychology.
4. LEARNING OUTCOMES
On completion of these modules the student will be able to:
• Differentiate between the tasks of psychology and I-O psychology, discuss the development of I-O
psychology in South Africa and understand issues related to the training, professional status and practice
of psychologists.
• Compare diverse theoretical approaches in psychology on different levels, identifying similarities in
orientation as well as direct opposing orientations.
• Discuss different strategies used to understand, develop and utilize human potential.
• Relate these methodologies to and apply it to the various psychological disciplines such as personnel
selection, organizational development, training etc.
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• Discuss the biological basis of behavior.
• Understand why a study and knowledge of human development is necessary, demonstrate an
understanding on how various factors influencing human development, and to evaluate the impact on
career development stages and related developmental tasks.
• Demonstrate well rounded and systematic knowledge on what the ‘learning organization’ involves.
• Analyze the theory and principles of perceptions and to make recommendations on successful
• techniques, a marketer could use to promote his product or to prevent someone from becoming used to
an advertisement.
• Understand how people acquire and use knowledge and then how it is combined, manipulated stores and
transformed.
• Understand what motivates people and incorporate this understanding practically into a strategic
marketing plan.
5. METHOD OF STUDY
The sections that have to be studied are indicated under each topic. These form the basis for tests,
assignments and examination. To be able to do the activities and assignments for this module, and to achieve
the learning outcomes and ultimately to be successful in the tests and examination, you will need an in-depth
understanding of the content of these sections in the learning guide and prescribed book. In order to master
the learning material, you must accept responsibility for your own studies. Learning is not the same as
memorizing. You are expected to show that you understand
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and are able to apply the information. Use will also be made of lectures, tutorials, case studies and group
discussions to present this module.
6. LECTURES AND TUTORIALS
Students must refer to the notice boards on their respective campuses for details of the lecture and tutorial
timetables. The lecturer assigned to the module will also inform you of the number of lecture periods and
tutorials allocated to a particular module. Prior preparation is required for each lecture and tutorial.
Students are encouraged to actively participate in lectures and tutorials in order to ensure success in tests,
assignments and examinations.
7. NOTICES
All information pertaining to this module such as test dates, lecture and tutorial timetables, assignments,
examinations etc, will be displayed on the notice board located on your campus. Students must check the
notice board on a daily basis. Should you require any clarity, please consult your lecturer, or programme
manager, or administrator on your respective campus.
8. PRESCRIBED & RECOMMENDED MATERIAL
Study Read
8.1 Prescribed Material:
Robbins, S. P.et al.(2017). Organisational Behaviour Global and Southern African perspectives.3rd Ed. South
Africa: Pearson Education. ISBN: 9781775951513
8.2 Recommended Material:
Bergh, Z. et al. 2014. Psychology in the Work Context .5th Ed. South Africa: Oxford University Press.
ISBN:9780199048069
D Coon, Introduction to Psychology gateway to mind and behavior, 13rd Edition. 2012, Thomson Nicholas,
L.2004.Introduction to Psychology. Juta.
Rao, VS., Hari Krishna,V.2006. Management Text and Cases. New Delhi. Excel Books.
Robbins al.2003. Organisational Behaviour: Global & Southern African Perspectives, 2nd Edition. Pearson
8.3 Independent Research:
The student is encouraged to undertake independent research with emphasis on the value of strategic
thinking in companies and the formulation of industrial psychology.
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8.4 Library Infrastructure
The following services are available to you:
8.4.1 Each campus keeps a limited quantity of the recommended reading titles and a larger variety of similar
titles which you may borrow. Please note that Students are required to purchase the prescribed materials.
8.4.2 Arrangements have been made with municipal, state and other libraries to stock our recommended
reading and similar titles. You may use these on their premises or borrow them if available. It is your
responsibility to safe keeps all library books.
8.4.3 RGI has also allocated one library period per week as to assist you with your formal research under
professional supervision.
8.4.4 RGI has dedicated electronic libraries for use by its learners. The computers laboratories, when not in
use for academic purposes, may also be used for research purposes. Booking is essential for all electronic
library usage.
9. ASSESSMENT AND KEY CONCEPTS IN ASSIGNMENTS AND EXAMINATIONS
Final Assessment for this module will comprise two Continuous Assessment tests, an assignment and an
examination. Your lecturer will inform you of the dates, times and the venues for each of these. You may
also refer to the notice board on your campus or the Academic Calendar which is displayed in all lecture
rooms.
9.1 Continuous Assessment Tests

There are two compulsory tests for each module (in each semester).
9.2 Assignment
There is one compulsory assignment for each module in each semester. Your lecturer will inform you of the
Assessment questions at the commencement of this module.
9.3 Examination
There is one- two-hour examination for each module. Make sure that you diarize the correct date, time and
venue. The examinations department will notify you of your results once all administrative matters are
cleared and fees are paid up.
The examination may consist of multiple-choice questions, short questions and essay type questions. This
requires you to be thoroughly prepared as all the content matter of lectures, tutorials, all references to the
prescribed text and any other additional documentation/reference materials is examinable in both your
tests and the examinations.
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The examination department will make available to you the details of the examination (date, time and
venue) in due course. You must be seated in the examination room 15 minutes before the commencement
of the examination. If you arrive late, you will not be allowed any extra time. Your learner registration card
must be in your possession at all times.
9.4 Final Assessment

The final assessment for this module will be weighted as follows:
Continuous Assessment Test 1

Continuous Assessment Test 2 40%
Assignment 1
Examination 60%
Total 100%
9.5 Key Concepts in Assignments and Examinations

In assignment and examination questions you will notice certain key concepts (i.e. words/verbs) which tell
you what is expected of you. For example, you may be asked in a question to list, describe, illustrate,
demonstrate, compare, construct, relate, criticise, recommend or design particular information / aspects /
factors /situations. To help you to know exactly what these key concepts or verbs mean so that you will
know exactly what is expected of you, we present the following taxonomy by Bloom, explaining the
concepts and stating the level of cognitive thinking that these refer to.
Competence Skills Demonstrated
Knowledge observation and recall of information
knowledge of dates, events, places
knowledge of major ideas mastery
of subject matter
Question Cues list, define, tell, describe, identify, show, label, collect, examine,
tabulate, quote, name, who, when, where, etc.
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Comprehension understanding information grasp
meaning translate knowledge into
new context interpret facts,
compare, contrast order, group, infer
causes predict consequences
Question Cues summarize, describe, interpret, contrast, predict,

associate, distinguish, estimate, differentiate, discuss, extend
Application use information use methods, concepts, theories
in new situations solve problems using required
skills or knowledge
Questions Cues apply, demonstrate, calculate, complete, illustrate,

show, solve, examine, modify, relate, change, classify, experiment,
Discover
Analysis seeing patterns organization of
parts recognition of hidden
meanings identification of
Components
Question Cues analyze, separate, order, explain, connect, classify, arrange,

divide, compare, select, explain, infer
Synthesis use old ideas to create new ones
generalize from given facts relate
knowledge from several areas
predict, draw conclusions
Question Cues combine, integrate, modify, rearrange, substitute, plan, create,

design, invent, what if?, compose, formulate, prepare, generalize, rewrite
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compare and discriminate between ideas
assess value of theories, presentations

Evaluation
make choices based on reasoned argument
verify value of evidence recognize
subjectivity
Question Cues assess, decide, rank, grade, test, measure, recommend,
convince, select, judge, explain, discriminate, support, conclude, compare,
summarize
10. WORK READINESS PROGRAMME (WRP)
In order to prepare students for the world of work, a series of interventions over and above the formal
curriculum, are concurrently implemented to prepare learners. These include:
• Soft skills
• Employment skills
• Life skills
• End –User Computing (if not included in your curriculum)
The illustration below outlines some of the key concepts for Work Readiness that will be included in your
timetable.
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LIFE SKILLS
SOFT SKILLS
Manage Personal
Time Management Finance
Working in Teams Driving Skills
Problem Solving Skills Basic Life Support &
Attitude & Goal Setting First Aid
Etiquettes & Ethics Entrepreneurial skills
Communication Skills Counselling skills
WORK
READINESS
PROGRAMME
EMPLOYMENT SKILLS
CV Writing
Interview Skills
Presentation Skills
Employer / Employee Relationship
End User Computing
➢
Email & E-Commerce
➢
Spread Sheets
➢
Data base
➢
Presentation
➢
Office Word
It is in your interest to attend these workshops, complete the Work Readiness Logbook and prepare for
the Working World.
11. WORK INTEGRATED LEARNING (WIL)
Work Integrated Learning forms a core component of the curriculum for the completion of this
programme. All modules which form part of this qualification will be assessed in an integrated manner
towards the end of the programme or after completion of all other modules.
• Completion of all tests & assignment

• Success in examination
• Payment of all arrear fees
• Return of library books, etc
• Completion of the Work Readiness Programme
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Students will be fully inducted on the Work Integrated Learning Module, the Workbooks & assessment
requirements before placement with employers.
The partners in Work Readiness Programme (WRP) include:
Good luck and success in your studies…
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SECTION
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY Lesson 1-3
1.1 Definition of Industrial Psychology
1.2 Subfields in Industrial Psychology
1.3 The Development of Industrial Psychology in South Africa
1.4 Professional Training and Practice Lesson 4-5
1.5 What is Scientific Thinking
1.6 Different Approaches to Psychology
Review Questions
SECTION 2: PERSPECTIVES ON GENERAL AND WORK BEHAVIOUR
2.1 Industrial Psychological Theories or Schools of Thought Lesson 6
2.2 Main Trends in Post Modern Thinking
Review Questions Lesson 7-8
SECTION 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Definition of Research Lesson 9
3.2 Qualities / Attributes of Scientific Research
3.3 Steps involved in the Research Process Lesson 10-11

3.4 Research Errors
3.5 Types of Research
Review Questions
SECTION 4: BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR
4.1 Genetics Lesson 12
4.3 Cells, The Foundation of Development
4.3 Twins and Sex Determination
4.4 Genotype and Phenotype Lesson 13-14
4.5 Multiple Determinations

4.6 The Nervous System
4.7 The Neuron
4.8 Frontal Cortex
4.9 Thalamus Lesson 15-16
4.10 Hypothalamus
4.11 The Cerebellum
4.12 The Muscle System
Review Questions
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SECTION 5: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT OVER THE LIFE –SPAN Lesson 17
5.1 The Nature of Human Development
5.2 Reasons for the Study of Human Development Lesson 18-19
5.3 Domains of Human Development
5.4 Determinants of Human Development
5.5 Critical Periods in Development
Review Questions Lesson 20
SECTION 6: LEARNING
6.1 Definition of Learning
6.2 The Learning Process Lesson 21-22
6.3 Cognitive Learning Approach
6.4 Social Learning Approach

