VECTORS and ANALYTIC GEOMETRY in SPACE PDF

M O D U L A R S Y S T E M
VECTORS and
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
in SPACE
Coþkun Erden
www.book.zambak.com
Copyright © Zambak Basým Yayýn
Eðitim ve Turizm Ýþletmeleri Sanayi
Ticaret A.Þ.
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To the Teacher
This book is a course in vectors in space and the analytic analysis of three-dimensional
space. Vectors have applications in many different branches of science. However, they are
mostly studied in mathematical physics, the scientific discipline which is concerned with
the application of mathematics to problems and theories in physics. This book aims to
give students a basic theoretical understanding of analytic space, so that they can better
understand and work with its applications later in their studies.
This book is divided into two chapters, structured as follows:
♦ Chapter 1 is a general introduction to coordinates and vectors in space and introduces
basic concepts which are used throughout the rest of the book. The first half of the
chapter covers coordinates in three dimensions. The second half looks at vectors in
space. It extends students’ knowledge of vectors in the plane to three dimensions, and
looks in particular at vector operations and the dot product and cross product of
vectors. An extra section at the end of the chapter explains how vectors can be used to
model torque in physics.
♦ Chapter 2 covers lines and planes in space and important related theorems. The final
section in this chapter aims to show the relation between systems of linear equations
and analytic plane geometry.
This book has been designed to be an effective teaching aid, and includes all of the
features of the Zambak Modular System high school math teaching series:
♦ The book uses a linear teaching approach, with material in the latter sections
building on concepts and math covered previously in the text.
♦ Self-test ‘Check Yourself ’ sections at key points in the text allow students to check their
understanding, and build students’ confidence for further study.
♦ Exercises at the end of each section give students a chance to use the skills and
techniques they have learned to solve both pure and applied problems. The questions
are designed for use with mixed-ability classes, with more difficult questions flagged
with a single or double star (* or **) in order of difficulty.
♦ A chapter summary at the end of each chapter provides a concise review of the main
content of the chapter. Included in the summary are a set of concept check questions
which ask students to explain key concepts and ideas in their own words.
♦ Review tests cover the material in a whole chapter, and help to prepare students for
exams. They also extend students’ mathematical thinking ability, by asking them to
use the material they have learned in different ways.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Fatih Özkaya, Mustafa Kýrýkçý and Muhammer Taþkýran for their
encouragement and constructive ideas while I was writing this book. Many other friends
and colleagues also need to be thanked for their contributions, in particular Þamil
Keskinoðlu and Serdal Yýldýrým for their typesetting and design. Finally, special thanks
go to my family for their support.
Coþkun Erden
To the Student: Using This Book
This book is designed so that you can
use it effectively. Each chapter has its Chapter 1
own special color that you can see at the
bottom of the page.
Different pieces of information in this
Chapter 2
book are useful in different ways. Look at
the types of information, and how they
appear in the book:
Notes help you focus on important details. When you

see a note, read it twice! Make sure you understand it.
Definition boxes give formal descriptions of new

concepts. Theorem boxes include propositions that
can be proved. The information in these boxes is
very important for further understanding and for
solving examples.
Examples include problems and their solution along

with an explanation, all of which are related to the
topic. The examples are numbered, so you can find
them easily in the book.
Check Yourself sections help you to check your

understanding of what you have just studied.
Solve Check Yourself questions alone and then
compare your answers with the answer key
provided. If your answers are correct, you can
move on to the next section. If an answer is
wrong, go through your working again and
check back through the examples in the section.
A small notebook in the left or right margin of a page
reminds you of material that is related to the topic you
are studying. Notebook text helps you to remember the
math you need so that you can understand the
material. It might help you to see your mistakes, too!
Notebooks are the same color as the section you are
studying.
Special boxes highlight important new information such

as formulas, properties or solution procedures. These
boxes are the same color as the color of the chapter.
Exercises at the end of each section cover the

material in the whole section. You should be able
to solve all the problems which do not have a star.
One star () next to a question means the
question is a bit more difficult. Two stars ()
next to a question mean the question is for
students who are looking for a challenge! The
answers to the exercises are at the back of the
book.
The Chapter Summary summarizes all the important

material that has been covered in the chapter. The
Concept Check section contains oral questions. In order
to answer them you don’t need a paper or pen. If you
answer Concept Check questions correctly, it means you
know that topic! The answers to these questions are in
the material you studied. Go back over the material if
you are not sure about an answer to a Concept Check
question. Finally, Chapter Review Tests are in increasing
order of difficulty and contain multiple-choice questions.
The answer key for these tests is at the back of the book.
VECTORS AND ANALYTIC CHAPTER 2: ANALYTIC GEOMETRY IN SPACE
GEOMETRY IN SPACE 1. LINES AND PLANES IN SPACE ................64
CHAPTER 1: COORDINATES AND VECTORS A. LINES IN SPACE ..........................................64
IN SPACE 1. The Equation of a Line in Space...........64
1. COORDINATES IN SPACE .......................10 2. The Equation of a Line through

Two Points in Space ............................66
A. BASIC CONCEPTS .......................................10
1. The Three-Dimensional 3. The Angle Between Two Lines .............67
Coordinate System ..............................10 4. The Distance Between a
2. The Distance Between Two Points .......17 Point and a Line...................................72
B. SPHERES .....................................................19 B. PLANES IN SPACE .......................................73

1. The Standard Equation of a Sphere .....19
1. The Equation of a Plane.......................74
2. The General Equation of a Sphere .......20
2. The Angle Between Two Planes ...........78
EXERCISES 1.1 ....................................................23
3. Families of Planes................................81
4. The Distance Between a

2. VECTORS IN SPACE.................................25 Point and a Plane ................................84
A. BASIC CONCEPTS .......................................25 EXERCISES 2.1 ....................................................86
B. VECTOR OPERATIONS ................................28
1. Adding and Subtracting Vectors ..........28
2. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN
2. Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar ..........29
THREE VARIABLES ...................................89
3. Linear Combinations of Vectors ...........34
C. PARALLEL VECTORS ....................................36 A SYSTEMS OF TWO EQUATIONS ..................89
D. THE DOT PRODUCT ....................................37 B. SYSTEMS OF THREE EQUATIONS................91
1. The Dot Product of Two Vectors ..........37
2. The Angle Between Two Vectors .........40
C. CRAMER’S RULE .........................................97
3. Vector Projections ...............................43 EXERCISES 2.2 ..................................................103
E. THE CROSS PRODUCT ................................45
CHAPTER SUMMARY........................105
1. Matrices and Determinants..................45
2. The Cross Product of Two Vectors .......47 CONCEPT CHECK..............................106
Activity: Torque ................................................................50 CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2A................107
EXERCISES 1.2 ....................................................51 CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2B ................109
CHAPTER SUMMARY .........................55 CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2C.................111
CONCEPT CHECK ...............................56 CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2D ................113
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 1A..................57 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES ..................115
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 1B..................59 ANSWERS TO TESTS .........................118
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 1C ..................61 GLOSSARY .....................................119
Vectors were born in the first two decades of the nineteenth century with the geometric
representation of complex numbers. Caspar Wessel (1745-1818), Jean Robert Argand
(1768-1822), Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) and others conceived of complex numbers
as points in the two-dimensional plane, i.e. as two-dimensional vectors. Mathematicians and
scientists applied these new numbers in different ways. For example, Gauss used complex
numbers to prove his famous Fundamental Theorem of Algebra in 1799.
In 1837, William Rowan Hamilton (1805-1865) showed that any complex

number could be thought of as an ordered pair (a, b) of real numbers. This idea
was part of the search for a way to extend the two-dimensional ‘numbers’ to three
dimensions while preserving the basic algebraic properties of real and complex
numbers. Many mathematicians worked on this, but none were successful at the
time.
In 1827, August Ferdinand Möbius published a short book, The Barycentric

Calculus, in which he introduced directed line segments that he denoted by William Rowan
letters of the alphabet. In fact these were our modern-day vectors, although Hamilton
Möbius did not use this name. In his study of centers of gravity and projective geometry,
Möbius developed an arithmetic of his directed line segments: he added them and he showed
how to multiply them by a real number. However, Möbius’ main interests were in other areas
and no one else bothered to notice the importance of his computations.
After a lot of frustration, Hamilton finally gave up the search for a three-dimensional
number system. Instead, he invented a four-dimensional system of numbers that he called
quaternions in 1843. Hamilton’s quaternions were written in the form q = w + ix + jy + kz,
where w, x, y, and z were real numbers. Hamilton quickly realized that his quaternions
consisted of two distinct parts: the first term, which he called the scalar, and the terms x, y
and z. Hamilton thought of these last three terms as projections along three rectangular axes
and invented the term ‘vector’ to refer to the three terms and the line they represented.
Hamilton used the fundamental formulas i2 = j2 = k2 = –ijk = –1 to multiply quaternions,
and he immediately discovered that the product q1q2 = –q2q1, was not commutative.
Hamilton wrote two exhaustive books, Lectures on Quaternions (1853) and Elements of
Quaternions (1866), which described the algebra of quaternions and how they could be used
in geometry. In his books, Hamilton wrote of his belief that quaternions were a
fundamentally important discovery for nineteenth-century mathematics. This belief was
shared by Peter Guthrie Tait (1831-1901), who in the 1850s began applying quaternions to
problems in electricity and magnetism and to other problems in physics.
At about the same time that Hamilton discovered quaternions, Hermann
Grassmann (1809-1877) was working on his book The Calculus of Extension
(1844), known in German as Ausdehnungslehre. In his Ausdehnungslehre,
Grassmann extended the concept of vector from the familiar two or three
dimensions to an arbitrary number of dimensions. This greatly extended ideas
about space. Grassmann’s book also contained the beginnings of a good deal of
modern matrix and linear algebra and vector and tensor analysis.
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) was another scientist who believed Hermann Grassman
in the importance of quaternions. Maxwell and Tait shared an interest in
mathematical physics. Maxwell divided the variables of physics into two
categories: vectors and scalars. Maxwell thought that these categories and the
mathematics of quaternions provided a way to mathematically describe
important results in the physics of heat and electrostatic forces. However, in his
papers and in his famous book Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, Maxwell
emphasised that quaternions and vectors only provided a mathematical way of
James Clerk Maxwell thinking, and so belonged in the field of pure mathematics.
William Kingdon Clifford (1845-1879) preferred Grassmann’s Ausdehnungslehre and the
concept of vectors (which he often called ‘steps’) to quaternions. In his book Elements of
Dynamic, Clifford divided the product of two quaternions into two different vector products,
which he called the scalar product (now known as the dot product) and the vector product
(now known as the cross product).
The vector representation that we use today first appeared in some remarkable
lecture notes made by J. Willard Gibbs (1839-1903) for his students at Yale
University. Gibbs first learned about quaternions when he read Maxwell’s Treatise
on Electricity and Magnetism, and he also studied Grassmann’s Ausdehnungslehre.
He concluded that vectors were an efficient tool for his work in physics. Beginning
in 1881, Gibbs privately printed notes on vector analysis for his students, and these
were widely distributed to scholars in the United States, Britain and Europe. The
first book on modern vector analysis in English was Vector Analysis (1901). This
book contained Gibbs’s notes as assembled by one of his last graduate students, J. Willard Gibbs
Edwin B. Wilson (1879-1964).
Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925) received copies of Gibbs’s notes and spoke very highly of them.
After Maxwell’s theories of electricity and magnetism were introduced in Germany,
vector methods were used in several books. Vector methods were introduced in Italy (1887,
1888, 1897), Russia (1907) and the Netherlands (1903). Vectors are now the modern
language of a great deal of physics and applied mathematics, and they continue to hold their
own mathematical interest.
A. BASIC CONCEPTS
1. The Three-Dimensional Coordinate System
When Ali and his brother Veli arrived home one night, they noticed a spider hanging from the light.
Veli : Look at that spider hanging from the light!
Ali : Oh, yes. Can you tell me the exact location of the spider in the room?
Veli : Of course! We just need to look at the spider’s shadow on the floor.
Ali : But look: the spider is moving down but the shadow stays in the same place.
Veli : Oh... So what’s the answer?
Ali : To find the spider’s exact location in the room, we can’t just apply the coordinate plane
to the floor. We need to consider the height of the spider as well.
Veli : OK. Now I understand: objects in space do not have only two coordinates. We also
need a third coordinate which represents the height.
Ali : Exactly.
10 Vectors and Analytic Geometry in Space
To locate points in a room, we use analytic space z
and the three-d dimensional coordinate system.
The origin O in this system is like a corner of a 6
room where two walls and the floor intersect. We P(3, 4, 6)

can describe the location of an object on the floor
by using two coordinates, x and y. However, to O
locate an object in the room which is not on the y
3 4
floor we need a number to indicate the height of
the object from the floor. We call this the
x
z-ccoordinate of the object.
Definition ordered triple, Cartesian coordinates