6.5 Learning in the Work Context Lesson 23-24
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Review Questions
SECTION 7: PERCEPTION
7.1 Introduction Lesson 25
7.2 Psychophysics: Basic Concepts and Issues
7.3 Perception: The Focus of Attention Lesson 26
7.4 Perceptual Errors
Review Questions
SECTION 8: COGNITION Lesson 27
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Forms of Productive Thinking Lesson 28-29
8.3 Intelligence
8.4 Comparison of Short- and Long-Term Memory
8.5 Models of Cognition
Review Questions Lesson 30
SECTION 9: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION Lesson 31-32
9.1 Introduction
9.2 External Activators
9.3 Internal Activators Lesson 33-34
9.4 Abraham Maslow and Needs
9.5 Alderfer’s ERG Theory
9.6 Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
9.7 Mc Celland’s Needs Theory
SECTION 10: ADDENDUM 631 (A): CASE STUDY FOR TUTORIAL Lesson 35
DISCUSSION
SECTION 11: ADDENDUM 631 (B): TYPICAL EXAMINATION Lesson 36

QUESTIONS
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
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INTERACTIVE ICONS USED IN LEARNER GUIDES
Writing Activity
Learning Outcomes Study Read
Think Point Research Interactive

Glossary Questions
Review Questions Case Study Questions and Answers Group work
Web Resource
Multimedia Resource
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this topic you should be able to:

• Differentiate between the tasks of psychology and I- O psychology
• Discuss the development of I-O psychology in South Africa and
understand issues related to the training, professional status and
practice of psychologists
1.1 DEFINITION OF INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
It is a science and an academic discipline that involves application of psychological knowledge at the
workplace to determine how people engage in work activities while also training to improve interaction
between employees and their work and workplaces.
It is the scientific study and understanding through scientific inquiry or research of the internal processes
behavior and experiences in individuals in order to formulate general and unique principles that characterize
human nature and behavior.
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1.2 SUBFIELDS IN INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
• Organizational psychology- This is concerned with work organizations as systems involving individuals
employees and work groups as well as structure and dynamics of organizations It includes such activities
as leadership, decision making, organizational development, design Etc.
• Personnel psychology- This has a greater emphasis on individual employees. It focuses on utilising
individual differences in and between employees and predicting the optimal fit between the employee
and the organization.
It entails such aspects as job analysis, ergonomics, job design, safety and occupational health issues.
• Research methodology - This involves psychological methods of inquiry.

The aim of research methodology is research of a basic or applied nature with regard to work related
human behavior and processes in various subfields of Industrial Psychology.
• Occupational psychological assessment – Involves the development and utilisation of various types of
assessments to obtain measures of attribute and behavior of employees to assess their relationship with
actual work behaviors e.g. in selection, training and motivating employees.
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• Consumer psychology- Concerned with studying, assessing and researching all psychological aspects of
consumers or customer behaviour.
This involves the needs, values, interests and other personality attributes which facilitate decision
making and motivation in consumers as they buy products.
• Ergonomics- Concerned with understanding human performance in the interaction between employees
and their work environment or machines. The focus is on the design and structure of equipment,
workplaces, as well as works itself.
• Career psychology -Concerned with studying issues of career development with regard to individuals,
the nature of employment and unemployment as well as career related issues. Specific areas of interests
are career, job and organizational choice as well as career development.
1.3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY IN SOUTH AFRICA
• The practice of South African psychology is based on American and European models
• Over years many institutions and people have contributed to the development of psychology in South
Africa and such contributions are highlighted below:
1.3.1 Contributions of Institutions
• National Institute for Personnel Research (NIPR) integrated with Human Sciences Research Council
(HSRC) conducted research on employee and employment issues and developed psychological tests for
use in industries.
• The South African Research Council in 1939 developed the so-called individual scale for intelligence for
children and young adults.
• Many other institutions, educational departments, universities and organizations have pursued academic
and professional training, research and development of assessment and other methods used in
education and industry.
In South Africa, the military as well as large companies such as the former Iscor and South African
Railways made contributions and employed psychologists of various registration categories.
• During 1900s, most departments of School education in various provinces in South Africa developed
intelligence and other tests.
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1.3.2 Contributions of People, Associations and Events
• A prominent academic psychological practitioner and university administrator Raubenheimer was

instrumental in initiating Independent Industrial Psychology departments at South African universities in
1969.
• The department of Industrial Psychology at Stellenbosch has existed since 1940s and Swiegers was
instrumental in establishing in the early 1970s a department of Industrial Psychology.
• Various other departments of Industrial Psychology developed at the then traditionally black universities,
often in association with UNISA
• Departments of psychology, of which Industrial Psychology was part, developed much earlier at other
universities
• Wilcocks working in NIPR developed intelligence and aptitude tests in the 1970s.
Writing Activity
Give arguments why you think psychologists in South Africa should have
a more prominent role, compared to politicians , than they have now .
1.4 PROFESSIONAL TRAINING AND PRACTICE
Training of industrial psychologists in South Africa is governed by the following bodies:

The Department of Education, Academic Departments of Psychology Universities, and the Professional Body
for Psychology subsection of the Health Professions Council of South Africa.
1.5 WHAT IS SCIENTIFIC THINKING?
• Critical thinking - assess claims on the basis of well-supported reasons and evidence - not on emotional
or anecdotal reasoning.
• Involves asking questions - one of the most important is, “WHY?”
• Involves defining terms - must be clear and concrete
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• Involves examining evidence - “Let me have my opinion!” doesn’t count
• Involves analyzing assumptions and biases - scientific thinkers do not take anything as proven fact and
work hard to overcome their own biases in thinking
• Involves avoiding emotional reasoning - do not let gut feelings replace clear thinking - emotional
conviction does not settle arguments.
• Involves avoiding oversimplification - the obvious answer is often wrong and misleading - do not argue
based on own anecdotal evidence
• Involves consideration of other interpretations - the best interpretations are supported by the most
evidence and explain the most variables
• Involves tolerating uncertainty - sometimes evidence is unclear or does not even exist Involves
asking questions that can be tested in this world
1.6 DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO PSYCHOLOGY
What is an “approach in psychology”?
It is a school of thought or a particular way of viewing things concerning the origin and development of
behaviour and mental processes.
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The five approaches are:
Biological Behaviourist Cognitive
Psychoanalytic
Humanistic
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Review Questions
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Four alternatives are provided for each of the following questions. Choose the correct alternative
for each of the questions/statements.
1. Why can I-O Psychology be considered an applied discipline of psychology?

A. I-O Psychology has scientific journals and publishes work – related research
B. It also uses foundational knowledge and applied psychological methods
C. Its concepts and assumptions are supported by empirical research
D. I-O Psychology has a shared history and knowledge base with psychology
2. In South Africa, which one of the following bodies is active and influential in controlling and
monitoring psychological training and practice in various health professions?
A. Professional Board for Psychology
B. Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology
C. Health Professions Council of South Africa
D. Psychological Society of South Africa
3. In finer analysis one can say that the Hawthorne experiments actually contributed to :
A. Theorizing and researching factors which motivate employees
B. The consideration of social factors in employees work performance
C. Evidence that the design of workplace are the most important production factor
D. The recognition of psychology and I-O Psychology as a science
4. Define Industrial Psychology.

5. Discuss different subfields of Industrial Psychology.
6. By thinking about your own work situation, or by talking to an expert in the field, try to establish which
schools of thought and approaches specific to I-O Psychology are used in current people management
and business practices in South Africa.
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SECTION 2
PERSPECTIVES ON GENERAL AND WORK BEHAVIOUR
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this topic, you should be able to:

Compare diverse theoretical approaches in psychology on different levels,
identifying similarities in orientation as well as direct opposing orientations
2.1 INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OR SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT

There are theories that were brought forward by various scholars to try and explain psychology or human
behavior. Psychology originated from philosophical theories in ancient Greece to try and explain the nature of
a human being. These theories are:
Structuralism
➢ This was the first school of thought.
➢ It was influenced by the establishment of Wundt’s laboratory in 1900.
➢ The subject matter of structuralism was consciousness. By studying various structural elements of the
conscious experience, structuralism attempted to understand psychological processes such as
sensation, attention, perception, reaction, feeling and emotion.
➢ The method used in structuralism was introspection, which refers to self-observation of one’s
immediate experience of a stimulus to ascertain the feeling of thoughts that the stimulus evokes.
Functionalism
➢ It was developed as a reaction to structuralism.
➢ Psychology was seen as a practical science with its subject matter the functions of the mind rather
than the structure or content of the mind.
➢ The focus was on the mind as it functional to the individual‘s adaptation to the environment
Behaviorism
➢ It was launched by an American psychologist B. Watson.
➢ It became known as the First Force in psychology.
➢ It aimed at developing general principles of behavior based control and prediction of overt behavior
➢ The subject matter of behaviorism was observable behavior because according to Watson, only what
is observable can be studied objectively.
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➢
He further maintained that the environment determines behavior by the control of environmental factors.
Gestalt Psychology
➢ Gestalt is a German word for form or configuration.
➢ It was introduced by German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler.
According to Gestalt, psychology, the mind could not be studied by breaking its elements because it
functions as an interconnected whole.
➢ The mind could not be studied in terms of cause and effect as was done in behaviorism but could
only be studied in terms of how experience is perceived meaningfully.
The psychoanalytical school

➢ Freud is regarded as the mastermind of this school of thought.
➢ It became known as the Second Force of psychology.
➢ According to Freud, the mind consists not only of conscious mental elements but also the
unconscious mental contents which includes the same type of mental activities that are consciously
experienced such as ideas, memories, feelings, emotions etc.
Humanism or Phenomenology
➢ It became known as the 3rd force in psychology.
➢ It maintained that people cannot be seen as machines that simply respond to stimuli as behaviorism
claimed.
➢ The subject matter of the theory was focusing on the positive aspects of conscious mental activity,
incorporating human beings striving for psychological growth, self-actualization and autonomy.
Cognitive psychology
➢ It assumed that human beings are basically problem solvers and can be understood by taking
cognizance of the way in which they evaluate process stimuli, make plans and respond to stimuli.
➢ The emphasis was on factors by which one knows such as thinking, intelligence, memory, learning
and perception.
Metapsychology
➢ The contemporary approach in psychology is not to adhere rigidly to one school of thought but to
combine concepts and methods from different schools. Concepts from different schools may for
example form a new system of thinking in psychology.
➢ This is an electric approach involving meta theories.
➢ Meta theories are integrative approaches that overcome the limitations of adhering to one particular
theoretical point of view.
➢ The aim of meta psychology is to place human behavior and experience in a holistic perspective
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➢ The assumption is that a human is an organized whole, functioning in totality through the interactions
of structures and processes.
➢ Studying these interactions has more informational value than studying these processes and structures
in themselves.
Post modernism
➢ This can be seen as a Meta psychological approach as it is interdisciplinary and became a way of
theorizing and application in psychology via other disciplines outside psychology.
➢ In essence, it is a broad cultural movement constituting diverse views.
➢ It is largely undefeatable and can be best understood by its differences from modernism Post means
after and modern means new.
➢ Modernism had its origins in the late 19th century.
➢ The schools of thoughts developed in the post modernism was concerned with finding new knowledge
by scientific methods to provide universal truth that satisfies human search for unit and homogeneity.
➢ Post modernism rejects the idea of universal truth.
2.2 MAIN TRENDS IN POST MODERN THINKING

Deconstructionism
➢ This involves reading of texts and finding new meaning in them.
➢ Text does not only refer to the written word but also non-written cultural products such as
organizations that can read and put into language.
➢ Language always involves difference and therefore texts are unlimited networks of unlimited meanings
that are never static and final.
➢ Deconstruction is a play of creativity by while one can link them by acknowledging the difference
between them as essential component.
Constructivism
➢ It focuses on finding new meanings by understanding how individuals construct their personal beliefs
and what meanings they attach to them.
➢
Constructs develop through the individual interpretation of external social and cultural factors
➢ One gains an understanding of individual constructs as well as one’s own by engaging in dialogue which
can lead to shared meaning.
➢ The constructs of both parties can change as a constructive process of meaning-making ensues.
Social constructivism
➢ It focuses on social interactions in gaining new knowledge and new meanings.
➢ People do construct themselves sand their knowledge can be reconstructed by deconstruction but in
essence they are constructed by others in social groups and context involving cultural, political and
historical contexts.
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➢ Social groups have their own social meanings which influence the ways in which individuals fulfill
their roles and meanings.
Review Questions
Four alternatives are provided for each of the following questions. Choose the correct alternative for each
of the questions/statements.
1. A definition of psychology would generally include?
A. The study of behaviour change

B. Our behaviours, thoughts and emotions
C. The interface between art and science
D. The analysis of personality
2. There are several schools of thought in psychology which have been influential in developing our
understanding of human behaviour. Freud's impact has been extensive but which of the following is
not a key aspect of the psychoanalytic tradition in psychology?
A. Use of word association techniques

B. Use of projective tests
C. Observation of behaviour
D. Use of free association methods
3. Research in the workplace takes place in many countries but the term that is used varies and can lead
to misunderstanding. Which of the following is not an alternative name for work psychology?
A. Organisational psychology
B. Applied psychology
C. Occupational psychology
D. I/O psychology
11
4. Define Psychology as a field of study in Business.
Short questions
1. Discuss various theories that have been proposed by various scholars in an attempt to try and
explain human behaviour.
2. Explain the different fields of psychology as a field of study.
12
SECTION 3
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
NATIONAL TRAINING STRATEGY FOR SOUTH AFRICA
Learning Outcomes

• Discuss different strategies used to understand, develop and utilize human potential.
• Relate these methodologies to and apply it to various psychological disciplines such as
Personnel selection, organisational development training etc.
3.1 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
• It is an objective , empirical and logical activity in which scientists , through logical and empirical
procedures endeavors to establish theories and facts that can stand for the truth.
• The main objective of scientific research is to describe, explain and predict behavior and solve
problems of human nature.
3.2 QUALITIES / ATTRIBUTES OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Empirical thinking
➢
It refers to tested knowledge and conclusions based on direct sometimes indirect but systematic,
repeated and incontrovertible observation and experience
Verification and objectivity
➢ Verification means that research and reported findings must be of such a nature that other
researchers are able to repeat the research under more or less the same circumstances using
similar methods.
➢ Verification ensures certainty and extension of knowledge and even allows for previous findings
and errors to be rectified.
13
Testability
➢ Testability means that research questions must be realistic and possible to assess.
➢ The concept of variables being researched must be precisely defined and measured against current
knowledge and available assessments methods.
➢ Some concepts in psychology are difficult or even more impossible to measure.
Logical thinking and reasoning
➢
Different types of problems demand different problem solving and decision-making skills.
➢
Logical thought is not a scientific method in itself, but logic must be the basis of all scientific thinking.
➢ It allows for hypothesis to be logically derived for the systematic and realistic interpretation of data
and results.
Think Point
Examples of research questions
1. How does muscle fatigue influence employees’ performance
in assembly tasks?
2. Does culture influence people’s experiences of crime in
South Africa
3. Do two different methods of feedback influence employees’
work performance differently?
3.2 STEPS INVOLVED IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
14
FIGURE 3.1 STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Researchers of all traditions follow a systematic method comprising certain logical steps and certain
ways of thinking or reasoning.
STEP: 1 Stating or defining the problem or purpose of research

➢ The first step is to define the problem in terms of a soluble problem and also to define the research
subjects or objects and units of analysis for the research.
STEP: 2 Identification of variables

➢ In a research project, it is crucial to define relevant variables precisely in order to measure them.
➢ Variables refers to those human characteristics which vary and can be allocated numeric values in
some way.
STEP: 3 Information search or Literature review
➢ A study of relevant literature serves to develop the research problem, define refine research concepts
and inform the researcher of existing knowledge, and previous research findings on the chosen topic.
15
STEP: 4 Formulate a hypothesis or research questions
➢ A hypothesis is a provisional, assumed or tentative statement or estimate about the relationship

between variables.
➢ These must be verified by findings of a research project.
STEP 5 Research context and strategies

➢ The research strategy is the overall or broad approach or the context of the research, incorporating
the type and location of research being employed.
➢ Consider whether the research will be done in natural or experimental settings, and the amount of
control and influence researchers want to exert over variables, conditions, and research participants.
STEP 6 Techniques / methods to collect research data
➢ Techniques used in data collection for research purposes include introspection, observation,
interviews, archival sources, physiological and neurological measurement, psychological tests, and
experimental techniques.
Introspection
➢ With its origin in structuralism, entails that research subjects verbally tell or give protocols of their
experiences.
➢ This technique is still used, but not much, due to intrinsic weaknesses, i.e. most people do not have
accurate recall of the content and processes in their experiences and differences among researchers
on how to interpret introspective data often result in subjective conclusions.
Observation
➢ Initiated by behaviorists theories, for example in experiments and natural situations, research events
are controlled as far as possible, researchers may be passive or active participants; and actions,
emotions and cognitive behaviors can be accessed directly or indirectly in various ways.
Interview
➢ In many formats, structured and unstructured, with individuals or groups or in focus groups, are used
frequently, often with other assessment techniques.
➢ Interviews should be planned in detail beforehand and while researchers may play a very active role
and have strong presence, their own values and attitudes should not influence answers or actions
except it is part of the research design.
Archival sources
➢ This involves use of existing information or historical knowledge to apply to a research design.
16
Physiological and neurological measurement
➢ This originated from biological sciences and animal research, is still used to establish the relationship
between biological and psychological behaviors and vice versa.
➢ This type of research is often utilized in research on memory and leaning and emphasizes
psychological behavior.
Psychological tests
➢ These are standardized methods to assess broad or specific aspects of behavior and are arguably
predominantly used in psychological research, and mostly as independent or predictor variable
measures.
Experimental techniques
➢ These are used to observe behavior and to obtain various types of measurements of behavior in
controlled circumstances are expensive and time consuming.
STEP 7 Levels of measurement scales
Four levels of measurement scales, each with unique features are:
➢ Nominal measurement – simplest type of scale. Refers to the classification of people or things in the
absence of an order and quantitative value so that similarities or differences with respect to variables
can be indicated only by categorizing.
➢ Ordinal measurement scales – contain all the features of the nominal scale, but indicates rank or order,
such as highest to lowest. e.g. employees may be ranked on job performance from highest to lowest
or job preferences ranked from most to least preferred.
➢ Interval measurement - comprises all the features of nominal and ordinal scales, and includes
numerical values of definite zeros. Zero however cannot be indicated because the zero is not known.
➢ Ratio scales – represent the highest level of measurement and integrate all the characteristics of the
previous three levels of measurement, but can indicate three absolute values and define definite zero
points and permits the application all mathematical functions and more advanced statistical
techniques.
STEP 8 Analyze information

➢ The information is then analysed using statistical packages and broken down into a simple format
that can be easily interpreted and understood.
STEP 9 Report, implement conclusions

➢ In a summarized format, the information is presented to management for decision making
17
Writing Activity
After thinking about your own life and talking to people and discussing it,
identify ways how research findings in the social sciences ( in South Africa
and in general) have influenced your life and/ or lives of others .
3.4 RESEARCH ERRORS
Measurement errors
Errors in measurement occur because of the research process, the nature of psychological concepts,
weakness in psychological measurement techniques, rating or observation errors and subjective errors by
researchers.
Errors in research design

If a research project is not planned and executed accordingly to a systematic and logical process, and in
terms of the objective of the project, the scientific and research objectives cannot be achieved, and the
results may be unreliable and invalid.
Administration and scoring errors
These involve using non standardized procedures and techniques, vague and incorrect instructions, poor
research conditions, errors in time limits of other controls. Scoring errors include errors in observation and
scoring, errors in interpretation of values such as norms, distortions of data by research subjects and
researchers.
Errors by researchers and assessors

Due to insufficient skills and competencies or to subjectiveness in attitudes, values and behavior.
The hallo effects

➢ This occurs when the assessor gives the same level of score or rating over all dimensions.
Context effects
➢ This refers to situation where employees are rated similarly to the rest of their workgroup.
Central tendency
➢ This occurs when a rater tends to allocate an average score.
Order effect
18
➢
This occurs when the order of valuable information influences ratings.
Negative information
➢
This occurs when raters look for mistakes rather than assessing strong points in performance
appraisals.
Rating errors
➢
This may occur due to personal preferences.
3.5 TYPES OF RESEARCH
Expletory Descriptive Qualitative

Applied
Basic research research research
research
research
Read
For further reading on the different types of research refer to Zeil et al.
(2014:508)
Review Questions
Four alternatives are provided for each of the following questions. Choose the correct
alternative for each of the questions/statements.
1. Which one from the following statements does not reflect the nature of a science?
A. Certain concepts, finding and methods of a scientific discipline are generally accepted.
19
B. It is the systematic and logically inquiry about questions and phenomena
C. Science is rather qualified by people’s personal experiences or constructs of events.
D. Science is confirmed by the verification of existing concepts and knowledge
2. When a person compares the influence of music on work performance amongst gender and
age group, gender and age are variable /s in the research design
A. Moderator
B. Independent
C. Discrete
D. Predictor
Short questions
1. Define the term research as used in the study of psychology