We can represent any point in space using an ordered triple (x, y, z) of real numbers.
The real numbers x, y and z are called the x-ccoordinate, y-ccoordinate and z-ccoordinate of P,
respectively. Together they are called the Cartesian coordinates of P.
(x, y) is an ordered pair. For example, imagine that Ali and Veli’s spider is hanging 2m above the floor. It is hanging
(x, y, z) is an ordered from a light which is 3m from one wall and 4m from the other wall. If we use the corner of
triple.
the room where the walls and floor meet as the origin, we can describe the position of the
spider using the ordered triple (3, 4, 2).
Note
In some books the coordinates x, y and z are respectively called the abscissa, ordinate and code.
Definition coordinate axes

In order to locate points in space, we first choose z
a fixed point O (called the origin) and consider
4
three directed lines through O that are
perpendicular to each other. These lines are the 3
4
coordinate axes, respectively called the x-aaxis, 3
2
2
y-aaxis, and z-aaxis. We think of the x-axis 4 1 1
3 2 1 O
and the y-axis as being horizontal and the z-axis 1 2
1 3 4
as being vertical, and we draw the axes as shown y
2 1
in the figure. 3
4 2
x 3
4
Coordinates and Vectors in Space 11

Definition dimensional coordinate system, ¡3
analytic space, three-d
The system formed by the x-, y- and z-axes is called analytic space or the three-dimensional
coordinate system. In this book we will prefer to use the term analytic space. We write ¡3 to
mean analytic space.
For example, (3, 4, 2) is a point in analytic space: (3, 4, 2) ∈ ¡3.
Definition right-h
hand rule
We can find the direction of the z-axis by using the z
right-h
hand rule, as illustrated in the figure.
If you curl the fingers of your right hand in a counterclockwise
direction from the positive x-axis to the positive y-axis, then
your thumb points in the direction of the z-axis.
y
Definition coordinate planes

The plane determined by the x-axis and the y-axis is called the xy-p
plane.
The plane determined by the x-axis and the z-axis is called the xz-p
plane.
The plane determined by the y-axis and the z-axis is called the yz-p
plane.
The xy-, xz- and yz-p
planes are called coordinate planes.
z z z
O O
O
y y
y
xy-plane
xz-plane yz-plane
x x
x

Definition projection on a coordinate plane
A point P(a, b, c) in ¡ 3 determines a

rectangular box, as shown in the figure. If we z
drop a line from P perpendicular to the
(0, 0, c)
xy-plane, we obtain the point Q(a, b, 0) which R(0,b, c)
S(a,0, c)
is called the projection of P on the xy-pplane. P(a, b, c)
Similarly, R(0, b, c) and S(a, 0, c) are the

projections of P on the yz-plane and on the O (0,b, 0)
y
xz-plane, respectively. (a,0, 0)
Q(a,b, 0)
x
Recall that the four sections of a coordinate system in two-dimensional space are called
quadrants. In three-dimensional space, the different sections are called octants.
Definition octant
The xy-, xz- and yz-planes divide analytic
space into eight cells called octants. The
z
octant in which the coordinates are all positive
is called the first octant, but there is no system
of numbering for the remaining seven octants.
O
y
the first octant

HOW TO PLOT A POINT IN ANALYTIC SPACE
To plot the point (a, b, c) in analytic space we start at the origin O and move a units along
the x-axis, then b units parallel to the y-axis, and then c units parallel to the z-axis.
For example, let us plot the point P(2, 3, 4) in analytic space.
Step 1: Draw a line perpendicular to the x-axis at the z
point x = 2.
O
1
2 y
Step 2: Draw a line perpendicular to the y-axis at the z

point y = 3.
The intersection of the two drawn lines is the point
P′(2, 3, 0).
O 1 2 3
1
2 y
P¢(2, 3, 0)
x
Step 3: Draw a line perpendicular to the xy-plane at z
the point P′(2, 3, 0). Determine the point on this line 4

which is 4 units above the xy-plane. This point is
P(2, 3, 4)
P(2, 3, 4).
O
3
2 y
P¢(2, 3, 0)
x
We can think of this process as similar to moving along z
three sides of a rectangular box. 4
P(2, 3, 4)
O
3
2 y

EXAMPLE 1 Plot the points A(1, 3, 5), B(4, 2, 0), C(2, –1, –2) and D(–1, 2, 2) in ¡3.
Solution
z z
5
A(1, 3, 5)
O 2
O
3 y
y
1
4
x B(4, 2, 0)
x
z z
D(1, 2, 2)
2
1 O
O 1
y y
2
2
2
x x
C(2, 1, 2)
EXAMPLE 2 Plot the points A(–2, 0, 0), B(0, 1, 0) and C(0, 0, –3) in ¡3.
Solution z z z
A(2, 0, 0)
2 O
O 1 O 1
y
y B(0, 1, 0) y
x
x x 3 C(0, 0, 3)
Note
Points on the x-axis have coordinates of the form (x0, 0, 0), points on the y-axis have
coordinates of the form (0, y0, 0) and points on the z-axis have coordinates of the form (0, 0, z0)
where x0, y0, z0 ∈ ¡.

EXAMPLE 3 Plot the points P(2, –1, 0), Q(0, 2, 3) and R(1, 0, 2) in ¡3 and state in which plane each point
lies.
Solution z z z
3 Q(0, 2, 3)
2
R(1, 0, 2)
1 O O O
y 2 y y
1
P(2, 1, 0) 2
x x x
P(2, –1, 0) lies in the xy-plane, Q(0, 2, 3) lies in the yz-plane and R(1, 0, 2) lies in the
xz-plane.
Note
Points in the xy-plane have coordinates of the form (x0, y0, 0), points in the yz-plane have
coordinates of the form (0, y0, z0) and points in the xz-plane have coordinates of the form
(x0, 0, z0) where x0, y0, z0 ∈ ¡.
EXAMPLE 4 A point A(a ⋅ b, c, d) lies in the xy-plane and A ≠ (0, 0, 0), c ≠ 0. In which plane does the
point B(d, a ⋅ c, b) lie?
Solution Since A(a ⋅ b, c, d) lies in the xy-plane, d = 0. So B(d, a ⋅ c, b) = B(0, a ⋅ c, b) lies in the
yz-plane.
EXAMPLE 5 The figure shows a rectangular prism. Using the given values, z
state the coordinates of the point P and its projections R, S 5
S
and T.
R
P
O
2
y
2
T
x
Solution P(2, 2, 5), R(2, 0, 5), S(0, 2, 5) and T(2, 2, 0)

EXAMPLE 6 Write the set of points which are at a distance of 2 units from the xy-plane, 3 units from the
xz-plane and 2 units from the yz-plane.
Solution z z
(2,3, 2)
(2, 3, 2)
2
2
(2,3, 2) 2 3
O
3 3
O (2, 3, 2) (2,3, 2)
y
3 y 2 (2,3,2)
2
2
x
x
(2,3,2)
(2, 3, 2)
Points which are 2 units from the xy-plane have 2 or –2 as their z-coordinate. Similarly,
points which are 3 units from the xz-plane have 3 or –3 as their y-coordinate, and points
which are 2 units from the yz-plane have 2 or –2 as their x-coordinate.
So the set of points which satisfy the given conditions is {(2, 3, 2), (2, –3, 2), (–2, 3, 2),
(–2, –3, 2), (2, 3, –2), (2, –3, –2), (–2, 3, –2), (–2, –3, –2)}.
Rule midpoint of a line segment

The midpoint of the line segment from A(x1, y1, z1) to B(x2, y2, z2) is
x1 + x2 y1 + y2 z1 + z2
( , , ).
2 2 2
EXAMPLE 7 Find the midpoint of the line segment from A(–1, 3, 5) to B(2, 7, –2).
Solution –1+ 2 3+7 5 – 2 1 3

By the rule above, the midpoint is ( , , ) = ( , 5, ).
2 2 2 2 2
2. The Distance Between Two Points

Theorem distance between two points
The distance between two points A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) is
|AB| = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2 + (z2 – z1)2 .

Proof Let us imagine that points A and B are opposite z
vertices of a rectangular box and that the faces of
B(x2, y2, z2)
the box are parallel to the coordinate planes, as
shown in the figure. If P(x1, y2, z1) and R(x2, y2, z1) R(x2, y2, z1)
are vertices as shown then O A(x1, y1, z1) P(x1, y2, z1)
|AP| = |y2 – y1| y
|PR| = |x2 – x1|
|RB| = |z2 – z1|. x
Since triangles ARB and APR are both right

triangles, then by the Pythagorean Theorem,
|AB|2 = |AR|2 + |RB|2 and |AR|2 = |AP|2 + |PR|2.
Combining these equations gives us
|AB|2 = |AP|2 + |PR|2 + |RB|2
= (y2 – y1)2 + (x2 – x1)2 + (z2 – z1)2
⇒ | AB|= ( x2 – x1 ) 2 +( y2 − y1 ) 2 +( z2 – z1) 2 , as required.
EXAMPLE 8 Find the distance from A(7, –3, 2) to B(5, –1, 1).
Solution We can use the theorem: |AB| = (5 – 7)2 + ( –1+ 3)2 + (1 – 2) 2 = 4 + 4 +1 = 3.
EXAMPLE 9 The figure shows a rectangular prism. Find the

lengths of the sides, the lengths of the diagonals
z
4
G
of each side and the length of the main diagonal F
of the prism. H E
3
Solution The vertices are A(3, 3, 0), B(3, 5, 0), C(1, 5, 0), 1 5
y
D(1, 3, 0), E(3, 5, 4), F(1, 5, 4), G(1, 3, 4) and 3 D C
H(3, 3, 4). AB, BC and BE are sides with different x A B
lengths and
|AB| = |DC| = |HE| = |GF| = (3 – 3)2 +(5 – 3) 2 +(0 – 0) 2 = 2
|BC| = |AD| = |EF| = |HG| = (1 – 3)2 +(5 − 5) 2 +(0 − 0) 2 = 2
|BE| = |CF| = |AH| = |DG| = (3 – 3)2 +(5 – 5) 2 +(4 – 0) 2 = 4.

The lengths of the diagonals are
|HF| = |AC| = |GE| = |DB| = (1 – 3)2 +(5 – 3) 2 +(4 – 4) 2 = 2ñ2
|AE| = |DF| = |HB| = |GC| = (3 – 3)2 +(5 – 3) 2 +(4 – 0) 2 = 2ñ5
|BF| = |AG| = |EC| = |HD| = (1 – 3)2 +(5 – 5) 2 +(4 – 0) 2 = 2ñ5.

The length of the main diagonal: |DE|2 = |DB|2 + |BE|2 = 8 + 16 = 24, so
|DE| = |CH| = |AF| = |BG| = ò24 = 2ñ6.
Check Yourself 1
1. Plot the points A(3, –4, 2), B(–2, 3, 5), C(2, 4, –3), D(–1, –2, 4) and E(3, 0, 5) in ¡3.
2. Write the set of all the points which are 3 units from the xy-plane.
3. Which of the points P(6, 2, 3), Q(–5, –1, 4) and R(0, 3, 8) is closest to the xz-plane?
Which point lies in the yz-plane?
4. Find the distance between the points A(–2, 1, 3) and B(2, 1, 0).
5. Find the midpoint R of the points P(–3, 0, 5) and Q(1, –2, 2).
Answers
2. {(x, y, 3) and (x, y, –3) | x, y ∈ ¡} 3. Q is closest to the xz-plane, R lies in the yz-plane
7
4. 5 units 5. R(–1, – 1, )
2
B. SPHERES
1. The Standard Equation of a Sphere
Definition sphere
The set of all points in ¡3 which are the same distance z
from a fixed point is called a sphere. The fixed point is P(x, y, z)

the center of the sphere, generally denoted by C. The r
distance is the radius of the sphere, generally denoted C(x0, y0, z0)
by r. O
y
Theorem standard equation of a sphere
The standard equation of a sphere with center C(x0, y0, z0) and radius r is
(x – x0)2 + (y – y0)2 + (z – z0)2 = r2 (x0, y0, z0, r ∈ ¡).
Proof Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the sphere, then the distance between P(x, y, z) and the
center C(x0, y0, z0) is r.
By the formula for the distance between two points, |CP|2 = (x – x0)2 + (y – y0)2 + (z – z0)2
so r2 = (x – x0)2 + (y – y0)2 + (z – z0)2.
EXAMPLE 10 Find the center and the radius of the sphere (x – 1)2 + (y + 3)2 + (z – 5)2 = 9.
Solution By the theorem above, C(1, –3, 5) is the center and r = ñ9 = 3 is the radius.