2. Discuss various steps that are involved in the research process
3. Explain the different errors that researchers usually make during research process
4. Explain how you would use different research paradigms.
5. Describe the possible steps or activities that you would follow to execute this research project.
6. Explain your thinking on stating a hypothesis of hypotheses.
7. Identify the research variable, and show how you would measure and control relevant variables.
8. Describe the type of research and the research methods you would use.
9. Consider what possible errors you would have to control, and the possible ethical and social
issues that you would have to check.
10. Show how your research would adhere to the principles of scientific thinking
11. Discuss possible other methods you could use in interventions that may result from your finding.
20
SECTION 4
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR
LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Discuss the biological basis of behavior
• Understand why the study and knowledge of human development is
necessary
4.1 GENETICS
It has to do with hereditary, physiological attributes. These influence human behavior. These are aspects of
human behavior which are inherited from the parents through chromosomes. Human maturation will
eventually be determined by what a child inherited from the parents.
4.2 CELLS, THE FOUNDATION OF DEVELOPMENT
Each cell has a specific function, which contributes to the smooth functioning of the organism as a whole.
• The terms mitosis, meiosis and DNA refer to the internal functioning of cells which are the basic
components of a human body and to the way in which some human attributes are already fixed biologically
at cell level.
• Mitosis is the process of sustained growth that maintains the organism throughout its life span.
Physiological maintenance is necessary for optimal human functioning in the work environment.
• DNA (genes) regulates the unique pattern of individual attributes which people inherit from their parents.
• Meiosis is the process of cell division which ensures that at conception half the chromosomes come from
the father and the other half from the mother.
• In this way distinctive human attributes are passed onto the next generation.
21
These biological or physiological attributes eventually contribute to the individual’s structure and
physiological functioning and hence to attributes which will manifest themselves indirectly in the work
environment.
• The physiological attributes have effect on human being’s height, mass, skin color and hair color.
FIGURE 4.1 MEIOSIS
4.3 TWINS AND SEX DETERMINATION
• The relevance of twins is that there are both similarities and differences between people. Monozygotic
(identical) twins have the same physical composition and appearance, which could influence behavior.
22
• Yet identical twins differ, which underscores the uniqueness of individuals despite remarkable similarities
especially in regard to personality and behavior. Non-identical twins (dizygotic) twins are alike in some
respects, along with other attributes on interpersonal relations in the work situation.
• For example, the issue of affirmative in regards to gender.
• In most hierarchical organizations managerial positions are still occupied predominantly by males.
4.4 GENOTYPE AND PHENOTYPE
• Genes control specific characteristics, either separately or in conjunction with other genes. Some genes
have a dominant effect which manifests itself, while others are only manifested in observable
characteristics, if two identical genes derive from both parents, the latter is known as recessive genes.
• Genotype refers to genetic constitution, while phenotype indicates manifest characteristics. Even though
a person’s genetic constitution may include potential for numeric aptitude, he or she may have no interest
in numbers and figure work such a person would never take mathematical subjects at school and so would
not develop the necessary skills for work requiring numeric ability.
• Examples of recessive characteristics are blue eyes, blonde and straight hair.
• The genotype comprises the genetic content, which is passed on to an individual’s descendants, whereas
the phenotype refers to the observable effects of genes, as well as the manifestation of genotypic
characteristics due to environmental stimulation.
• Theoretically all phonotypical characteristics will develop, given an optimal environment, but in practice
individual development remains an unknown quantity to some extent, a person with his or her experience
amounts to more than the sum of the component parts.
• Genetic predisposition is one of the several factors of several factors that can cause diseases such as cancer
and coronary heart disease.
• Family history of such diseases may be a predictor, but, if such history is absent, personality characteristics
may become significant causes.
4.5 MULTIPLE DETERMINATIONS
• In the human sciences, which include industrial psychology, there rarely simple solutions or answers.
• People’s behavior and interactions in the work environment are determined by a combination of
personality, cognitive and other factors and cannot be explained on the basis of isolated characteristics.
• In most cases characteristics are not determined by the dominance or decisiveness of pairs of genes, but
by the combined influence of various genes.
• Most characteristics applicable to work are due to multiple determinations.
23
• This includes intelligence, temperamental and personality.
• As a rule these characteristics cannot be defined in terms of heredity only, because of the complex
interaction of heredity and environment.
• Intelligence comprises various factors, including verbal fluency, verbal comprehension, reasoning ability,
abstract thinking, ability to see spatial relations and number facility.
In intelligence testing these factors are measured separately, but also combined to represent intelligence
as a general factor called a g-factor, which is seen as significant in performance in general.
• Temperament refers to the prevalence of certain moods of the individual, such as being predominantly
active or passive or being quick or slow in reacting emotionally.
• Heritable aspects of empathy in particular seem to be feeling concern and personal distress that others
are experiencing.
• Personality consists of various traits which are seen as partly caused by heredity.
• A study of identical and fraternal twins and unrelated children rose in the same environment shows that
two, traits which have a strong hereditary basis are self-assertion and independence, while self-control is
a trait that is only partly related to heredity, as family and socio-cultural background have the largest
influence.
4.6 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
• This consist of various parts and functions at different levels operating as a whole. The neurons are part of
the brain that controls functions like planning, perseverance and motor behavior.
• These cerebral cortex conducts information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.
Frontal, parietal occipital and temporal cortical areas are specialised for linguistic functions, logical
thought, analytic and mathematical tasks.
• Hypothalamus coatings nerve cells that control vital functions like respiration and blood pressure.
Cerebellum fulfills a coordinating function to bring the entire body into a state of alertness and readiness.
• Left Hemisphere is the upper outer layer of the brain which makes some 80 percent of the human brain.
• It assigns meaning to behavior by means of higher brain process which interprets data and permits more
subtle responses than purely reflex actions.
• Spinal cord connects many of the nerves that constitute the peripheral nervous system to the brain it
regulates reflex behavior which is not controlled by higher brain processes like volition and reasoning.
24
Writing Activity
Two managers have very different thinking styles – one is analytical, whilst
the other prefers a more creative approach. Describe the role of the two
hemispheres of the brain in terms of the differences in thinking styles.
How will you describe yourself: Analytical or Creative? Justify your self
analysis
4.7 THE NEURON
FIGURE 4.2 THE NEURON
• The neuron or nerve cell is the basic unit that integrates internal processes by means of its unique
function of conducting electrochemical impulses.
• Neurons transmit stimuli originating either in the environment or within the individual to the brain and
other parts of the body, where these stimuli acquire functional significance.
25
• The nervous system is a hive of constant spontaneous electrochemical activity.
• A neuron consists of a cell body extending into fibres called dendrites, which receive impulses. The
dendrites contain receptors, which play a part in impulse conduction.
• The fibers which conduct impulses from the cell body to adjacent neurons and organs are called the axon.
Most neurons have one axon.
• The axon consists of a central core, the axoplasm, which is semi-fluid and surrounded by a thin membrane
and the axolemma, which is polarized, that is it carries a negative electrical charge on the inside and a
positive charge on the outside.
• The electrical charges on both sides of the membrane are carried by chemical solutions containing
molecules called ions. Some axons are enveloped in a fatty substance called myelin.
• The myelin sheath which acts as an insulation to prevent the loss of electrical messages is interrupted at
intervals by constrictions called the nodes of Ranvier. Impulses are conducted more rapidly along
myelinated axons than others, since they leap from one node to the next.
Stimuli are conducted in one direction only, from dendrites to the axon via the cell body.
• This ensures the orderly organization of nerve activity.
When the neuron is stimulated by some form of energy, such as thermal, kinetic or chemical energy, there
is a change in the electrochemical potential of the neuron, resulting in a selective influx of positively
charged ions through the membrane. This Potential is known as the spike or action potential.
• To trigger a nervous impulse a stimulus must be of a minimum intensity. It must reach an arousal threshold
which depends on the threshold of the neuron.
• Any stimulus with intensity too low to trigger an impulse is below the threshold of that neuron.
• The action of painkillers drugs raises the threshold of neurons in a particular part of the body, making it
less sensitive to pain stimuli. When is transmitted to the next neuron these Vesicles release the
chemical substances into the synaptic gap.
• These chemicals are called neurotransmitters. Some of these have an excitatory effect of the post-synaptic
neuron while others have an inhibitory effect which arrests the impulse at that point.
4.8 FRONTAL CORTEX
• The frontal cortex is responsible for cognitive control of information processing by sending information to
other parts of the nervous system.
• Thereby it facilitates purposeful and goal-directed behavior. It is called the executive part of the brain
because it functions similarly to a company’s chief executive officer, who can exert influence anywhere in
the company by distributing control to experts.
26
Executive roles of the frontal cortex
➢
Planning and setting goals that activate relevant responses without carrying out responses itself.
➢ Modulating, not merely transmitting, information by meaningful organization
➢ Actively maintaining sustained effort by guidance and support
➢ Guiding the flow of information in other parts of the system by influencing the correct response of a
particular stimulus.
➢ Through plasticity, providing flexibility to adapt to new information, making new combinations and
updating when change is necessary.
➢ Selecting and interpreting information, such as selecting motor behavior in reaction to information
received on emotional state.
Think Point
Observe at least three blood relatives, try to identify the reasons which
can be attributed to the differences amongst them.
27
4.9 THALAMUS
• The basic function of the thalamus is as relay from which impulses are routed to and from the
cerebral cortex.
• Except for the sense of smell, all sensory impulses arriving at the brain must pass through the
thalamus before being projected upward to specific areas of the cortex.
• The thalamus also helps to interpret simple sensations such as pain, temperature and crude touch.
4.10 HYPOTHALAMUS
• The hypothalamus is one of the primary regions that control the involuntary activities of various
organs of the body such as the heart, lungs, digestive tract and excretory system.
• The hypothalamus controls body temperature, appetite and feeding behavior, thirst, sleep and
wakefulness, psychosomatic events and activities of the endocrine system.
• Hypothalamus also controls the pituitary gland, which in turn controls other glands affecting
emotional and motivational aspects of behavior.
4.11 THE CEREBELLUM
• It receives sensory information from the receptors in the skin, muscles, joints, balance mechanism,
and visual and auditory organs.
• The primary function of the cerebellum is the coordination of muscle activity, muscle tone and
balance.
• The cerebellum receives information on the state of the muscles as well as on planned muscle action.
• Damage to the cerebellum results in uncoordinated movement, affecting actions like walking, writing
or making music.
28
4.12. THE MUSCLE SYSTEM
• Human movement is made possible by a muscle system which extends over the whole body and makes
up about 45 percent of the total body mass.
• Each separate muscle consists of a large number of muscle fibres which vary between 0, 5 cm and 14
cm in length.
• Muscles are connected to both motor and sensory nerves. Each muscle is synaptically connected with
a branch of a motor nerve axon by means of specialized terminal structures called motor end plates.
• These plates release a chemical transmitter substance which causes the muscles fibre to contract.
• Brain canters such as the cerebellum and cortex are informed of the state of the muscle system by
sensory nerves connected to the muscle.
• These convey sensations of the position, force and tension of the muscles which are interpreted by
the brain, which then transmits motor impulses for the appropriate action to the muscles.
29
30
Review Questions
1. Meiosis __________________.
A. keeps nucleotide bonds constant

B. effects changes in DNA composition
C. causes organisms to grow
D. occurs in all cells in the body
2. Which area of the brain controls unconscious activities of various organs like the heart, lungs,
digestive tract and excretory systems?
A. Hypothalamus
B. Frontal cortex
C. Occipital cortex
D. Cerebral cortex
3. A gardener complains about constant back pain. The problem most probably lies with __________.
A. The size of his workstation