EXAMPLE 11 Find the equation of the sphere which passes through the points P(3, 4, 2) and Q(0, –2, 4)
where [PQ] is a diameter.
3+ 0 4 − 2 2 + 4 3
Solution The midpoint of [PQ] is the center of the sphere: C( , , ) = C( , 1, 3).
2 2 2 2
The radius of the sphere is the distance between the center and a point on the sphere:
3 49 7
r =| CQ |= ( – 0) 2 +(1 + 2) 2 +(3 – 4) 2 = = .
2 4 2
3 7 49
So the equation of the sphere is ( x – )2 +( y – 1)2 +( z – 3) 2 =( ) 2 = .
2 2 4
EXAMPLE 12 Show that x2 + y2 + z2 + 4x – 6y + 2z + 6 = 0 is the equation of a sphere and find its

center and radius.
Solution Let us begin by completing the squares:

(x2 + 4x + 4) + (y2 – 6y + 9) + (z2 + 2z + 1) = –6 + 4 + 9 + 1
(x + 2)2 + (y – 3)2 + (z + 1)2 = 8.
This is the equation of a sphere. C(–2, 3 –1) is its center and r = ñ8 = 2ñ2 is the radius.
2. The General Equation of a Sphere

Theorem general equation of a sphere
The general equation of a sphere is x2 + y2 + z2 + Dx + Ey + Fz + G = 0 .
– D – E –F 1
The center of this sphere is C( , , ) and its radius is r = D 2 + E 2 + F 2 – 4G .
2 2 2 2
Proof (x – a)2 + (y – b)2 + (z – c2) = r2 is the standard equation of a sphere with center C(a, b, c)
and radius r. If we expand the binomials, we get
x2 – 2ax + a2 + y2 – 2by + b2 + z2 – 2cz + c2 = r2
x2 + y2 + z2 – 2ax – 2by – 2cz + a2 + b2 + c2 – r2 = 0.
Let –2a = D, –2b = E, –2c = F and a2 + b2 + c2 – r2 = G, then
–D –E –F
x2 + y2 + z2 + Dx + Ey + Fz + G = 0 so C( , , ) and
2 2 2
D2 E2 F 2 1
r = a 2 + b2 + c2 – G = + + –G= D2 + E2 + F 2 – 4G.
4 4 4 2

EXAMPLE 13 Find the center and the radius of the sphere defined by x2 + y2 + z2 + 4x – 2y + 6z – 2 = 0.
Solution The equation is in general form with D = 4, E = –2, F = 6 and G = –2.

− D − E −F −4 –(–2) –6
So the center of the sphere is C( , , ) = C( , , ) = C( −2, 1, –3)
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 2 1
and the radius is r = D2 + E2 + F 2 – 4G = 4 +(–2)2 +6 2 – 4 ⋅(–2) = 64 = 4 units.
2 2 2
EXAMPLE 14 x2 + y2 + z2 + ax – 4z – 2z – 11 = 0 is a sphere with radius 5 units. Find all the possible

values of a.
1
Solution r= D2 + E2 + F 2 – 4G
2
1 2
5= a +(–4)2 +(–2)2 – 4(–11)
2
10 = a2 +64
a = ±6
EXAMPLE 15 x2 + y2 + z2 – 8x + 2y – 4z + t = 0 is the equation of a sphere which is tangent to the

yz-plane. Find the center and the radius of the sphere and the value of t.
8 2 4
Solution The center of the sphere is C( , – , ) = C(4, – 1, 2). Since the center of the sphere is
2 2 2
4 units away from the yz-plane and the sphere is tangent to this plane, its radius is r = 4. So
1
4= ( –8)2 + 2 2 + ( –4)2 – 4 t
2
1
4= 64 + 4 +16 – 4t
2
64 = 84 – 4t
t = 5.
Check Yourself 2
1. Find the standard equation of the sphere with center C(3, –2, 1) and radius 2 units.
2. The sphere x2 + y2 + z2 – 4x + 6y – 10z + k = 0 passes through the point P(6, 1, –2). Find
the center C and the radius r of the sphere.
Answers
1. (x – 3)2 + (y + 2)2 + (z – 1)2 = 4 2. C(2, –3, 5), r = 9 units

HOW TO DRAW LINES AND PLANES IN THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPACE
1. When one line passes behind P P P
another, break the line which is S S S
behind to show that it does not

touch the line in front and that
part of it is hidden.
R R R
Q Q Q
RS and PQ intersect RS is behind PQ PQ is behind RS
z z
2. When drawing coordinate axes,

make sure that the angle between
the positive x-axis and the positive
y y
y-axis is large enough.
x
x
Correct Incorrect
3. Do not let a line in a plane touch

the boundary of the parallelogram
that represents the plane. Show
Line in a plane Line above the plane Line below the plane
hidden lines as dotted lines.
4. Draw planes parallel to the

coordinate planes as if they were
rectangles with sides parallel to O
the coordinate axes. y

EXERCISES 1 .1
A. Basic Concepts 9. Find the point on the y-axis which is equidistant
from the points A(5, 7, –5) and B(1, –3, 7).
1. Plot the given points in ¡3.
A(–2, 0, 0), B(0, 2, 0), C(0, 0, 1), D(3, 2, 1),
E(0, 1, 2), F(1, –1, 3), G(– 3, 2, –1), H(1, 2, –2)
10. The figure shows a z
2. Find the distance between the points restangular prism. D 4
G
A(–4, –5, 11) and B(–2, 1, 2). a. State the E F
coordinates of
3. Find the distance between the point A(–2, –3, 6) each vertex. O 5
and the origin. y
A C
b. Find the length of 3
x
[BG]. B
4. Write the set of all the points which satisfy the
given conditions. c. Find the length of [AG].
a. The points lie 3 units from the xy-plane, 2

units from the xz-plane and 4 units from the
yz-plane. 11. A triangle has vertices A(3, –4, 1), B(5, –3, 0) and
b. The points lie 2 units from the xz-plane and 6 C(6, –7, 4). Find the length of each side of the
units from the yz-plane. triangle. Is ABC a right triangle? Is it an isosceles
triangle?
5. State which coordinate plane or planes contain each
point.
a. A(0, –2, 3) b. B(–3, 0, 5) c. C(0, 0, 0) 12. The figure shows a rectangular prism.
d. D(2, 0, 7) e. E(0, 0, 7) f. F(–2, 0, 0) z
6. Find the projection of the point P(3, –2, 7) on each G

coordinate plane. F(2, 6, 6)
H E
7. Find the shortest distance between the point
O
y
A(2, –1, 2) and
D C(2, 6, 0)
a. the origin.
x
b. each coordinate axis. A(5, 4, 0)
B(5, 6, 0)
c. each coordinate plane.
a. State the coordinates of the vertex D.
8. Find the points on the x-axis which are 12 units b. Find the length of the main diagonal [AF].
away from the point P(3, –8, –4). c. Find the volume of the prism.
13. Find the lengths of the medians of the triangle with Mixed Problems
vertices A(1, 2, 3), B(–1, 0, 5) and C(3, 4, 5).
20. The sphere (x – 2)2 + (y + 2)2 + (z – 3)2 = 45

and the point A(2, 4, 6) are given.
a. Show that A lies on the sphere.
B. Spheres b. If [AB] is a diameter of the sphere, find the
14. Find the radius of the sphere with center C(–2, 0, 2) coordinates of point B.
which passes through the point P(–1, 1, 1).
21. Find the standard equation of the sphere which

passes through the points A(3, 2, 0) and
15. Write the standard equation of the sphere with B(–5, 4, –2) if [AB] is a diameter of the sphere.
center C(–2, 3, 1) which passes through the origin.
16. Write the standard equation of sphere with the 22. b is a natural number such that b ≥ 10.

center C(1, 2, 3) which is tangent to the xy-plane. Find the set of all values of b which make
x2 + y2 + z2 + 4x – 2y + 6z + b = 0 an equation
of a sphere.
17. Write the standard equation of the sphere with

center C(2, –2, 2) which is tangent to all the
coordinate planes. 23. x2 + y2 + z2 + 2x + (p + 1)y + 10z – p = 0 is the
equation of a sphere which is tangent to the
xz-plane. Find p and the radius of the sphere.
18. A sphere passes through the point P(–4, 1, 1) and

is tangent to all the coordinate planes. Find its
24. The point A(1, –1, 1) lies on the sphere defined by
center C and radius r. x2 + y2 + z2 – dx – 6y – 8z + 1 = 0. Find the
center C and the radius r of this sphere.
19. The sphere x2 + y2 + z2 – 2x + 4y – mz + n = 0

passes through the points A(1, –2, 8) and 25. Find the shortest distance between the point
B(–3, –2, 0). Find the center C and the radius r of P(0, 1, 2) and the sphere with equation
the sphere. (x – 3)2 + (y + 2)2 + (z + 3)2 = 25.

A. BASIC CONCEPTS
Definition vector in space
A vector in space is a directed line segment in analytic B
space which denotes a quantity that has both magnitude
®
and direction. v
A vector in space has an initial point, a terminal point,

A
direction and length. We show a vector in a diagram as a
directed line segment or as an arrow which points in the direction of the vector. We name a
vector with a lower-case letter or by its intial and terminal points. We write a vector by
→ −→
putting an arrow above its name: v or AB.
Definition components of a vector

→ z
If we place the initial point of a vector v at the origin of
→
the coordinate system then the terminal point of v has
v3
coordinates of the form (v1, v2, v3). These coordinates
→
are called the components of v and we write (v1, v2, v3)
→ O
v2
v = (v1, v2, v3) . v1 y
Definition position vector

Let P(x0, y0, z0) be a point in analytic space. The position z
vector of P is the vector whose initial point is the origin O
3
and whose terminal point is P(x0, y0, z0). It is denoted by
−→
OP. By this definition, each point in space corresponds to P(2, 3, 3)
a position vector and vice versa.
O 3
For example, the position vector of P(2, 3, 3) is the vector y
2
whose initial point is the origin and whose terminal point
is P(2, 3, 3). We can write this vector as x
→ −→
v = OP = (2, 3, 3).

→ −→
More generally, in analytic space v = OP = (v1, v2, v3) is the position vector of the point
P(v1, v2, v3).
z
If the initial point of a vector is not at the origin,
we calculate its components by calculating the
difference of the components of its initial and
terminal points. In other words, if A(x1, y1, z1) is
the initial point and B(x2, y2, z2) is the O
3
terminal point of a vector in ¡ then y
−→ B(x2, y2, z2)
AB = (x2 – x1, y2 – y1, z2 – z1).
x A(x1, y1, z1)
EXAMPLE 16 Find the vector with initial point A(2, –3, 4) and terminal point B(–2, 1, 1).
−→
Solution AB = (–2 – 2, 1 – (–3), 1 – 4) = (–4, 4, –3)
−→ −→ −→ −→
EXAMPLE 17 A(–1, 2, 3) and B(4, 0, 5) are given. Write the vectors OA, OB, AB and BA.
−→
Solution OA = (–1, 2, 3)
−→
OB = (4, 0, 5)
−→
AB = (4 – (–1), 0 – 2, 5 – 3) = (5, –2, 2)
−→
BA = (–1 – 4, 2 – 0, 3 – 5) = (–5, 2, –2)
Check Yourself 3
−→ −→
1. The points A(3, –4, –2), B(1, 0, –3) and C(–4, –2, 6) are given. Write the vectors AB, BC
−→
and AC.
−→
2. The point A(3, 2, –1) and the vector AB = (5, –7, 6) are given. Find the coordinates of
point B.
Answers
−→ −→ −→
1. AB = (–2, 4, –1), BC = (–5, –2, 9), AC = (–7, 2, 8) 2. B(8, –5, 5)

Definition length (norm) of a vector
→ →
The length or norm of the vector v = (v1, v2, v3) is denoted by | v| and
→
| v|= v12 + v22 + v32 .
Note
→
In this book we use the terms length and norm interchangeably. In some books, | v | is
→
written || v ||.
EXAMPLE 18 →
Find the length of u = (3, –4, 5).
→
Solution By the formula for the length of a vector, | u| = 32 +(–4)2 +5 2 = 50 = 5 2.
19
−→
EXAMPLE Find the length of the vector BA, given A(–2, 4, –4) and B(1, 2, 3).
−→
Solution We first determine the components of vector BA:
−→
BA = (1 – (–2), 2 – 4, 3 – (– 4)) = (3, –2, 7).
−→
By the formula for the length of a vector, |BA| = 32 + ( –2)2 + 7 2 = 62.
Definition zero vector

→
0 = (0, 0, 0) is called the zero vector. It has length zero.
Definition equal vectors

→ →
Two vectors v = (v1, v2, v3) and w = (w1, w2, w3) are said to be equal if and only if their
corresponding components are equal:
→ →
v = w ⇔ v1 = w1, v2 = w2, v3 = w3 .
Notice that equal vectors can be situated in z
different parts of space. For example, the figure 7

−→
shows the vector BA from Example 19 and the P(3, 2, 7)
position vector of P(3, –2, 7). Although these A
vectors are physically in different parts of 2
analytic space, we say that they are equal. O

y
3 B

EXAMPLE 20 → → → →
u = (a – 1, 2, b) and v = (b + 4, c, 3 – a) are given. Find a, b and c if u = v.
→ → → →
Solution Since u = v, the corresponding components of u and v are
equal and so we have a – 1 = b + 4, 2 = c, b = 3 – a.
Rearranging the first and the third equation gives us the
⎧a – b = 5
system ⎨ . Now we can solve:
⎩a + b = 3
a–b=5
+a+b=3
––––––––––––
2a = 8.
So a = 4 and when we substitute this result in a + b = 3 we get b = –1.
So a = 4, b = –1 and c = 2.
Check Yourself 4
1. Find the norm of each vector.
→ → →
a. u = (–2, 2, 1) b. v = (3, –5, –ñ2) c. w = (ñ5, ñ5, –3)
−→
2. Points A(3, 2, –1) and B(3, 1, –1) are given. Find the length of the vector AB.
Answers
→ → → −→
1. a. | u| = 3 units b. | v| = 6 units c. | w| = ò19 units 2. |AB| = 1 units
B. VECTOR OPERATIONS
1. Adding and Subtracting Vectors
To add or subtract two vectors we simply add or subtract their corresponding components.
SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF VECTORS

→ →
Let v = (v1, v2, v3) and w = (w1, w2, w3) be vectors. Then
→ →
1. v + w = (v1 + w1, v2 + w2, v3 + w3)
→ →
2. v – w = (v1 – w1, v2 – w2, v3 – w3).

2. Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar
→
Let c ∈ ¡ and let v = (v1, v2, v3) be a vector in analytic ®
2×v
space. Then ®
v 1 ®
2× v
→
c ⋅ v = c ⋅ (v1, v2, v3) = (c ⋅ v1, c ⋅ v2, c ⋅ v3) .
®
® 23 × v
v
Note
→ →
The scalar multiple c ⋅ v is a vector whose length is |c| times the length of v. It has the same
→ →
direction as v if c > 0 and opposite direction to v if c < 0.
21
→ → → → →→ → →
EXAMPLE u = (4, 0, 3) and v = (–2, 1, 5) are given. Find |u| and the vectors u + v, u – v, 3 v and
→ →
2 u + 5 v.
→
Solution | u| = 42 + 02 + 32 = 25 = 5
→ →
u + v = (4, 0, 3) + (–2, 1, 5) = (4 + (–2), 0 + 1, 3 + 5) = (2, 1, 8)
→ →
u – v = (4, 0, 3) – (–2, 1, 5) = (4 – (–2), 0 – 1, 3 – 5) = (6, –1, –2)
→
3 v = 3 ⋅ (–2, 1, 5) = (–6, 3, 15)
→ →
2 u + 5 v = 2 ⋅ (4, 0, 3) + 5 ⋅ (–2, 1, 5) = (8, 0, 6) + (–10, 5, 25) = (–2, 5, 31)
PROPERTIES OF VECTOR OPERATIONS
→ → →
Let u, v and w be vectors in analytic space and let c1 and c2 be scalars. Then
→ → →
1. u + 0 = u
→ → → → → →
2. u + ( v + w) = ( u + v) + w
→ → → →
3. u + v = v + u
→ → →
4. u + (– u) = 0
→ → → →
5. c1 ⋅ ( u + v) = (c1 ⋅ u) + (c1 ⋅ v)
→ → →
6. (c1 + c2) ⋅ u = c1 ⋅ u + c2 ⋅ u
→ →
7. (c1 ⋅ c2) ⋅ u = c1 ⋅ (c2 ⋅ u)
→ →
8. 1 ⋅ u = u.

EXAMPLE 22 → → → → → →
u = (1, y, 2), v = (x, –3, 4), w = (–2, 1, z) and 2 u – 3 v = w are given. Find x, y and z.
→ → →
Solution 2u – 3v = w
2 ⋅ (1, y, 2) – 3 ⋅ (x, –3, 4) = (–2, 1, z)
(2, 2y, 4) – (3x, –9, 12) = (–2, 1, z)
(2 – 3x, 2y + 9, 4 – 12) = (–2, 1, z)
4
Matching the components gives us 2 – 3x = –2 so x = ; 2y + 9 = 1 so y = –4; z = –8.
3
EXAMPLE 23 Find the position vector of the centroid of the triangle OBC whose vertices are O(0, 0, 0),
B(1, 2, 3) and C(5, 4, 1).
Solution O(0, 0, 0)
The centroid of a triangle is the intersection of its
−→ −→
medians. Let OD be the median of the side BC as shown
in the figure. If G is the centroid of triangle OBC, then
The distance of the 4
−→ 2 −→ G(2, 2, )
centroid of a triangle from OG = OD where D is the midpoint of [BC]. 3
3 C(5, 4, 1)
a vertex A is two-thirds
the length of the median ⎛ 1+ 5 2 + 4 3 +1 ⎞
D⎜ , , ⎟ = D(3, 3, 2), so D(3, 3, 2)
with endpoint A. ⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠
B(1, 2, 3)
−→ −→ 2 −→ 2 4
OD = (3, 3, 2) and OG = OD = (3, 3, 2) = (2, 2, ).
3 3 3
4
So the position vector is (2, 2, ).
3
EXAMPLE 24 Two points A(a + 1, 1 – b, a) and B(b – 1, a – 1, – c) are given such that the position vector of
−→
the midpoint of [AB] is OD = (1, 5, 2). Find a, b and c.
⎛ a +1+ b − 1 1 – b + a – 1 a – c ⎞
Solution D⎜
Since D is the ,midpoint of [AB]
, ⎟ = D(1, 5, 2)
⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠
a+ b
=1 so a + b = 2 (1)
2
a−b
= 5 so a − b =10 (2)
2
a−c
= 2 so a − c = 4 (3)
2
Solve (1) and (2): a+b=2
+ a – b = 10
–––––––––––––
2a = 12
a = 6.
Now we can substitute a = 6 in (2) and (3). From (2) we get 6 – b = 10 so b = –4, and from
(3) we get a – c = 4 so c = 2. In conclusion, a = 6, b = – 4 and c = 2.

EXAMPLE 25 → → → → → →
2u – v = (4, –1, 5) and –5u + 4v = (–1, 7, 4) are given. Find the vectors u and v.
⎧⎪ → →
→ 2 u – v = (4, –1, 5)
Solution Let us eliminate v in the system ⎨ → → .
⎪⎩ –5 u + 4 v = (–1, 7, 4)
⎧⎪ → →
8u – 4 v = (16, –4, 20)
When we multiply the first equation by 4 we get ⎨ → → .
⎪⎩ –5 u + 4 v = (–1, 7, 4)
Let us add these equations:

→ →
8 u – 4 v = (16, –4, 20)
→ →
+ – 5 u + 4 v = (–1, 7, 4)
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––
→
3 u = (15, 3, 24)
→
u = (5, 1, 8).
→ → → →
When we substitute u = (5, 1, 8) in 2u – v = (4, –1, 5) we get 2 ⋅ (5, 1, 8) – v = (4, –1, 5),
→ →
which gives us (10, 2, 16) – v = (4, –1, 5) and v = (6, 3, 11).
Definition unit vector
A vector with length 1 unit is called a unit vector.
EXAMPLE 26 →
Find a if v = (0, a,
2
3
) is a unit vector.
2
→ → ⎛ 3⎞ 3 1 1
Solution Since v is a unit vector, |v| = 1 and so 02 + a2 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =1, a + =1, a = and a = ± .
2 2
⎝ 2 ⎠ 4 4 2
Definition direction of a non-zzero vector

→ →
The direction of a non-zero vector v is the unit vector which is obtained by dividing v by its
→
v
length, i.e. the vector → .
| v|

EXAMPLE 27 →
Find the unit vector that has the same direction as w = (2, –3, –6).
→ (2, – 3, – 6) (2, – 3, – 6) 2 –3 –6
Solution w = =( , , )
→ = 2 2 2
49 7 7 7
| w| 2 +(–3) +(–6)
EXAMPLE 28 →
Find the unit vector in the opposite direction to v = (–2, 1, –2).
⎛ →v ⎞ (–2, 1, – 2) (–2, 1, – 2) 2 –1 2
Solution −⎜ → ⎟ = – =– =( , , )
⎜| v| ⎟ 2 2
(–2) +1 +(–2) 2 3 3 3 3
⎝ ⎠
EXAMPLE 29 →
Find a vector with length 6 that has the same direction as w = (–1, 2, –2).
→
→ w ( −1, 2, − 2) ( −1, 2, –2)
Solution v = 6 ⋅ → = 6⋅ =6 ⋅ = 2 ⋅ (–1, 2, –2) = (–2, 4, –4)
| w| 2
( −1) + 2 +(–2) 2 3
Check Yourself 5
→ → → →
1. u = (3, 2x – 1, y + 1) and v = (z + 3, 4, 3) are two vectors such that u = 2v. Find the sum
x + y + z.
→ 1
2. Find a if v = ( a, – a, ) is a unit vector.
3
3. The points A(–5, 3, 1) and B(–1, 1, –3) are given. Find the unit vector whose direction is
−→
a. the same as AB.
−→
b. opposite to AB.
Answers
2 2 1 2 2 1 2
1. 8 2. ± 3. a. ( , – , – ) b. (– , , )
3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Three vectors in analytic space play a special role. They are called the standard basis vectors.
Definition standard basis vectors

→ → →
The vectors i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0) and k = (0, 0, 1) z
are called the standard basis vectors.
1
®
k ®
j 1
1 ®
i y
z
→→ →
Notice that i , j and k are unit vectors in the direction of
the positive x-, y- and z-axes respectively. In addition, any
vector in analytic space is equal to a combination of (a1, a2, a3)
→ → → ®
a
multiples of the standard basis vectors i, j and k.
→ ®
For example, the vector a = (a1, a2, a3) can be written as a1 × i
® y
→ → → → a3 × k
a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k. ®
a2 × j
x ® ® ® ®
a = a1 × i + a2 × j + a3 × k
EXAMPLE 30 →
Write v = (1, –2, 4) in terms of the standard basis vectors.
→
Solution v = (1, –2, 4) = (1, 0, 0) – 2(0, 1, 0) + 4(0, 0, 1)
→ → →
= i – 2j + 4k
EXAMPLE 31 → → → → → → → → → →→
v = i + 2 j – 3 k and w = 4 i + 7 k are given. Express the vector 2 v + 3w in terms of i, j and
→
k.
→ → → → → → →
Solution 2 v + 3 w = 2( i + 2 j – 3 k) + 3(4 i + 7 k)
→ → → → →
= 2 i + 4 j – 6 k + 12 i + 21 k
→ → →
= 14 i + 4 j + 15 k

EXAMPLE 32 → → →
Find the unit vector in the direction of 2 i – j – 2k.
→ → →
|2 i – j – 2 k| = |(2, – 1, – 2)| = 2 +( −1) +( −2) = 9 = 3, so the unit vector which has
2 2 2
Solution
→ → →
the same direction as 2 i – j – 2 k is
→ → → → → →
2i – j – 2k 2i – j – 2k 2 → 1→ 2 →
→ → → = = i – j – k.
|2 i – j – 2 k| 3 3 3 3
3. Linear Combinations of Vectors

Definition linear combination of vectors
→ → → →
Let c1, c2, c3, ..., cn ∈ ¡ and let v1, v2, v3, ..., vn be vectors in analytic space. Then any vector
→ → → →
of the form (c1 ⋅ v1) + (c2 ⋅ v2) + (c3 ⋅ v3) + ... + (cn ⋅ vn) is called a linear combination of the
→ → → →
vectors v1, v2, v3, ..., vn.
→ →
For example, consider the vectors v1 = (1, 0, 2) and v2 = (–2, 3, 4). The vector
→ → → → →
v = (8, 9, –8) = 2(1, 0, 2) – 3(–2, 3, 4) = 2 v1 – 3 v2 is a linear combination of v1 and v2.
Note
We have already seen that we can write any vector in ¡3 in terms of the standard basis
→→ →
vectors i, j and k. Using the concept of linear combination we can say this in a different way:
each vector in analytic space is a linear combination of the standard basis vectors.
EXAMPLE 33 →
u =
→
→ → → → → → →
2 i – 4 k and v = – j + 3 k are given. Calculate the linear combinations u + v and
→
2u – 3 v.
Solution → → → →
u = 2i + 0j – 4k
→ → → →
+ v = 0i – j + 3k
–––––––––––––––––––––––
→ → → → →
u + v = 2i – j – k
→ → → → → →
2 v = 4 i – 8 k and 3 v = –3 j + 9 k so
→ → → →
2v = 4i + 0j – 8k
→ → → →
– 3v = 0i – 3j + 9k
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––
→ → → → →
2 u – 3 v = 4 i + 3 j – 17 k.