B. An accumulation of waste products
C. The loss of muscle
D. The body posture he assumes whilst removing weeds
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Explain different types of human organs that you have studied and how they influence human behavior
2. The processing of information is a vital function in problem – solving. Discuss the role of the frontal
cortex in this function
3. Discuss the functions of the nervous system are interrelated
31
SECTION 5
5 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT OVER THE LIFE – SPAN
LEARNING OUTCOMES

o Analyse maturation, growth, and decline in a person’s physical and
biological characteristics, thought processes and social, emotional,
moral, working and productive behaviors.
o Explain the domains of human development in the various stages
5.1 NATURE OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Human development is concerned about maturation, growth, and decline in a person’s physical and
biological characteristics, thought processes, social, emotional, moral and working or productive behaviors.
5.2 REASONS FOR THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
• Development results in a repertoire of competencies such as knowledge, abilities, skills and attitudes.
• Development studies enable people to determine timelines or schedules and norms on what to expect of
people, when and how certain types of physical, cognitive and psychological behaviors are supposed to occur,
and how to act accordingly.
• Development provides continuity and identity in people ‘s ways of living and behavior.
• The study of development provides descriptions of change and continuity in behavior and explanations of
the causes of human development.
• Developmental psychology emphasizes the importance of development on child and adult psychological
adjustment and health.
• Knowledge of human development also forces scientists and practitioners to update knowledge and to
rethink beliefs and stereotype of development in general and ageing (gerontology).
32
5.3 DOMAINS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Physical or biological domain
➢
This entails many biological processes such as sensory capacities, motor responses and the functioning of
respiratory, endocrine, and circulatory systems.
Cognitive development
➢
This refers to the progressive development of thought processes, mental abilities and the capacities to
obtain, process, interpret, retrieve and use information.
Psychosocial development
➢
This involves the progressive development of psychological and social behaviors or socialization in
humans during the life span as a result of diverse social interactions and social status in which people
become involved.
Societal systems
➢
This involves the influence of societal agents such as cultural values, habits, myths and rituals, social roles
and expectations, leadership styles, interpersonal relationships, communication patterns, family influences,
economic conditions, etc.
Career related tasks development

➢
This involves development of career choice competences, especially for the early adult life stage, as part
of a person’s life span development, to enable an individual to make a proper career decisions .
Writing Activity
With examples, explain how/ why various human development stages are
important for adult and career development.
5.4 DETERMINANTS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Hereditary/genetic determination
➢ Many human similarities and unique behaviors are influenced by our inborn or genetic inheritance .
33
Maturation due to genetic potential is a predetermined series of biological and repeated
processes that occur as the individual grows physically and increases in age without environmental and
even illness and nutrition factors having a marked influence on the natural course of events.
Environment and learning

Environmentally acquired behaviors are “learned or social-cultural genetics”, the latter our own term
depicting behaviors being “ingrained” and carried over as a result of social learning, an idea similar to the
theories of social and biological evolution about adaption to changing environments.
Interaction between a person and the environment

The interaction between maturation and learning has always been accepted and illustrated by many
theoretical approaches and extensive research.
Four levels of systematic environmental influences in human development
Level 1: Micro system
Level 2. Mesosystem
Level 3: Exosystem
Level 4: Macro system
The Micro system

➢ Is a person in his or her living environment, consisting of those persons and organizations with whom
the most intimate and frequent contact occurs.
The Mesosystem
➢ Is created by interactions between elements of the micro system e.g. schools, churches, employers
and neighbors.
34
Exosystem
➢ Involves aspects outside the individual‘s immediate contacts that may still influence him or her.
These may be the family members’ workplace and institutions in the community
Macro system
➢ Represents a fluid type of influence and focuses on specific cultural and social values, habits, laws
and political systems.
5.5 CRITICAL PERIODS IN DEVELOPMENT
A critical period refers to a certain point in time when particular factors, especially environmental factors,
will or can have positive or negative effects for example lack of food, pollution, deprivation of parental love
in the first year of life.
The first 5 or 6 years
The first 5 or 6 years is considered to be the most critical for development.
Freud differentiates between 5 so-called “psychosexual stages” of personality development
Oral (first year) Anal
(age 2 to 3) Phallic
(age 3 to 7) Latent
(age 5 to 12)
Genital (from puberty onwards)
Life-span development
11 stages of psychosocial development
35
➢
Trust versus mistrust (First year of life, oral-sensory)
During infancy trust, an inner security and feelings of mutuality develop as a result of satisfactory care. Trust
is the infant’s first social achievement in that the mother is trusted even if she is occasionally absent.
Mistrust is manifested in a sense of rejection with concomitant skepticism and pessimism towards life and
people.
➢
Autonomy versus shame and doubt (2-3 years, muscular, anal)
Maturation of physical functions, for example control over excretory functions teaches the child self-control
and adequacy which fosters a sense of self-esteem and autonomy.
➢
Initiative versus guilt (4-5 years, loco motor- genital)
This young child learns initiative by sharing responsibilities such as care of younger children and by
manipulating toys and exploring the environment. Industry versus inferiority (6-11, through puberty,
latency).
At school going age, a child is ready to acquire qualities of productivity such as perseverance and task
completion and to develop a sense of learning, accomplishment and competency.
➢
Industry versus inferiority (6-11, through puberty, latency)
At school going age a child is ready to acquire qualities of productivity, and develop a sense of learning,
accomplishment and competency.
➢
Identity versus ego or role confusion (12-18 years, puberty)
During adolescence all the qualities and roles developed during the previous phases find expression in a
broader social context. Teenagers test their identity by developing to groups and gangs and by falling in
love with members of the opposite sex.
➢
Intimacy versus isolation (Late adolescence, early or young adulthood)
Young adults share their identity with others through affiliation and friendship. This is accompanied by a
strong ethical awareness and the ability to commit themselves in intimate relationships and to experiment
with various life roles.
➢
Generativity versus stagnation (adulthood)
As individuals proceed into adult life, they need to feel needed especially in relationships with peers and
family as well as needing meaningful interaction in the social environment.
36
➢
Ego- integrity versus despair (ageing/maturity)
If all the conflict of the previous phases has been resolved and healthy ego characteristics have developed,
the aged individual accepts his/ her life cycle with a spiritual sense of order and meaning, which provides
emotional integration and softens his fear of death.
37
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS REVIEW QUESTIONS
Four alternatives are provided for each of the following questions. Choose the correct alternative for
each of the questions/statements.
1. Choose the correct option. Human development

A. Refers to the progressive age – related changes and stages across the life span
B. Primarily refers to predetermined biological changes
C. Must only be understood by a lifespan approach
D. Only entails certain life and career stages
2. To which statement does maturation refer?

A. Such behaviour at about the age of 18 to 21
B. The solution off development conflicts and wisdoms
C. The integration of all domains of development
D. Changes that are due to genetic or biological determination
3. A 30 year old employee is unhappy in her job. However, despite professional advice, she never made
an informed choice during her initial career choice. She now has tried various jobs without happiness
and success. this is an example of:
A. A diffused career choice
B. A foreclosed vocational; identity
C. A normative history graded influence
D. A punitive disenchanted career choice
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Describe developmental domains and refer to important developmental influences

2. Explain the determinants of human development
3. Discuss the critical development periods as used in the field of psychology
38
SECTION 6
6. LEARNING
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Demonstrate well rounded and systematic knowledge on what the

learning organization involves
• Explain cognitive learning
• Describe the application of the different training techniques
6.1 DEFINITION OF LEARNING
• It refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience.

• Behavior is necessary to determine whether learning has occurred or not.
• If one wants to know whether learning has taken place, one determines if behavior has changed as a
result of an experience.
39
6.2 THE LEARNING PROCESS
The learning process is described from different viewpoints, based on different schools of thoughts in
psychology. From a behaviorist point of view, learning process is described in terms of conditioning
(classical or operant), cognitive approach and the social learning approach.
6.2.1 Classical Conditioning

• This is a concept associated with I.P Pavlov whose experiments with dogs illustrated the importance in
learning of the association between stimuli and the resulting responses.
• During an experiment a hungry dog was shown food (unconditioned stimulus). The dog’s saliva began to
flow. This was termed unconditioned reflex, as it happened automatically independent of the prior
learning process. A bell was then rung just before or while the food was shown to the dog. The dog’s
saliva flowed again. The process was repeated several times.
• In the third stage, the bell was rung without any food being given. Salivation still occurred. The bell was
called conditioned stimulus and the flow of saliva a conditioned reflex.
• An association had been established between the stimuli in which the conditioned stimulus initially
unrelated to salivation triggered the same response as the unconditioned reflex. However when the food
was repeatedly withheld, the ringing of the bell in the absence of food ceased to cause salvation this is
called extinction.
6.2.2 Operant or Instrumental Conditioning
• This concept is associated with the work of B.F Skinner whose experiments with rats and pigeons
demonstrated how behavior can be changed by controlling the learning process. Operant conditioning
differs from classical conditioning in that the latter merely consist of an association of stimuli that elicits
a particular response without necessarily achieving anything whereas instrumental learning implies the
acquisition of a reaction to obtain meaningful results.
• Instrumental learning means that individuals gain control over their environment.
• Reinforcement in the form of reward or punishment is of crucial importance in this method of learning.
The initial stimulus triggers a particular response because this response is consistently reinforced by
reward during the conditioning process. Reward is a second stimulus which is pleasurable or positive.
• Secondary reinforcement - in addition to the positive and negative reinforcement of the response,
through a second stimulus, a third stimulus associated with reinforcing stimulus can strengthen the
response further.
• Discrimination learning - it is a form of operant learning involving learning to discriminate between
settings in which a particular behavior will or will not be reinforced.
6.2.2.1 Reinforcement Schedules
40
• This refers to the relationship between an operant response and the probability of reinforcement
• There are acceptable rules that are used to prevent reinforcement following a stipulated operant
behavior.
a) Types of Reinforcement Schedules

➢
Continuous reinforcement schedule
It is the one that provides reinforcement after every correct response. It is useful in the learning of new
behavior.
➢
Partial reinforcement schedule
In this process, only some aspects of the desired response are reinforced. It produces more responses at
much higher frequency than continuous schedules.
For fixed ratio, fixed interval, variable ratio and variable interval ratios, refer to Business Statistics notes.
6.2.2.2 Punishment
• This refers to a stimulus which diminishes the probability or strength of a response preceding it.
• The more intense the punishment, the more effective it is.
• Light punishment may suppress undesirable behavior temporarily, but it will occur again later.
• The more consistent the punishment, even though it may be light, the more effective it appears to be
the closer the punishment is in time, and place to the desirable behavior, the more effective it is the
deeper a pattern of behavior is entrenched as a habit, the less effective the punishment will be people
can adapt to punishment and this lessens its impact.
• Punishment for an undesired response may be effective if it is followed by positive reinforcement
.
Writing Activity
Imagine that you have to develop a training programme in customer care,

Discuss the different learning principles and describe, which example,
how these principles can be applied in the development of the
programme
6.3 COGNITIVE LEARNING APPROACH
• This approach is based on the learning model of Tolman.
41
• According to this model, objects in the environment are perceived as means towards desired goals.
• Between perception of a stimulus and acting out of a response, there are a series of cognitive
activities that takes place.
Web Resource http://www.kanjipower.com/image/top_img2.gif
6.4 SOCIAL LEARNING APPROACH
• This is based on the work of A. Bandura and associates.

• Their perspectives can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist learning theories and
cognitive learning theories. It focuses on leaning that occurs in a social context.
• According to this theory , behavior is learned simply through observation of other people’s behavior and
the outcomes of those behaviors .
6.4.1 Four Processes underlying observational Learning
This is according to Bandura

Such processes are necessary before an individual can successfully model the behavior of someone else.
42
• Attention processes- Students have to pay attention to the model.
• Retention processes- The information being observed is then processed for retention.
• Behavioral reproduction processes- After the learner has observed the behavior of the model and
imagined him or herself doing the same, the behavior has to be then actually practiced.
• Motivational processes- Students have to have some motivation to learn from the model.
6.5 LEARNING IN THE WORK CONTEXT
The Training Process

Training consists of an orderly planned sequence of events in order to be effective.
Phase 1: Assessment of training needs and development of learning outcomes
Phase 2: Training/development phase
Phase 3: Evaluation phase
Need Analysis
It consists of the following types:
• Organizational analysis- In order for training to be effective, it is necessary to analyze the organization,
to examine short and long-term goals. It also involves development of training programs and creating
a conducive climate for training.
• Task analysis- This involves compilation of a job description in behavioral terms then task specification.
• Person analysis- This is concerned with how well an employee is carrying out the task that comprise
the job.
Training techniques
1. Lectures
2. Audiovisual aids
3. Programmed instruction and computer assisted instruction
4. Role playing
43
5. Business games
6. In basket technique
7. Sensitivity training
Review Questions
1. Which one of the following theories is based on the assumption that systems at most levels of
complexity share certain characteristics, and may use feedback loops to regulate themselves?
A. Cognitive theory
B. Social theory
C. System theory
D. Connectivism theory
2. Connectivism implies
A. Making use of the web
B. The importance of prior learning
C. Learning by example
D. The construction of meaning
3. Which of the following learning principles does not apply to andragogy?

A. Self – directed learning
B. Motivated by curiosity
C. Unlearning is difficult
D. Adults learn shower
44
Case Study
Victor , Jane, Kevin and Frans are colleagues in a human resources department that have to develop a
programme in conflict management for their company .As they were unsure as to how to develop the
programme, they decided to share their knowledge and to introduce the programme with a discussion
on the causes of conflict . Victor was of the opinion that, based on his experience, the most important
cause of conflict in their organization is a lack of communication. Jane strongly disagreed by stating
that, because they often get so many messages from different managers, they tend not to listen
anymore, and as a result they miss important information. After a long discussion, facilitated by Kevin,
consensus was reached indicating that there was enough communication as well as over –
communication that may lead to conflict. Kevin then mentioned that he had personally learned to
handle using an example set by his manager, especially after reflecting on his behaviour during a
negotiation process in which he was involved. Frans the youngest member of the group, was not
involved in the discussion, but searched online to find conflict management programmes. When
confronted with his lack of participation, he stated that time was of the essence and that they would
certainly find a number of programmes from which they can choose. He responded with the comment;
“Why reinvent the wheel?”
Questions
1. On what learning theory is their decision “to share their knowledge: based? Motivate your answer
by discussing the different underlying this theory
2. What learning theory was probably underlying Kevin’s learning and which technique probably
played a role? Substantiate your answer
3. Provide a critical evaluation of Frans’ behaviour in the group regarding the learning process
45
SECTION 7
PERCEPTION
LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Analyze the theory and principles of perceptions and to make recommendations
on successful techniques a marketer could use to promote his or to prevent
someone from becoming used to advertisements
• Define the various types of illusions
• Indicate example in life and work where stimulus attributes are used to get the
perceiver’s attention
7.1 INTRODUCTION
• Take time to look at your work environment and list five events or items you can see or hear. Ask a
colleague to do the same. Are your lists identical?
• It is likely that yours and your colleague’s lists will differ on what you see and/or hear. When one receive
new or raw information one tries to make some sense differentiating it. One tries to interpret it.
• According to Gregory 1996, perception is dynamic search for the best interpretation is a dynamic search
for the best interpretation of data that is readily available and thus requires more than just stimulus
patterns.
• It refers to a selective process which shapes one’s awareness of one’s reality. It is one when one needs
to assign meaning and interpret external factors.
46
Sensation/Perception
Transduction: sensory receptors convert a physical energy into nerve impulses
Web Resource
Source 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E
Why Is It Important?
• Because people’s behaviour is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.
• The world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviourally important.
7.2 PSYCHOPHYSICS: BASIC CONCEPTS AND ISSUES
• This refers to the study of how physical stimuli are translated into psychological experience
Thresholds
• Sensation begins with a stimulus, or any detectable input from the environment.
• It is a dividing point between energy levels that have a detectable effect and those that do not.
• It is the weakest detectable stimulus for any given sense. An absolute threshold for the specific type
of sensory input is the minimum amount of stimulation that an organization can detect.
• Absolute threshold, however, differ from person to person among senses and even for the same
person under different situations.
• Therefore researchers such as Fechner, arbitrarily define an absolute threshold as the stimulus
intensity which is detected 50 per cent of the time.
• Using this definition, researchers found that under ideal conditions, one’s ability to detect weak stimuli
is better than expected.
• Disturbances from the environment will however, influence people’s perceptual thresholds.
47
The just noticeable difference
• It is the smallest difference in the amount of stimulation between stimuli which our senses can
detect.
• It is the minimum quantity by which stimulus intensity must be modified in order to acquire a
distinguishable variation.
• Ernst Weber observes the size of the JND appeared to correspond to initial stimulus magnitude.
• The JND has different values for different object and senses, as Weber has detected. For instances,
the JND is higher for heavy objects than for the light ones.
• The smallest detectable difference however, is a fairly stable proportion of the mass of the original
object.
• This principle came to be known as Weber’s law which states that the size of a just-noticeable
difference is a constant proportion of the size of the initial stimulus.
• In general, as stimuli increase in magnitude, the JND becomes larger.
• Manufacturers and marketers try to determine the relevant JND for their products so that negative
changes – reductions or increases in product size or increase in product size, or reduced quality- are
not readily discernible to the public and so that product improvements are discernible to the
customers without being wasteful.
• Marketers use JND to determine the amount of change or the updating they should make into their
product so that they don’t lose recognition.
Signal detection theory

• It proposes that one’s detection of stimuli involves not only raw sensory processes but also higher
mental and decision-making processes.
• An air space controller monitoring a radar screen for enemy aircraft must not only detect visual
signals, but also realize how accurate or certain he or she has to be, and consider the consequences
of reacting incorrectly and giving false alarm.
Subliminal perception
• It occurs whenever stimuli are presented below the threshold or limen for awareness.
• The term “subliminal perception” was originally used to describe a situation in which stimuli were
perceived without awareness.
• Messages are flashed in front of subject high speed. Even though the conscious mind does not seem
comprehend these messages, the subconscious instantly understands and act on them.
• It is believed that subliminal perception or persuasion can be useful in advertising.
• In a survey of America consumers it was found that almost two-third of consumers believe in the
existence of the subliminal advertising and over half believe that this technique can make them buy
the things that they don’t like.
• The concept of subliminal perception suggests that it is possible to influence people’s thoughts,
feelings, and action by stimuli that are perceived in the absence of any awareness of perceiving.
48
Sensory adaptation
It is a gradual decline in sensitivity to prolonged stimulation.

Have you noticed how some marketers sometimes make some slight changes to advertisements over time
to prevent one from becoming used to them?
For example, when one takes a cold shower the water temperatures feels warmer after few minutes, or after
shave one uses in the morning, after which others may smell it, but one does not oneself.
Sensory adaptation is an automatic process that keeps one aware of changes, rather than the constants, in
one’s sensory input.
This is because, like most organisms, humans are interested in changes in their environment that may signal
threats or unpleasantness.
Writing Activity
In a class group discussion indicate how perception impacts on
people’s acceptance of technology in the workplace
7.3 PERCEPTION: THE FOCUS OF ATTENTION
• Owing to various limitations, one’s attention, or mental focus, captures only a small portion of the
visual and auditory stimuli available at a given moment, while ignoring other aspects.
• Thus, one selectively attends to certain aspects of one’s environment while keeping others in the
background.
Shape perception
• If one lacked shape perception, one’s visual world would consist of random patches of light and dark
and disorderly mass of coloured and colourless fragments.
• If you look up on this book, however, you will notice that your visual world contains objects that have
distinct borders and clear-cut shapes.
• Two important aspects of shape perception are organization and pattern recognition.
Organization
• The Gestalt psychologists’ study various ways of perceptual organization.
• They believe that there are two main visual components necessary for a person to see the object
properly: a figure and the ground.
• The concept of the figure-and- ground was first introduced by a Danish phenomenologist called Edgar
Rubin (1886-1951).
49
Pattern recognition
Some perceptual psychologists believe that the ability to perceive objects represents a form of problem-
solving based on two categories of simultaneous mental processes, namely bottom-up processes and top-
down processes.
7.4 PERCEPTUAL ERRORS
Selective Perception
People selectively interpret what they see based on their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.
Halo Effect
Drawing a general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic.
Contrast Effects
A person’s evaluation is affected by comparisons with other individuals recently encountered.

Projection
Attributing one’s own characteristics to other people.
Stereotyping
Judging someone on the basis of your perception of the group to which that person belongs.
Prejudice
An unfounded dislike of a person or group based on their belonging to a particular stereotyped group.
50
Review Questions
1. The smallest unit or minimum amount of stimulation required for an organism to produce a sensory
experience is called ______________.
A. The threshold
B. The absolute threshold
C. The differential thresholds
D. Sensory adaptation
2. Closure, similarity and continuation are categories of ___________________.

A. Perceptual organization
B. Cognitive style
C. Cognitive organization
D. Perceptual selection
3. The process by which the perception of a person is formulated on the basis of a single favorable
impression is called ________________.
A. The horns effect
B. The halo effects
C. Selective attention
D. Attribution
Short questions
1. With the aid of examples discuss the concept of perception.