EXAMPLE 34 →
→ → →
Write w = (2, –3, 4) as a linear combination of v1 = (0, 1, 2), v2 = (1, 0, –2) and
v3 = (1, 3, 0).
→ → → →
Solution w = c1 v1 + c2 v2 + c3 v3 = c1(0, 1, 2) + c2(1, 0, –2) + c3(1, 3, 0)
(2, –3, 4) = (c2 + c3, c1 + 3c3, 2c1 – 2c2)
When we equate the corresponding components we get c2 + c3 = 2 (1), c1 + 3c3 = –3 (2) and
2c1 – 2c2 = 4 (3). When we multiply (1) by 2 and add this to (3) we get 2c1 + 2c2 = 8, i.e.
c1 + c3 = 4 (4). Now we can eliminate c1 by subtracting (4) from (2):
c1 + 3c3 = –3
– c1 + c3 = 4
––––––––––––––––
2c3 = –7
7
c3 = – .
2
7 7 7 11
Substituting c3 = – in (1) and (4) gives us c2 – = 2 and c1 – = 4 so c2 =
2 2 2 2
15
and c1 = .
2
15 11 7
So the linear combination is (2, – 3, 4) = ⋅(0, 1, 2)+ ⋅(1, 0, – 2) – ⋅ (1, 3, 0).
2 2 2
15 → 11 → 7 →
= v + v – v.
2 1 2 2 2 3
EXAMPLE 35 → →
→
For which values of t we can write the vector u = (1, –2, t) as a linear combination
of v1 = (3, 0, –2) and v2 = (2, –1, –5)?
→ → →
Solution u = c1 ⋅ v1 + c2 ⋅ v2
(1, –2, t) = c1 ⋅ (3, 0, –2) + c2 ⋅ (2, –1, –5)
(1, –2, t) = (3c1 + 2c2, – c2, –2c1 – 5c2)
⎧ 1 = 3c1 + 2c2 (1)

⎪⎪
⎨ –2 = – c2 (2)
⎪ t = –2c – 5c (3)
⎪⎩ 1 2
From (2) we get c2 = 2. Substituting this result in (1) gives us 1 = 3 ⋅ c1 + 2 ⋅ 2, i.e. c1 = –1.
If we substitute these results in (3) we get t = –2 ⋅ (–1) – 5 ⋅ 2 = –8. So the only value of t is –8.

Check Yourself 6
1. Write each vector in terms of the standard basis vectors.
→ → →
a. u = (–1, 3, 4) b. v = (3, –2, 0) c. w = (4, 0, –3)
→ →
2. The vectors u = (–1, 2, 1) and v = (–2, 3, –5) are given. Write each vector.
→ → → → → →
a. u + v b. u – v c. 2 u – 3 v
→ → → → → → → →
3. u = 2 i – k and v = 3 i + 2 j are given. Calculate 3 u + v.
Answers
→ → → → → → → → → → → →
1. a. u = (–1) i + 3 j + 4 k b. v = 3 i + (–2) j + 0 k c. w = 4 i + 0 j + (–3) k
2. a. (–3, 5, –4) b. (1, –1, 6) c. (4, –5, 17) 3. (9, 2, –3)
C. PARALLEL VECTORS
Definition parallel vectors
→ →
Let u and v be two vectors in analytic space such that z
→ → → →
u ≠ 0 and v ≠ 0. If there exists a real number λ such
®
→ → → → u
that u = λ ⋅ v, then the vectors u and v are called
→ → → →
parallel vectors. We write u P v to show that u and v
O
are parallel. y
®
v
x ® || ®
u v
Theorem
u u u
Two vectors u = (u1, u2, u3) and v = (v1, v2, v3) are parallel if and only if 1 = 2 = 3 = λ
v1 v2 v3
where λ ∈ ¡.
→ → → →
Proof By definition, u || v ⇔ u = λ ⋅ v.
→ →
Let u = (u1, u2, u3) and v = (v1, v2, v3). Then
→ → → →
u || v ⇔ u = λ ⋅ v ⇔ (u1, u2, u3) = λ(v1, v2, v3)
⇔ (u1, u2, u3) = (λv1, λv2, λv3)
⇔ u1 = λv1, u2 = λv2, u3 = λv3
u1 u2 u3
⇔ = = = λ, λ ∈ ¡.
v1 v2 v3
→ → u1 u2 u3
So u = (u1, u2, u3) || v = (v1, v2, v3) ⇔ = = .
v1 v2 v3

u = (1, –2, 3), v = (x, 8, z) and w = (–2, 4, –6) are given.
→ →
a. Are u and w parallel?
→ →
b. Given u || v, find x and z.
1 –2 3 → →
Solution a. Since = = we conclude that u || w.
–2 4 –6
→ → 1 –2 3
b. u || v ⇔ = = so –2x = 8 and –2z = 24, i.e. x = –4, z = –12.
x 8 z
EXAMPLE 37 The points A(–2, 1, 3), B(4, –2, n) and C(0, 0, 5) are collinear. Find n.
−→ −→
Solution Since A, B and C are collinear, AB || AC.
−→
AB = (4 – (–2), –2 – 1, n – 3) = (6, –3, n – 3)
−→
AC = (0 – (–2), 0 – 1, 5 – 3) = (2, –1, 2)
−→ −→ 6 −3 n − 3
If AB || AC then = = and so n = 9.
2 −1 2
Check Yourself 7
→ → → →
1. v = (n, 3, 4) and w = (12, n, 8) are two vectors such that v || w. Find n.
→ → → →
2. a = (6, m – 2, – 4) and b = (–3, 2, 3 – n) are given. Find m and n if a || b.
Answers
1. 6 2. m = –2, n = 1
D. THE DOT PRODUCT

1. The Dot Product of Two Vectors
Definition dot product (inner product, scalar product)
→ →
The dot product of two non-zero vectors u = (u1, u2, u3) and v = (v1, v2, v3) is the real
number (u1 ⋅ v1) + (u2 ⋅ v2) + (u3 ⋅ v3). We use the product symbol (⋅) to show the dot product:
→ → .
u ⋅ v = (u1 ⋅ v1) + (u2 ⋅ v2) + (u3 ⋅ v3)
The dot product is also called the inner product or scalar product.

EXAMPLE 38 → →
Find the dot product of v = (–2, 0, 3) and w = (2, 3, 5).
→ →
Solution v ⋅ w = [(–2) ⋅ 2] + (0 ⋅ 3) + (3 ⋅ 5) = – 4 + 15 = 11
EXAMPLE 39 → → → → → → →
Find the inner product of v = i + 2 j – 3 k and w = 2 j – k.
→ → → → → → →
Solution v = i + 2 j – 3 k = (1, 2, –3) and w = 2 j – k = (0, 2, –1)
→ →
⇒ v ⋅ w = (1 ⋅ 0) + (2 ⋅ 2) + [(–3) ⋅ (–1)] = 7
Note
To find the dot product of vectors which are given in terms of the standard basis vectors, we
→→ →
simply multiply the corresponding coefficients of i, j and k and add the results.
EXAMPLE 40 → →
Find a if the inner product of u = (2, a, 3) and v = (a – 1, 2, 4) is 22.
→ →
Solution u ⋅ v = 2 ⋅ (a – 1) + (a ⋅ 2) + (3 ⋅ 4)
22 = 4a + 10
a=3
EXAMPLE 41 A shop sells three products A, B and C for 1, 2 and 3 liras respectively. One day the shop sells
6 of product A, 4 of product B and 5 of product C. Use the dot product of two vectors to
calculate the amount earned by the shop.
→ →
Solution Let p = (1, 2, 3) be the prices in vector form and let s = (6, 4, 5) be the sales. Then the total
→ →
amount earned is s ⋅ p = (6 ⋅ 1) + (4 ⋅ 2) + (5 ⋅ 3) = 29 liras.
PROPERTIES OF THE DOT PRODUCT
→ → →
Let u, v and w be vectors in analytic space and let c be a scalar. Then
→ → →2
1. u ⋅ u = | u|
→ → → →
2. u ⋅ v = v ⋅ u
→ → → → → → →
3. u ⋅ ( v + w) = ( u ⋅ v ) + ( u ⋅ w )
→ → → → → →
4. (c ⋅ u ) ⋅ v = c ⋅ ( u ⋅ v ) = u ⋅ (c ⋅ v )
→ →
5. 0 ⋅ u = 0.

Proof →
1. Let u = (u1, u2, u3), then
→ →
u ⋅ u = (u1 ⋅ u1) + (u2 ⋅ u2) + (u3 ⋅ u3)
= u 12 + u 22 + u 32
→
= | u|2.
→ →
2. Let u = (u1, u2, u3) and v = (v1, v2, v3), then
→ →
u ⋅ v = (u1 ⋅ v1) + (u2 ⋅ v2) + (u3 ⋅ v3)
= (v1 ⋅ u1) + (v2 ⋅ u2) + (v3 ⋅ u3)
→ →
= v ⋅ u.
→ → →
3. Let u = (u1, u2, u3), v = (v1, v2, v3) and w = (w1, w2, w3). Then
→ → →
u ⋅ ( v + w) = (u1, u2, u3) ⋅ (v1 + w1, v2 + w2, v3 + w3)
= u1(v1 + w1) + u2(v2 + w2) + u3(v3 + w3)
= u1v1 + u1w1 + u2v2 + u2w2 + u3v3 + u3w3
= (u1v1 + u2v2 + u3v3) + (u1w1 + u2w2 + u3w3)
→ → → →
= ( u ⋅ v ) + ( u ⋅ w ).
The proofs of 4. and 5. are similar to the proof of 3. They are left as an exercise for you.
EXAMPLE 42 →
Find the length of v = (2, 3, –1).
→ → → → →
Solution We know that v ⋅ v = | v |2, so the length of v is | v | = → v ⋅→v . In other words,
→ 2 → →
| v | = (2 ⋅ 2) + (3 ⋅ 3) + [(–1) ⋅ (–1)] = 14 and so the length of v is| v| = ò14.
43
→ → → → → → → →
EXAMPLE Two vectors u and v in ¡3 are given such that u ⋅ u = 10, u ⋅ v = –2 and v ⋅ v = 4. Find
→ → → →
(2 u – 3 v) ⋅ (4 u + 5 v).
→ → → → → → → → → → → →
Solution (2 u – 3 v) ⋅ (4 u + 5 v) = 2 ⋅ 4 ⋅ ( u ⋅ u ) + 2 ⋅ 5 ⋅ ( u ⋅ v) – 3 ⋅ 4 ⋅( v ⋅ u) – 3 ⋅ 5 ⋅ ( v ⋅ v)
= (8 ⋅ 10) + [10 ⋅ (–2)] – [12 ⋅ (–2)] – (15 ⋅ 4)
= 80 – 20 + 24 – 60
= 24
44
→→ → → → → → → → → → →
EXAMPLE Three vectors a, b and c in ¡3 are given such that a + b + c = 0 and a ⋅ a = b ⋅ b = c ⋅ c = 1.
→ →
Find a ⋅ b.
→ → → → → → → → → → → → →
Solution If a + b + c = 0 then a + b = – c and so ( a + b ) ⋅ ( a + b ) = (– c ) ⋅ (– c ).
→ → → → → → → → → →
When we rearrange this we get ( a ⋅ a ) + ( a ⋅ b ) + ( b ⋅ a ) + ( b ⋅ b ) = (–1) ⋅ (–1) ⋅ c ⋅ c.
→ →
If we substitute the values given in the question we get 1 + (2 ⋅ a ⋅ b ) + 1 = 1, i.e.
→ → → → –1
2 ⋅ a ⋅ b = –1 and so a ⋅ b = .
2
Check Yourself 8
→ → → →
1. a = (–1, 3, 2) and b = (3, 5, –2) are given. Find a ⋅ b.
→ → 1 3
2. Find a if the dot product of u = (2, a, 3) and v = (3, 3, a – ) is .
2 2
→
3. Find the length of w = (–2, –4, 1).
→ → → → → → → →
4. Two vectors u and v in ¡3 are given such that u ⋅ u = 3, v ⋅ v = 5 and u ⋅ v = –1.
→ → → →
Find (2 u – v ) ⋅ (3 u + 2 v ).
Answers
1
1. 8 2. – 3. ò21 units 4. –5
2
2. The Angle Between Two Vectors

Theorem
→ →
Let v and w be two vectors in analytic space and let θ be the angle between these two
vectors. Then
→→ → → .
v ⋅ w = | v| ⋅ | w| ⋅ cos θ
Proof → −→ → −→
Let v = AB and w = AC as shown in the figure and let the angle A
between them be θ. ® q ®
−→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→ → → v w
Law of cosines
So AB + BC = AC, i.e. BC = AC – AB which means BC = w – v.
A Applying the law of cosines to triangle ABC gives us
B C
θ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→
c b |BC|2 = |AB|2 + |AC|2 – 2 ⋅ |AB| ⋅ |AC| ⋅ cos θ
−→ → → → →
B a C |BC|2 = | v|2 + | w|2 – 2 ⋅ | v| ⋅ | w| ⋅ cos θ. (1)
→ →2 → 2 →→ →
In triangle ABC, Moreover, by expansion we get | w – v| = | w| – 2 ⋅ v ⋅ w + | v|2. (2)
a = b + c – 2 ⋅ b ⋅ c ⋅ cos θ.
2 2 2
Combining (1) and (2) gives us
→ → → → → →→ →
| v|2 + | w|2 – 2 ⋅ | v| ⋅ | w| ⋅ cos θ = | w|2 – 2 ⋅ v ⋅ w + | v|2, and rearranging this gives us
→→ → →
v ⋅ w = | v| ⋅ | w| ⋅ cos θ as required.
3
cos 0° = 1, cos 30° = ,
2 We can rearrange this result to obtain a formula for the cosine of the angle between two vectors:
2 1
cos45° = , cos60° = ,
2 2
1
ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS
cos 90° = 0, cos 120° = − ,
2 Note
2 → →
cos 135° = − , If θ is the angle
Orthogonal between two vectors
and perpendicular non-zero vectors
have v andmeaning.
the same w then We use both in this book.
2
→ →
cos 150° = −
3
, v⋅ w
2 cos θ = .
→ →
cos 180° = –1 |v | ⋅ | w|

45
→ →
EXAMPLE Find the angle between u = (–1, 1, 0) and v = (2, 0, 0).
→ →
u⋅ v (–1) ⋅ 2+1 ⋅ 0+0 ⋅ 0 –2 –1
Solution By the formula, cos θ = → → = 2 ⋅2
=
2⋅ 2
=
2
. So θ = 135°.
| u| ⋅ | v|
Definition orthogonal (perpendicular) vectors

→ →
Two vectors u and v are called orthogonal vectors if the angle between them is 90°.
→ → → →
We write u ⊥ v to show that u and v are orthogonal.
Theorem
→ → → →
Two non-zero vectors a and b are orthogonal if and only if a ⋅ b = 0.
→ →
Proof • If a and b are orthogonal then the angle between these vectors is 90°, and cos 90° = 0.
→ → → →
So a ⋅ b = | a| ⋅ | b| ⋅ cos 90°
→ →
= | a| ⋅ | b| ⋅ 0
= 0. ®
a
→ →
• Conversely, assume a ⋅ b = 0.
Let the angle between these vectors be θ, ®
b
→ →
a⋅ b
then cos θ = → → = 0 so θ = 90° or θ = 270°.
| a|⋅ | b|
→ →
In both cases we can say that a and b are orthogonal.
EXAMPLE 46 → →
For what value of a are the vectors u = (4, –2, a) and v = (–1, a, 6) orthogonal?
→ → → →
Solution Since u ⊥ v, u⋅ v=0
[4 ⋅ (–1)] + [(–2) ⋅ a] + (a ⋅ 6) = 0
(4 ⋅ a) – 4 = 0
a = 1.

u = (3, 2, –4), v = (2, –1, 1) and w = (–1, 2, 3) are given. Which of these vectors are
orthogonal?
→ → → →
Solution u ⋅ v = 3 ⋅ 2 + 2 ⋅ (–1) + (–4) ⋅ 1 = 0 so u is perpendicular to v.
→ → → →
u ⋅ w = 3 ⋅ (–1) + 2 ⋅ 2 + (–4) ⋅ 3 = –11 ≠ 0 so u is not perpendicular to w.
→ → → →
v ⋅ w = 2 ⋅ (–1) + (–1) ⋅ 2 + 1 ⋅ 3 = –1 ≠ 0 so v is not perpendicular to w.
→ →
In summary, only u and v are orthogonal.
EXAMPLE 48 → → π
The angle between u = (x, 1, 1) and v = (1, 1, x) is . Find x.
3
→ →
π u⋅ v
Solution cos = → →
3 | u|⋅ | v|
1 x +1+ x
=
2 x +1+1 ⋅ 1+1+ x2
2
1
⋅ ( x2 + 2) = 2 x +1
2
x2 + 2 = 4 x + 2
x2 – 4 x = 0
x = 4 or x = 0, so x ∈ {4, 0}
EXAMPLE 49 → → → →
u, v and w are vectors in analytic space such that v = (x, y, z) where x + y + z = 5 and
→ → → → → →
w = (2, 2, 2). Given that v ⊥ (w – u ), find u ⋅ v.
→ → → → → →
Solution If v ⊥ ( w – u) then v ⋅ ( w – u) = 0
→ → → →
v⋅w–v⋅u=0
→ → → →
v ⋅ w = v ⋅ u.
→ → → →
Substituting v and w from the question gives 2x + 2y + 2z = u ⋅ v
→ →
2(x + y + z) = u ⋅ v
→ →
2⋅5=u⋅v
→ →
10 = u ⋅ v.
w = (–1, 1, a) bisects the angle between the vectors u = (4, 0, –3) and v = (6, –8, 0). Find a.

→ → → →
u⋅ w v⋅ w
Solution cos θ = → → = → → . So ®
| u|⋅ | w| | v|⋅ | w| u
®
q w
4 ⋅ (–1)+0 ⋅1+(–3) ⋅ a 6 ⋅ (–1)+(–8) ⋅ 1+0 ⋅ a q
= ®
42 +0 2 +(–3)2 ⋅ (–1) 2 +12 + a2 6 2 +(–8) 2 +0 2 ⋅ (–1) 2 +1 2 + a2 v
–4 – 3a –14
=
5 10
–8 – 6a = –14
6 = 6a
a = 1.
Check Yourself 9
→ →
1. Find the angle between u = (2, –1, 2) and v = (0, –1, 1).
→ →
2. The angle between u = (1, –1, x) and v = (–x, 1, –1) is 120°. Find x.
→ →
3. Find t if u = (7, t+1, 2) and v = (t, –2, –4) are orthogonal.
→ → →
4. u = (–2, 1, 4), v = (0, 3, –1) and w (2, 0, 1) are given. Which vectors are orthogonal?
Answers
→ →
1. 45° 2. 4 3. 2 4. u and w
3. Vector Projections
Definition vector projection
−→ → −→ →
Let PQ = a and PR = b be two vectors with the same initial point P. If S is the terminal point
−→ −→
of the perpendicular from R to the line containing PQ, then the vector PS is called the
→ → →
vector projection of b on a and is denoted by proj→a b.
R R
® ®
b b
a a
P ® Q
proj® b S Q
S proj ® P ®
a a
® b
a
®
a
Theorem
→ →
→ b⋅a →
proj→a b = → ⋅a
| a|2

→ →
Proof Let the angle between a and b be α.
π
Case 1: 0 < α <
2
→
|proj→a b| → →
Since cos α = → then |proj→a b| = | b| ⋅ cos α
| b| → → → →
→ b⋅ a b⋅ a
= | b| ⋅ → → = → .
| b| ⋅ | a| | a|
→ →
Note that proj→a b and a have the same direction and that the unit vector with the same
→
→ a
direction as a is → . So we can write
| a|
→ → → → →
→ → a b⋅a → ⎛ b⋅a⎞ →
proj→a b = |proj→a b | ⋅ = ⋅ a = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ a, which is the required result.
→
| a|
→ →
| a| ⋅ | a| ⎜ →2 ⎟
⎝ | a| ⎠
π
Case 2: <α<π
2
→
–|proj→a b | → →
Since cos α = → then |proj→a b | = –cos α ⋅ | b |
| b|
→ → → →
→ b⋅a b⋅a
= – |b | ⋅ → → = – → .
| b| ⋅ | a| | a|
→ → →
Now proj→a b and a have opposite direction and the unit vector with opposite direction to a is
→
–a
→ .
| a|
→ →
→ ⎛ b⋅a ⎞ →
In conclusion, in both cases proj→a b = ⎜ → ⎟ ⋅ a , as required.
⎜ | a|2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
51
→ →
EXAMPLE Find the vector projection of b = (3, 4, 5) on a = (2, 1, –1).
Solution We can simply use the theorem:

→ →
→ ⎛ b⋅a⎞ → 6+ 4 – 5 5 5 5
proj→a b = ⎜ → ⎟ ⋅ a = 2 ⋅ (2, 1, – 1) = ( , , – ).
⎜ 2 ⎟
2
2 +1 +( –1) 2
3 6 6
⎝ | a| ⎠
EXAMPLE 52 → →
Find the vector projection of v = (1, 1, 2) on w = (–2, 3, 1).
→ →
→ ⎛ v⋅w ⎞ → –2+ 3+ 2 6 9 3
Solution proj→w v = ⎜ → ⎟⋅ w= 2 ⋅ (–2, 3, 1) =
(– , , )
⎜ 2 ⎟ (–2)2
+ 3 2
+1 14 14 14
⎝ | w| ⎠

Check Yourself 10
→ →
1. Find the vector projection of u = (–1, 2, 3) on v = (0, 1, 2).
Answers
→ 8 16
1. proj→v u = (0, , )
5 5
E. THE CROSS PRODUCT

We have already seen how to calculate the dot product of two vectors. The dot product is a
scalar. In this section we will look at another type of vector product, called the cross product
or vector product.
Before we define the cross product of vectors, we need to understand the concepts of matrix
and determinant.
1. Matrices and Determinants
Definition matrix, square matrix, second order matrix, third order matrix
Let m and n be positive integers. An m × n (read ‘m by n’) matrix is a rectangular array of

numbers with m rows and n columns.
⎤ a11 a12 a13 .... a1n ⎤ ⎫
⎥ ⎥ ⎪
⎥ a21 a22 a23 .... a2n ⎥ ⎪
⎥a ⎥ ⎪
a32 a33 .... a3n ⎥ ⎬ m rows
⎥ .31
⎥ ⎪
. . .
⎥ .. . . .
⎥
. . .
⎥ ⎪
a
⎥⎦ m1 a m2 a m3 .... a ⎥ ⎪
mn ⎦ ⎭
144444424444443
n columns
Each number aij in the matrix is called an entry. If m = n, the matrix is called a square
matrix. In this book we will use 2×2 matrices (called second order matrices) and 3×3
matrices (called third order matrices).
Definition determinant of a matrix
Every square matrix can be associated with a real number called its determinant. We write
det(A) or |A| to mean the determinant of a matrix A.
Definition determinant of a 2×2 matrix
⎡a b1 ⎤
The determinant of the matrix A = ⎢ 1 ⎥ is
⎣ a2 b2 ⎦
a1 b1
det( A) =| A | = = ( a1 ⋅ b2 ) − ( a2 ⋅ b1).
a2 b2

Note
Square brackets ⎡⎢ ⎤ around a grid of numbers denote a matrix. Parallel lines
⎥⎦
⎣
denote the determinant of a matrix.
EXAMPLE 53 Calculate the determinant of each matrix.

⎡3 –1⎤ ⎡2 6⎤ ⎡1 1⎤
a. A = ⎢ b. B = ⎢ c. C = ⎢
⎣2 1⎥⎦ ⎣1 3 ⎥⎦ ⎣2 –3 ⎥⎦
3 –1
Solution a. det(A) = = (3 ⋅ 1) – [(2 ⋅ (–1)] = 3 + 2 = 5
2 1
2 6
b. det(B) = = (2 ⋅ 3) – (1 ⋅ 6) = 6 – 6 = 0
1 3
1 1
c. det(C) = = [1 ⋅ (–3)] – (2 ⋅ 1) = –3 – 2 = –5
2 –3
Definition determinant of a 3×3 matrix
⎡ a1 b1 c1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
The determinant of the matrix A = ⎢ a2 b2 c2 ⎥ is
⎢⎣ a3 b3 c3 ⎥⎦
b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
det(A) = |A| = a1 − b1 + c1
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
This method for finding the determinant of a square matrix is called Laplace expansion.
Notice that the multiplier of each 2×2 determinant in the expansion above is an entry in the
first row (a1, b1, c1) of the 3×3 matrix. Each 2×2 determinant is also the determinant we
obtain if we eliminate the row and column in which the corresponding multiplier lies. In
other words, the multiplier for the first determinant is a1 and we find the 2×2 determinant
by eliminating the row and column containing a1 from the 3×3 matrix:
a1 b1 c1
b2 c2
a2 b2 c2 = .
b3 c3
a3 b3 c3
Similarly, we can find the second 2×2 determinant by eliminating the first row and the
second column from the 3×3 determinant:
a1 b1 c1
a2 c2
a2 b2 c2 = .
a3 c3
a3 b3 c3

Finally, we find the third determinant by eliminating the first row and the third column from
the 3×3 determinant:
a1 b1 c1
a2 b2
a2 b2 c2 = .
a3 b3
a3 b3 c3
⎡ 1 3 –2 ⎤
EXAMPLE 54 Find the determinant of the matrix A = ⎢ –2 1
⎢ 5 ⎥⎥ ⋅ .
⎢⎣ 0 –4 1 ⎥⎦
1 5 –2 5 –2 1
Solution det(A) = |A| = 1 ⋅ –3⋅ + (–2) ⋅
–4 1 0 1 0 –4
= [1 ⋅ (21)] – [3 ⋅ (–2)] + [(–2) ⋅ (8)]
= 11
Now that we have understood the concept of determinant of a matrix, we are ready to define
the cross product of two vectors.
2. The Cross Product of Two Vectors