2. Explain the difference between absolute and differential threshold.
3. “We see and understand things as they are, but as we are. “ Explain how cultural differences impact
on perception
51
Case Study
When two new employees are appointed, you hear the existing circle of employee saying the following:
• “I don’t think he will stay long. He will apply for a better position as soon as possible. You know how
people ‘job hop’ these days.
• “How can they appoint someone so young? These young people just chat to their friends on social
media during office hours”.
• “She is well – groomed. But, you know what they say about blondes “.
• “He is from a good family – well connected.”
• “He seems to be on medication, don’t you think?”.
• “She is probably a ‘token’ appointment – she seems to have a slight limp.
• “Another missed opportunity for one of our own people”.
Question
Explain how selective attention, factors influencing perception, various aspects of impression formation
and prejudice are recognizable in these statements.
52
SECTION 8
8. COGNITION
LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Understand how people acquire and use knowledge and then how it is
combined, manipulated, stored and transformed.
• Discuss the role of culture in intelligence
• Indicate how memory can be promoted and why people forget
8.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter focuses on how people acquire and use knowledge, and explains how people combine,
manipulate, store and transform that stored knowledge.
8.2 FORMS OF PRODUCTIVE THINKING
8.2.1 Concept formation

• One forms concepts by abstracting similar or general features of objects, people or events and
categorizing them.
• A concept is an abstract idea or a mental category by which similarities are grouped e.g. managers,
secretaries, entrepreneurs.
• Such concepts are not formed from a set of common features but are built around a representative
sample or prototype.
• A prototype exhibits the typical features of a particular category e.g. a suit may typify many people’s
concepts of a boss.
53
8.2.2 Problem solving
• This involves finding effective solutions to problems.
• Research has shown that the first and most difficult problem in problem solving can be stating the problem.
• Sometimes an individual does not know where to begin to solve a problem because the problem is not
clearly stated, which hinders finding a suitable solution.
• Once the problem has been clarified, the solution might follow more easily.
8.2.3 Reasoning
• It is a form of productive thinking by which conclusions are formed that further the information on which
they are based.
• The conclusions generally follow logically from at least two premises that supports the conclusion
• Two forms of reasoning focused on investigating cognition are deductive and inductive reasoning.
a) Deductive reasoning
It is possible to start from a false premise and come to a true conclusion.
b) Inductive reasoning
One reasons from the specific to the general, drawing conclusions that might possibly be true, but are not
definitely so.
c) Sources of error in reasoning

The tendency to make errors in reasoning, even when reasoning by logic, is ascribed to the following:
➢
Confirmation bias – This is the tendency to test conclusions or hypothesis by examining only. It prevents
people from even considering information that might call their premises, and thus their conclusions, into
question.
54
➢
Oversight bias – This causes people to be selective in overlooking flaws depending on the perceived
importance of the issue at hand.
➢
Hindsight effect - After specific events have occurred, people often feel as though they could have
prevented them.
8.2.4 Decision making

This requires the making of a choice about the likelihood of uncertain events. It requires one to combine,
manipulate, and transform one’s stored knowledge.
Role of heuristics in decision making

The following three heuristics can influence a person’s decision making:
➢
Availability
One uses availability heuristic whenever one estimates frequency or probability in terms of how easy it is to
think of something.
One factor that influences memory retrieval is recency. In general, one can recall and even better if it
happened yesterday rather than a year ago.
Familiarity is another factor that influences memory retrieval.
➢
Representativeness
Representativeness is based on how much one event resembles another event.
When one uses the representativeness heuristic, one decides whether the event or situation one is judging
matches the appropriate prototype.
➢
Anchoring and adjustment
When one makes an estimate, one often starts off by guessing a first approximation – an anchor - and then
makes adjustments to that number on the basis of additional information. This strategy is called the
anchoring and adjustment heuristic.
8.2.5 Creativity
• It is generally defined as the ability to produce work that is novel and appropriate.
• For the individual, creativity facilitates the solving of problems and for the organization it facilitates the
adaptation to change, the provision of new services and products, and also the creation of new jobs.
Writing Activity
You are a state witness in a robbery case, Explain how you will
use the three stages of memory whilst giving your testimony
55
8.3 INTELLIGENCE
• One of the concepts used to describe the cognitive functions of human personality and to indicate
individual differences.
• Broadly it refers to a human beings’ global ability to conduct themselves competently in different situations
by means of understanding , acquiring knowledge , reasoning , judgment , memory and practical skills.
Think Point
Why is it useful to measure emotional intelligence?
8.4 COMPARISON OF SHORT- & LONG-TERM MEMORY

Short Term
• Very fast input
• Limited capacity
• 20 seconds duration
• Contains words, images, ideas, sentences
• Immediate retrieval
Long Term
• Relatively slow input
• Practically unlimited capacity
• Practically unlimited duration
• Contains networks, schemata
• Retrieval depends on connections
Think Point
What is the capacity of short-term memory?
How is short-term memory searched?

How long can memories last?
How do people understand language?
What is attention?
56
8.5 MODELS OF COGNITION
• Current approaches to studying cognition.
• The primary approach to cognitive psychology today is information processing.
• The information processing approach assumes that information from the environment undergoes
a series of transformations as it is processed by different cognitive systems.
Information Processing Approach
57
1. Which of the following concepts are NOT associated with concept formation?
A. Algorithms
B. Schema
C. Prototype
D. Categorising
2. A sale person quotes an old price to a client, forgetting that a new price structure has been emailed
to him. This memory failure is most likely due to ______________.
A. False memories
B. Distortion
C. Mood
D. Interference
Short questions
1. Discuss the various forms of productive thinking, illustrating your answer with practical examples.
2. What factors influence the learning of a language.
3. Employees need to remember a new safety rule i.e. wearing earplug whilst performing a specific task.
What principles should be taken in account to improve their prospective memory? Give creative
examples of how these principles can be applied in this specific situation.
58
SECTION 9
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Understand what motivates people and incorporate this
understanding practically into a strategic marketing plan
• Explain the link between motivation and emotion
• Discuss how motivation is impacted upon by personality
9.1 INTRODUCTION
It is a process that involves the purposiveness of behavior
The process is brought by factors that activate behavior and influence the direction and perseveration
that is the sustained effort, of behavior.
Types of Motivation
• Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation coming from within, not from external rewards; based on personal
enjoyment of a task.
• Extrinsic Motivation: Based on obvious external rewards, obligations, or similar factors (e.g., pay,
grades).
Emotions
• State characterised by physiological arousal and changes in facial expressions, gestures, posture, and
subjective feelings.
• Adaptive Behaviors: Aid our attempts to survive and adjust to changing conditions
• Physiological Changes: Include heart rate, blood pressure, perspiration, and other involuntary bodily
responses.
• Adrenaline: Hormone produced by adrenal glands that arouses the body.
• Emotional Expression: Outward signs of what a person is feeling.
• Emotional Feelings: Private emotional experience.
59
9.2 EXTERNAL ACTIVATORS
Reinforcement
➢ It is the cardinal factor in instrumental conditioning, through which behavior acquired because it is
reinforced by a reward, a consequence which is pleasurable and serves as a stimulus for repeating the
behavior.
Job content
➢ It is generally associated with internal motivation, stemming from needs intrinsic to the individual.
➢ It may also be seen as an external motivator, in that it involves the structure or design of the work.
Job design
➢ It includes job rotation, job enlargement and job enrichment which are procedures in organizations
aimed at facilitating employees’ motivation.
9.3 INTERNAL ACTIVATORS
Self-actualisation
➢ Is an inner-directed process by means of which an individual expresses and fulfills his or her inner self.
Functional autonomy
➢ As an individual matures, the instincts and drives of childhood become transformed into more distinctive
contemporaneous motivational systems.
Expectancy
➢ Refers to the individual ‘s subjective beliefs about outcomes of his or her behavior.
Self-efficacy
➢ Refers to the sense of having more or less control over events that affect one’s life.
Attribution
➢ Involves trying to understand, by localising the causes, why events and one’s behavior has certain
outcomes.
Equity
➢ Concerns the perception of fairness in the work situation.
60
Goal setting
• Involves the individual‘s personal orientations toward interpreting and acting in achievement
situations .
Emotion
• Psychological constructs that are inferred from behavior, such as physiological reactions and
expressive behavior.
Functions of emotions
• Because emotions are functional in an individual’s personal and interpersonal adaptation, the
recurrence of some emotions might lead to emotions becoming embedded in the individual’s
personality as traits.
• Traits are personality characteristics that are relatively stable over time and become typical of the
behavior.
• Some people seem to be motivated basically to be unhappy while others seen to be motivated
basically to be happy, even in hard times or circumstances.
• Happiness includes the experience of joy, contentment, positive wellbeing, and feeling that life is
good, meaningful and worthwhile.
• Emotions contribute to flexibility in adaptation to the end environment.
Intensity of emotions
• Involves the strength with which emotions feature as activators in motivation.

• Individuals differ with regard to particular emotions that they experience, as well as the intensity
with which they experience particular emotions.
Emotion and performance
• Emotional intensity influences work performance, as it involves different levels of activation.

• Performance is also influenced by unconscious motivation.
Emotional intelligence
• Emotions can be seen as skills in themselves that play a part in motivation.
Writing Activity
Sit together with a group of fellow students and identify a goal for each of you that you
hope to achieve within the next five years. Now evaluate the feasibility of each of these
goals using the principles involved in setting effective goals (use the “SMART” acronym
as guidance).
61
9.4 ABRAHAM MASLOW AND NEEDS
• Hierarchy of Human Needs: Maslow’s ordering of needs based on presumed strength or potency;
some needs are more powerful than others and thus will influence your behavior to a greater degree.
• Basic Needs: First four levels of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy
Lower needs tend to be more potent than higher needs.
• Growth Needs: Higher-level needs associated with self-actualization.
• Meta-Needs: Needs associated with impulses for self-actualization.
9.5. ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY
Clayton Alderfer (1972) proposed his ERG theory in order to address some of the limitations of Maslow’s
theory, ERG represent three levels of needs, namely
1. Existence ( material /physical desires)
2. Relatedness ( relationships / thoughts)
3. Growth ( productive / change )
62
Web Resource
Source:http://www.comindwork.com/images/weekly/erg-theory-existance-relatedness-growth.png
ERG theory differed from Maslow’s theory in three important ways, namely that it postulated that:
1. Different levels of needs could be perused simultaneously with modern individuals being motivated
to satisfy both existence and growth needs simultaneously
2. The order of needs could be different for different individuals
3. Including of the frustration – regression principle means that if a higher level of motivation remains
unfilled, the individual may regress to a lower level
9.6 HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY
Frederick Herzberg’s (1968) theory of motivation asserts that all work – related factors can be grouped into
one of two categories, namely hygiene / maintenance factors and motivation factors.
63
Web Resource
Source: http://raeanna91.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/herzbergs.gif
9.7 Mc CELLAND’S NEEDS THEORY
David Mc Celland’s (1967) theory holds that people have needs that are socially learnt throughout people’s
interactions with others such as family, friends and persons that are respected and looked up to.
64
His theory asserts that humans work to fulfil three basic internal needs that influence behavior, namely:
Web Resource
Source:http://managementpocketbooks.files.wordpress.com/2012/11/davidmcclellands-
motivational-needs.jpg
These needs become arranged in a hierarchy that differs from individual to individual. In other words, one
need is more dominant than the others in each individual
65
Review Questions
1. Which one of the following is not one of the “ primary emotions”?

A. Joy
B. Ecstasy
C. Anger
D. Fear
2. In Expectancy Theory “ valence “ refers to:

A. The value of a goal
B. The ability to achieve goal
C. One goal leading to the attainment of other goals D.
D. None of the above
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Are extrinsic or intrinsic sources of motivation more important to achieving goals? Motivate why you
say so.
2. Mc Clelland’s theory identifies three needs that motivate individuals. Which do you believe
is more applicable to yourself? Motivate your answer using practical examples of yourself as a student.
3. How has this been affected by other people’s perceptions of you?
66
SECTION 10
WHAT IS ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR?
67
SECTION 10
10 ADDENDUM 631 (A): CASE STUDY FOR TUTORIAL DISCUSSION
Psychology in Africa, like other knowledge forms, is often treated as though its origins are distinctly Western.
The African knowledge that sustained societies for centuries was disrupted by the imposition of European
knowledges and cultures and spheres were left without a trace of indigenous wisdom. This was made possible
by the exclusion of indigenous language in the profession world. This exclusion of indigenous language made
it possible to exclude any indigenous knowledge and wisdom in the professional world. It is in this point that
African Psychology made it entry in tertiary institutions.
Investigate the various school of thought that has critics the application of industrial psychology principles in
indigenous countries. In your discussion explain how African psychology was developed as a tool to close the
gap between the western and indigenous knowledge.
QUESTIONS 3: 25 MARKS
Organisation theory has become multiperspective or multiparadigmatic field. This mean that there are a wide
variety of ways to approach, or get a grip on the central elements of an organisation. This different approaches
and point of entry generate a great deal of debate and argument over the essential and defining features of
organisational life. The following scholars have made a significant contribution towards gaining an in-depth
understanding of the organisation life:
• W. Richard Scott(1987)
• Karl Marx(1818-83)
• Emile Durkheim(1858-1917)
• Marx Weber(1864-1920)
• Gareth Morgan (1997)
(Jaffe, 2008)
Investigate the different perspective of the above scholars regarding organisational behaviour, in your
discussion explain which scholar has made a significant contribution towards the development of industrial
psychology. Use various sources to support your arguments.
68
RICHFIELD GRADUATE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (PTY)
LTD
HIGHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING
FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
Q ADMINISTRATION
BACHELOR OF BUSINESS
NATIONAL FINAL EXAMINATION - QUESTION PAPER
INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY 621- EXAMS
SEMESTER 1
DATE: DURATION: 3 HOURS

EXAMINER: MS X. NENE MODERATOR: MR A. MEYER
STRUCTURE: QUESTION PAPER
NUMBERS QUESTIONS MARKS TIME IN MINUTES

SECTION A: MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS COMPULSORY
1 Question One 50 70
SECTION B: SHORT QUESTIONS COMPULSORY
2 Question Two 30 50
SECTION C: ANSWER ONLY ONE QUESTION
3 Question Three 20 60
Question Four 20 60
Question Five 20 60
PLEASE NOTE THE FOLLOWING:
The question paper consists of 3 sections.
a) Section A comprises of MCQs
b) Section B comprises of short questions
c) Section C comprises of 3 questions; you are required to answer only ONE questions
69
SECTION A: MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS COMPULSORY (50 MARKS)
SECTION B: COMPULSORY
READ THE CASE STUDY AND ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS
THE IMPORTANCE OF EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION: CASE STUDY OF WETHERSPOON PUBS
A distinguishing feature of Wetherspoon pubs is that they are music-free to encourage conversation. All have
substantial no-smoking areas. Meals are served from opening until one hour before closing and account for
over 25% of sales. They also specialise in the sale of cask-conditioned beers from Britain’s regional brewers.
In modern service industries, friendly, motivated employees who are willing and able to provide the required
level of customer service can make all the difference between success and failure. J D Wetherspoon has
11,200 either full or part-time employees, of which 220 are at the Head Office in Watford. The company is
convinced that the high performance of its staff is a direct result of its approach to staff recruitment, training,
development and motivation. This case study looks at how the company motivates staff towards helping it
achieve its aims of high standards, ongoing improvement and growth.
Wetherspoon operates in a highly competitive market in which it is essential to stay ahead of rivals who are
themselves improving. Often the people best placed to suggest improvements are the front-line staff
responsible for operations. Enlightened firms show trust in their employees and display a willingness to learn
from their experiences. With its open approach, Wetherspoon actively encourages its staff to challenge
existing ideas and practices to pursue continuous improvement. This often involves adjusting many things a
little rather than making a sweeping change. Suggestions mainly come from employees, based on their
experience at work.
The ongoing improvement includes identifying ‘best practice’ within parts of the organisation and applying it
throughout. Only an open culture fully achieves this sharing of good practice. Every two weeks the company
holds a ‘Big Meeting’. Over 100 employees attend, including the company chairman and directors, pub
managers and some associates. These meetings consider the company’s performance and ways to improve
it, ranging from small operational decisions to major strategic plans. For example, the marketing manager
might present a selection of posters proposed for a promotional campaign and the meeting decides which
ones to use.
Individuals are included in decision-making. Many Wetherspoon employees have a high level of commitment
to the company and are proud to work for it. The company firmly believes that a key factor that differentiates
it from rivals is the quality of customer service that comes from having committed employees. There are no
hidden secrets in Wetherspoon’s approach. It is based on an understanding of, and belief in, some key ideas
about human motivation.
There is a big difference between motivating someone into wanting to do something and merely getting them
to do it. The motivational theorist Frederick Herzberg noted that he could get even his dog to move by
shouting at it or kicking it. He did not regard this as successful motivation. Successful motivation is based on
appealing to an individual’s intrinsic drives rather than using external threats and rewards. Herzberg argued
that motivating an individual involves identifying and using a range of ‘satisfiers’. These factors will motivate
someone to want to do a job successfully by meeting their need for more responsibility, higher status, greater
job satisfaction, or enhanced self-esteem. Herzberg’s ideas on motivation are similar to those of Abraham
Maslow.
J D Wetherspoon has recognised at Wetherspoon pubs that many of its employees will not stay with it for all
their working lives, but it wants its employees to develop a sense of loyalty. It pays a rate above that of its
70
competitors believing that employees are more likely to be motivated when they know they are being paid
more than the minimum required. The company also bases its pay on reviews of performance, so that the
higher pay reflects its positive view of the worth of its employees.
Source: https://businesscasestudies.co.uk/the-importance-of-employee-motivation-2/
QUESTION: 2 (30 MARKS)
2.1 After reading the above case study, explain how the motivational theory of Frederick Herzberg has been
used by Wetherspoon pubs to ensure that their employees offer the best customer service? (10)
2.2 Illustrate using the Maslow hierarchy of human needs diagram how Wetherspoon pubs can use the
principles demonstrated by this theory to improve retention among their employees and develop a sense of
loyalty towards the organisation. (10)
2.3 Alderfer's ERG theory tends to address some of the limitations of Maslow’s theory, discuss the three-level
of needs by Alderfer's ERG theory and explain how Wetherspoon pubs can use them to keep their employees
motivated. (10)
SECTION C (20 Marks)
SELECT ONLY ONE QUESTION FROM BELOW
QUESTION 3
The American psychologist B. Watson’s behaviour theory aimed at developing general principles of behaviour-
based control and prediction of overt behaviour. Based on the philosophies of psychology describe any of the
five psychology theories that are used to understand human behaviour. (10)
QUESTION 4
Research demands a certain level of logical thinking and reasoning for the study to be considered scientific.
Posit some of the research errors that the researcher can make due to incompetence and subjectiveness.
(10)
QUESTION 5
Ivan Pavlov (classical learning study) is one of the well-known unconscious learning experiment which had a
major contribution in understanding learning from a behavioural point of view. Discuss some of the findings
that were discovered about the learning process through this experiment. (10)
END OF EXAM
71
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Job design Work arrangement (or rearrangement)aimed at reducing or

overcoming job dissatisfaction and employee alienation arising from repetitive and
mechanistic tasks
Job analysis Is the process of gathering and analyzing information about the content and the human
requirements of jobs, as well as, the context in which jobs are performed. This process
is used to determine placement of jobs.
Career An occupation undertaken for a significant period of a person's life and with opportunities
for progress
Sensation A physical feeling or perception resulting from something that happens to or comes
into contact with the body.
Attention The act or power of carefully thinking about, listening to, or watching someone or
something
Perception The ability to see, hear, or become aware of something through the senses
Reaction Something done, felt, or thought in response to a situation or event
72
Feeling An emotional state or reaction
Emotion A strong feeling deriving from one's circumstances, mood, or relationships with others
Design A plan or drawing produced to show the look and function or workings of a building,
garment, or other object before it is made
Vague Of uncertain, indefinite, or unclear character or meaning
Hypothesis A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting
point for further investigation Preferences: A greater liking for one alternative over
another or others
A widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or
Stereotype thing
Reinforceme
nt A consequence that will strengthen an organism's future behavior whenever that
behavior is preceded by a specific antecedent stimulus
Simultaneou
s Result or effect, typically one that is unwelcome or unpleasant
Conclusion A judgment or decision reached by reasoning
Behavior Observable actions of human beings and nonhuman animals
Functionalis
m The study of the purpose mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their
environment
Psychology The scientific study of mind and behavior
Structuralism The analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind
73

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INDUSTRIAL

MODULE: INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY 621

4.7 The Neuron 25

Title Of Module: Industrial psychology 621

3.1 Industrial Psychology 621

On completion of these modules the student will be able to:

6. LECTURES AND TUTORIALS

8. PRESCRIBED & RECOMMENDED MATERIAL

8.1 Prescribed Material:

8.2 Recommended Material:

8.3 Independent Research:

9. ASSESSMENT AND KEY CONCEPTS IN ASSIGNMENTS AND EXAMINATIONS

9.1 Continuous Assessment Tests

9.4 Final Assessment

Continuous Assessment Test 1

9.5 Key Concepts in Assignments and Examinations

Competence Skills Demonstrated

Knowledge observation and recall of information

knowledge of dates, events, places

knowledge of major ideas mastery

meaning translate knowledge into

new context interpret facts,

compare, contrast order, group, infer

causes predict consequences

Question Cues summarize, describe, interpret, contrast, predict,

Application use information use methods, concepts, theories

in new situations solve problems using required

Questions Cues apply, demonstrate, calculate, complete, illustrate,

Analysis seeing patterns organization of

parts recognition of hidden

Question Cues analyze, separate, order, explain, connect, classify, arrange,

Synthesis use old ideas to create new ones

generalize from given facts relate

knowledge from several areas

predict, draw conclusions

Question Cues combine, integrate, modify, rearrange, substitute, plan, create,

assess value of theories, presentations

verify value of evidence recognize

10. WORK READINESS PROGRAMME (WRP)

11. WORK INTEGRATED LEARNING (WIL)

• Completion of all tests & assignment

The partners in Work Readiness Programme (WRP) include:

Good luck and success in your studies…

3.3 Steps involved in the Research Process Lesson 10-11

4.5 Multiple Determinations

5.1 The Nature of Human Development

5.2 Reasons for the Study of Human Development Lesson 18-19

5.3 Domains of Human Development

5.4 Determinants of Human Development

5.5 Critical Periods in Development

Review Questions Lesson 20

6.1 Definition of Learning

6.2 The Learning Process Lesson 21-22

6.3 Cognitive Learning Approach

6.4 Social Learning Approach

7.1 Introduction Lesson 25

7.2 Psychophysics: Basic Concepts and Issues

7.3 Perception: The Focus of Attention Lesson 26

7.4 Perceptual Errors

SECTION 8: COGNITION Lesson 27

8.2 Forms of Productive Thinking Lesson 28-29

8.4 Comparison of Short- and Long-Term Memory

8.5 Models of Cognition