Definition cross product of two vectors
→ →
The cross product of two vectors u = (u1, u2, u3) and v = (v1, v2, v3) is defined as
→ → →
i j k
→ →
u× v= u1 u2 u3 .
v1 v2 v3
EXAMPLE 55 → → → →
u = (1, 3, 4) and v = (2, 7, –5) are given. Find u × v.
→ → →
i j k
→ → 3 4 → 1 4 → 1 3 →
Solution u×v= 1 3 4 = i– j+ k
7 –5 2 –5 2 7
2 7 –5
→ → →
= (–15 – 28) i – (–5 – 8) j + (7 – 6) k
→ → →
= – 43 i + 13 j + k
= (– 43, 13, 1)

Theorem
→ → → → → → →
For any vector v ∈ ¡3, v × v = 0 and v × 0 = 0.
→ → →
i j k
→ → v2 v3 → v1 v3 → v1 v2 →
Proof Let v = (v1, v2, v3), then v × v = v1 v2 v3 = i– j+ k
v2 v3 v1 v3 v1 v2
v1 v2 v3
→ → → →
= (v2v3 – v2v3) i – (v1v3 – v1v3) j + (v1v2 – v1v2) k = 0.
→ → → → → →
So v × v = 0. The proof of v × 0 = 0 is similar. It is left as an exercise for you.
Theorem
→ → → → → →
For any vectors u and v in analytic space, u × v is orthogonal to both u and v.
Proof Recall that two vectors are orthogonal if and only if their dot product is zero.
→ → → ⎛ u u3 → u1 u3 → u1 u2 → ⎛
u ⋅ ( u × v) = (u1, u2, u3) ⋅ ⎜ 2 i– j+ k ⎜
⎜ v2 v3 v1 v3 v1 v2 ⎜
⎝ ⎝
Remember!
Two vectors are orthogonal u2 u3 u1 u3 u1 u2
if the angle between them = u1 ⋅ – u2 ⋅ + u3 ⋅
is 90°. v2 v3 v1 v3 v1 v2
= u1(u2v3 – v2u3) – u2(u1v3 – v1u3) + u3(u1v2 – v1u2)
= u1u2v3 – u1v2u3 – u2u1v3 + u2v1u3 + u3u1v2 – u3v1u2
=0
→ → → → → →
So u and u × v are orthogonal. The proof that v is orthogonal to u × v is very similar and
is left as an exercise for you.
You might find it difficult to believe that any two vectors in space can be orthogonal to the
same vector. As an exercise, try holding two pencils or pens in the air to represent two
→ → → →
vectors u and v in space. Can you ‘see’ the orthogonal vector u × v between them?
EXAMPLE 56 → → → → → →
Find a unit vector which is perpendicular to both a = i + 2k and b = 2i – 2j.
→ → → →
Solution We know from the above theorem that a × b is perpendicular to a and b.
→ → →
i j k
→ → → → →
Also, a × b = 1 0 2 = 4 i + 4 j – 2 k.
2 –2 0 → →
a× b (4, 4, – 2) 2 2 1
We now convert this to a unit vector: = =( , , – ). This is a unit
→ →
| a × b| 6 3 3 3
→ →
vector which is perpendicular to both a and b.

EXAMPLE 57 → → → →
Find i × j and j × i.
z
→ → →
i j k
→ → →
Solution i× j= 1 0 0 = k and
® ® ®
0 1 0 k=i×j
®
j
®
→ → → i
y
i j k ® ® ®
k = j × i
→ → 0 1 0 →
j× i = = –k
x
1 0 0
→ → → →
Notice that i × j = –( j × i ). By extension, the cross product is not commutative:
→ → → →
u × v ≠ v × u.
Definition right-h
hand rule
→ →
We can determine the direction of u × v by using the right-h
hand rule:
→
If you hold your right-hand flat and positioned so that your fingers are aligned with u and
→
then rotate your hand so that your fingers curl inward toward v, then your thumb indicates
→ →
u×v.
We used the right-hand

rule at the beginning of PROPERTIES OF THE CROSS PRODUCT
this chapter to find the
direction of the z-axis. → → →
Let u, v and w be vectors and let c be a scalar. Then
→ → → →
1. u × v = –( v × u)
→ → → → → →
2. (c ⋅ u) × v = c ⋅ ( u × v) = u × (c ⋅ v)
→ → → → → → →
3. u × ( v + w) = ( u × v) + ( u × w)
→ → → → → → →
4. ( u + v) × w = ( u × w) + ( v × w).
Check Yourself 11
→ → → →
1. Find u × v if u = (–1, 2, 3) and v = (–2, 0, –1).
→ →
2. Find a vector which is perpendicular to both u = (0, 1, 2) and v = (2, 1, –1).
Answers
1. (–2, –7, 4) 2. (–3, 4, –2)
In our daily lives when we open or shut a book, door or window we use the
turning effect of force.
The turning effect of a force is called torque and is denoted by τ. We can
calculate torque as the cross product of two vectors.
For example, imagine you are trying to remove a bolt using the wrench in the
picture.
Let F be the force you apply to the wrench and let r be the position vector of the wrench.
The torque τ is defined as the cross product of the position and force vectors: τ = r × F.
The direction of the torque vector can be found by using the right-hand rule. If you hold your right-hand flat
→
and positioned so that your fingers are aligned with r and then rotate your hand so that your fingers curl
→ → →
inward toward F, then your thumb indicates r × F .
→
Note that the direction of the torque vector is perpendicular to the vectors →
r and F, and so it is
→
perpendicular to the plane which contains → r and F.
The magnitude of the torque vector is given by
|τ| = | r × F| = | r| ⋅ |F| ⋅ sin θ
where θ is the angle between r and F.
EXAMPLE The force applied to remove the bolt in the figure above is 15 N and the length of the wrench
is 0.2 m. Find the torque and determine the direction of the torque vector.
Solution τ = 0.2 ⋅ 15 = 3 N ⋅ m ®
t = 30 N.m
The torque vector is directed out of the page. ®

®
r = 0.2 m F = 15 N
EXERCISES 1 .2
A. Basic Concepts → → → →
10. u = (4, 0, –8) and u + v = 0. Find v.
→
−→
1. Find the vector AB for each pair of points.
11. A(a1, a2, a3) and B(b1, b2, b3) are given. Show that
a. A(0, 3, 1), B(2, –3, –1)
−→ −→
AB = –BA.
b. A(1, –2, 0), B(1, –2, 3)
→ → →
2. Point B(5, 1, –3) is the terminal point of the 12. u + v = (–8, 5, 0) and w = (4, –2, 0) are given.
−→ → → →
vector AB = (4, –3, 2). Find the coordinates of A. Find u + ( v + w).
−→ −→ −→ −→ −→
3. Find the norm of the vector AB for each pair of 13. OA = (–2, 1, 3), OB = (2, 3, –1) and AB = 2BC
−→
points. are given. Find OC.
a. A(5, 2, 8), B(2, 6, –4)

14. Points A(1, m, 2), B(–m, 3, 0), C(0, 4, n) and
b. A(2, –4, 3), B(5, 2, –3) −→ −→
D(2m, t, 2n) are such that 2AB = CD. Find m, n
→ and t.
4. Find the length of u = (–3, 4, –12).
15. Point C is the midpoint of [AB] where A(–1, 3, 5)
5. Points A(7, –4, a) and B(1, 3, 5) are given. If −→
−→ and B(–5, 1, 7). Find the length of OC if O is the
|AB| = 11, find the possible values of a.
origin of the analytic plane.
→ →
6. u = (a – b, a + 1, 4) and v = (3, 6 – b, c + 1) are → → → →
→ → 16. u + 2 v = (4, –1, 0) and u – v = (1, 5, 6) are
given such that u = v. Find a, b and c. →
given. Find u.
z
7. In the figure, A′ is the → → → →
A(a1, a2, a3)

projection of point A on 17. u – v = (4, –1, 1) and 3u + 2 v = (7, –3, 8) are
→ →
the xy-plane, given. Find u + v.
A¢
−→ 30° B
|OA| = 6 units, 60° → →
18. u = (2, 3, 4) and w = (0, 1, –2) are given. Find
m(∠AOA′) = 30° and O y → →
a. |u + w|.
→ →
b. |u – 2w|.
m(∠A′OB) = 60°. x
−→
Find the components of OA. → 3 –6
19. Find a if u = ( , , a) is a unit vector.
7 7
B. Vector Operations
8. Find the sum of each pair of vectors. 20. A(3, 2, 1) and B(0, –2, –1) are given. Find the unit
→ →
a. u = (1, 0, 1), v = (0, 0, 1) vector whose direction is
→ → −→
b. a = (0, 3, 2), b = (1, 0, –3) a. the same as AB.
−→
→ → b. opposite to AB.
9. u = (2, –1, 3) and v = (2, 4, –1) are given.
Calculate each linear combination. 21. Find a unit vector with the same direction as
→ → → → → → → → → →
a. 2 u b. –3 u c. u + 2 v d. 3 u – 2 v u = 8 i – j + 4 k.

→ → →
22. Write the vector u = (9, 6, 7) in terms of the 31. |u| = 2, |v| = 2ñ3 and the angle between
standard basis vectors. → →
u and v is 150°. Calculate the products.
→ →
a. u ⋅ v
→ → → → → → → →
23. v = 2 i + 3 j – k, w = m i + n j + k and → → →
b. (2 u – 3 v ) ⋅ v
→ →
v = t w (t ∈ ¡) are given. Find m + n. → → → →
c. ( u – v ) ⋅ (2 u + v )
→
24. Write the vector u = (1, 3, 7) as a linear
→ → 32. Show that the angle between the vectors
combination of v1 = (1, 1, 0), v2 = (0, 1, 0) and
→ → →
v3 = (0, 1, 1). u = (3, 3, ñ2) and v = (2, 2, –ñ2) is 45°.
→ → →
25. u = (3, –2, 1), v = (–3, 1, 2), w = (–6, 1, 7) and
→ → → 33. Find the cosine of the angle between the vectors
u + t v = w are given. Find t.
in each case.
→ →
→
26. Write the vector u = (–1, 2, –2) as a linear a. u = (4, –1, – 1), v = (1, –2, 1)
→ → → →
combination of v1 = (–1, 2, 1), v2 = (3, 0, 1) and b. u = (3, 2, –5), v = (6, –1, –1)
→
v3 = (0, –2, 1). → →
c. u = (ñ3, 1, 0), v = (2, –ñ3, ñ3)
C. Parallel Vectors
→ → →
27. u = (3 – a, b – 1, 8) and v = (a + 1, b + 3, 4) are 34. Show that the vectors u = (2, –1, 4) and
→ → →
given such that u || v. Find a and b. v = (7, 2, –3) are orthogonal.
28. Find n if the points A(3, 1, 2), B(n, –2, –4) and →
C(6, 0, 0) are collinear. 35. The angle between u = (1, –ñ3, 2) and
→
v = (–1, ñ3, t) is 60°. Find t.
D. The Dot Product
→ →
29. Find the dot product of u and v in each case. → →
→ → 36. The vectors u = (a, a + 3, –1) and v = (3, –2, 4)
a. u = (1, 3, – 2), v = (5, –4, 0) are orthogonal. Find a.
→ →
b. u = (–3, 0, 7), v = (2, –1, 0)
→ →
c. u = (1, –5, 4), v = (7, 2, –1) → → → → → → → →
37. u = 3 i – 2 j + k, v = t i + 3 j – 2 k and
→ → → →
w = t i + (t – 1) j + 4 k are given.
30. Find the norm of each vector by using the inner
→ → →
product. Find t if (u + v) ⊥ w.
→
a. u = (–3, 4, 0)
→ → →
b. v = (–6, 6, 7) 38. u = (–3, 5, 4) and v = (2, 1, 1) are given. Find
→ → →
c. w = (–2, –1, 7) the projection of u on v.

→ → → → →→
39. Prove that |u ⋅ v | ≤ |u| ⋅ |v| for u, v ∈ ¡3. 47. Determine whether the given vectors are
orthogonal, parallel or neither.
→ →
→→ → → → → → a. u = (–5, 3, 7), v = (6, –8, 2)
40. u + v + w = 0 and |u| = 5, |v| = 1, |w| = 4.
→ → → → → → → → → →→ → → →
Find ( u ⋅ v ) + ( u ⋅ w) + ( v ⋅ w). b. u = i + 2 j + 5 k, v = 3 i + 4 j – k
→ → → →→ → → →
c. u = 2 i + 6 j – 4 j, v = –3 i – 9 j + 6 k
41. Which of the following expressions are meaningful?
Which are meaningless?
→ → → 48. For what values of m are the vectors (–6, m, 2)
a. ( u ⋅ v) ⋅ w
and (m, m2, m) orthogonal?
→ → →
b. | u| ⋅ ( v ⋅ w )
→ → →
c. u ⋅ ( v + w ) → → →
→ → → 49. Show that the vector v – proj→u v is orthogonal to u.
d. ( u ⋅ v )+ w
→ → →
e. | u| ⋅ ( v + w )
→ →
50. Given r = (x, y, z), u = (a1, a2, a3,) and
→
42. In the figure, v = (b1, b2, b3), show that the vector equation
→→ → ® → → → →
u, v and w are unit u ®
v (r – u) ⋅ (r – v) = 0 represents a sphere and find
→ →
vectors. Find u ⋅ v. its center C and radius r.
®
w
51. Find the angle θ between the main diagonal of a

®
43. In the figure, u
cube and the diagonal of one of its faces by using
→ →
u and w are unit vectors. ® the dot product.
v
Find ®
w
→ →
a. u ⋅ w. → → → → → → → →
→ →
52. w = |u| ⋅ v + |v| ⋅ u where u, v and w are all
b. u ⋅ v. →
non-zero vectors. Show that w bisects the angle
→ →
between u and v.
→ → → → → →
44. Show that i ⋅ j = j ⋅ k = k ⋅ i = 0.
53. Find n if the points D(2, 1, 3), E(3, –1, 6) and

→ → → → → →
45. Show that i ⋅ i = j ⋅ j = k ⋅ k = 1. F(n, 7, –6) are collinear.
46. A street vendor sells a hamburgers, b hot dogs → → → →

54. u = (–4, 1, m), w = (n, –2, –6) and u || w.
and c soft drinks on a given day. He charges $2 for
a hamburger, $3 for a hot dog and $1 for a soft Find m + n.
→ →
drink. If A = (a, b, c) and P = (2, 3, 1), what does
→ → → →
the dot product A ⋅ P represent for the street 55. u and v are two vectors with the same direction
vendor? → → → →
such that u ⋅ v = 7 and u = (3, 2, –1). Find v.

→ → → → → →
56. |u| = 13, |v| = 19 and |u + v| = 24. Find |u – v|. 64. Find two unit vectors which are orthogonal to
each pair of vectors.
a. (1, –1, 1) and (0, 4, 4)
→ → → → → → →
b. u = i + j and v = i – j + k
→ →
57. u and v are orthogonal vectors such that
→ → → →
| u| = 5 and | v| = 12. Find | u + v|.
65. State whether each expression is meaningful or
meaningless. If it is meaningful, state whether
→ → → → the result is a vector or a scalar.
58. u + tv and u – t v are orthogonal vectors such that → → → → → →
→ → a. u ⋅ ( v × w ) b. u × ( v ⋅ w )
| u| = 3 and | v| = 5. Find t. → → → → → →
c. u × ( v × w ) d. ( u ⋅ v) × w
→ → → → → → → →
e. ( u ⋅ v ) × ( w ⋅ d ) f. ( u × v ) ⋅ ( w × d )
→
59. The vector w = (m, n, 16) is perpendicular to
→ → → →
both of the vectors u = (2, –3, 1) and 66. Let v = 5j and let u = (u1, u2, u3) be a vector with
→
v = (4, 2, –1). Find m and n. length 3 units that starts at the origin and rotates in
the xy-plane.
a. Find the maximum and minimum values of the
→ → →
60. Find the angle between the vector u = (3, 4, ñ7) norm of the vector u × v.
and the y-axis. → →
b. What is the direction of u × v?
→ → →
61. u and v are orthogonal vectors such that 67. u is a non-zero vector.
→ → → → → → → → → →
|u – v| = 10 and |u| = 6. Find |v |⋅ a. If u ⋅ v = u ⋅ w , does it follow that v = w ?
→ → → → → →
b. If u × v = u × w , does it follow that v = w ?
→ → → → → → → →
c. If u ⋅ v = u ⋅ w and u × v = u × w, does it
→ → → → → →
62. u + 2v = (1, 4, –2), |u| = 3 and |v| = 2 are follow that v = w?
→ →
given. Find u ⋅ v.
Mixed Problems
E. The Cross Product

68. The points A(–1, 3, 2) and B(5, –1, 1) and the
→ → → −→ →
63. Find the cross product u × v in each case. vector v = (p – 1, 3 – k, –3) are given. If AB || v,
→ → →
a. u = (1, –1, 0 ) , v = (3, 2, 1) find the length of v.
→ →
b. u = (–3, 2, 2 ) , v = (6, 3, 1)
→ → → → → → → → → →
c. u = 3 i + 2 j + 4 k, v = i – 2 j – 3 k 69. If r = (x, y, z) and r0 = (x0, y0, z0), describe the
→ → → → → → → →
d. u = i – 2 k, v = j + k set of all points (x, y, z) such that | r – r0| = 1.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
• Three directed lines through an origin that are • A vector in space is a directed line segment in analytic
perpendicular to each other are called the x-aaxis, y-aaxis space which denotes a quantity that has both magnitude
and z-aaxis, or collectively the coordinate axes. and direction.
• The system formed by the x-, y- and z-axes is called • The coordinates of the terminal point of a vector when its
analytic space, denoted by ¡ . 3 initial point is placed at the origin are called the
components of the vector.
• In analytic space, a point is represented by an ordered
triple P(x, y, z) of real numbers. The numbers x, y and z • The position vector of a point P(x0, y0, z0) in ¡3 is the
are called the Cartesian coordinates of P. vector whose initial point is the origin O and whose
−→
• The three planes in ¡ formed by the coordinate axes are
3 terminal point is P. It is denoted OP.
called the xy-p
plane, xz-p
plane and yz-p
plane, or collectively →
• The length or norm of the vector v = (v1, v2, v3) is
the coordinate planes. →
|v | = v12 + v2 2 + v32 .
• (a, b, 0), (a, 0, c) and (0, b, c) are the projections of →
• 0 = (0, 0, 0) is the zero vector. It has length zero.
P(a, b, c) on the xy-, xz- and yz-planes respectively.
→ →
• The xy-, xz- and yz- planes divide analytic space into • Two vectors v = (v1, v2, v3) and w = (w1, w2, w3) are called
eight cells called octants. equal vectors if and only if their corresponding coordinates
→ →
• Points in the xy-plane have coordinates of the form are equal: v = w ⇔ v1 = w1, v2 = w2, v3 = w3.
→ →
(x0, y0, 0). • v + w = (v1 + w1, v2 + w2, v3 + w3) and
→ →
Points in the yz-plane have coordinates of the form (0, y0, z0). v – w = (v1 – w1, v2 – w2, v3 – w3) are the sum and
→ →
Points in the xz-plane have coordinates of the form difference of v and w respectively.
(x0, 0, z0). →
• For any scalar c ∈ ¡, c ⋅ v = c ⋅ (v1, v2, v3) = (c ⋅ v1, c ⋅ v2, c ⋅ v3).
• The midpoint of the line segment from A(x1, y1, z1) to →
• The scalar multiple c ⋅ v is a vector with length |c| times
x + x2 y1 + y2 z1 + z2
B(x2, y2, z2) is ( 1 , , ). → →
2 2 2 the length of v. It has the same direction as v if c > 0 and
• The distance between two points A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, y3) →
opposite direction to v if c < 0.
is | AB|= ( x2 – x1 )2 +( y2 – y1 ) 2 +( z2 – z1) 2. • A vector with length 1 unit is called a unit vector.
→
• The set of all points in ¡ which are the same distance
3 v →
• The unit vector is called the direction of v.
→
from a fixed point is called a sphere. The fixed point is | v|
the center of the sphere and the distance is the radius of → → →
• i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0) and k = (0, 0, 1) are called the
the sphere.
standard basis vectors.
• The standard equation of a sphere with center → → → →
• (c1 ⋅ v1) + (c2 ⋅ v2) + (c3 ⋅ v3) + ... + (cn ⋅ vn) is called a
C(x0, y0, z0) and radius r is → → → →
linear combination of the vectors v1, v2, v3, ... vn where
(x – x0)2 + (y – y0) + (z – z0)2 = r2.
c1, c2, c3, ... cn ∈ ¡.
• The general equation of a sphere is
• Any vector in ¡3 can be expressed as a linear combination
x2 + y2 + z2 + Dx + Ey + Fz + G = 0 where of the standard basis vectors.
–D –E –F → →
C( , , ) is the center of the sphere and • Two non-zero vectors u and v are called parallel vectors if
2 2 2 → →
there exists a real number λ such that u = λ ⋅ v.
1 → → → →
r= D2 + E2 + F 2 – 4G is its radius. u P v means that u is parallel to v .
2
Chapter Summary 55
→ → → → →
• The dot product of two non-zero vectors a = (a1, a2, a3) • The cross product is not commutative: u × v ≠ v × u.
→
and b = (b1, b2, b3) is the real number → →
→ → • The direction of u × v is determined by the right-hand rule.
a ⋅ b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3. →→ →
• If u, v and w are vectors and c is a scalar then
→→ →
• If u, v and w are vectors and c is a scalar then → → → →
1. u × v = v × u
→ → → → → → → →
1. u ⋅ u = |u|2 2. (c ⋅ u) × v = c ⋅ (u × v) = u × (c ⋅ v)
→ → → →
2. u ⋅ v = v ⋅ u → → → → → → →
→ → → → → → → 3. u × (v + w ) = (u × v ) + (u × w )
3. u ⋅ (v + w) = (u ⋅ v )+( u ⋅ w ) → → → → → → →
→ → → → → → 4. (u + v ) × w = (v × w ) + (v × w ).
4. (c ⋅ u ) ⋅ v = c ⋅ (u ⋅ v ) = u ⋅ (c ⋅ v )
→ →
5. 0 ⋅ v = 0.
→ → Concept Check
• Let v and w be two vectors in analytic space and let θ be
the angle between these two vectors. Then 1. What is analytic space?
→ →
v⋅w 2. How is a point represented in analytic space?
→ → → →
v ⋅ w = |v | ⋅ |w| ⋅ cos θ , i.e. cos θ = . 3. What characteristic of a point tells you that the point
→ →
|v|⋅|w| lies on one of the coordinate axes?
→ →
• The angle between two vectors v and w is 4. Given the coordinates of a point, how can you find the
projection of the point on each coordinate plane?
u⋅w ⎛
⎛ → →
θ = ⎜arccos ⎜. 5. Given the coordinates of a point, how can you find the
⎜ → → ⎜
⎝ |u|⋅|w| ⎝ distance from the point to each coordinate plane?
• Two vectors are called orthogonal vectors if the angle 6. Given the coordinates of two points, how can you find
→ → → → the distance between them?
between them is 90°. u ⊥ v means u is orthogonal to v.
→ → 7. Describe the procedure for finding the standard equation of
• Two non-zero vectors a and b are orthogonal if and only if
→ → a sphere given its radius and the coordinates of its center.
a ⋅ b = 0.
−→ −→ 8. Describe the procedure for finding the center and the
• If PQ and PR are two vectors with the same initial point P, radius of a sphere given the general equation of the sphere.
and S is the terminal point of the perpendicular from R to 9. Which two things determine a vector in space?
−→ −→
the line containing PQ, then the vector PS is called the 10. Explain what the components of a position vector
−→ −→
vector projection of PR on PQ. represent.
• A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. 11. Which formula expresses the length of a vector in terms
• Every square matrix is associated with a real number of its components?
called the determinant of the matrix. 12. How can we conclude that two vectors are equal?
⎡a b1 ⎤ 13. How do we add or subtract two vectors?
• The determinant of the matrix A = ⎢ 1 ⎥ is
⎣ a2 b2 ⎦ 14. How do we multiply a vector by a scalar?
det(A) = |A| = (a1 ⋅ b2) – (a2 ⋅ b1).
15. Given the components of a vector, how do we find its
→
• The cross product of two vectors u = (u1, u2, u3) and direction vector?
→ →
v = (v1, v2, v3) is 16. How can we express a vector such as a = (a1, a2, a3) in
→ → → terms of the standard basis vectors?
i j k
→ → 17. How can we determine whether two vectors are parallel?
u × v = u1 u2 u3
v1 v2 v3 18. Define the dot product of two vectors.
u2 u3 → u1 u3 → u1 u2 19. Explain the procedure for finding the angle between two
→ – j
= i v + k vectors.
2 v3 v1 v3 v1 v2
20. How can we determine whether two vectors are
→ → → → → → →
• For any vector v ∈ ¡3, v × v = 0 and v × 0 = 0. orthogonal?
→ → → → →
• For any vectors u and v in analytic space, u × v is 21. Sketch a figure to explain the meaning of proj→a b.
→ →
orthogonal to both u and v. 22. Define the cross product of two vectors.

CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 1A
1. Which point lies in the yz-plane? 5. Which point is the projection of the point P(–3, 4, –1)
on the yz-plane?
A) (2, –3, 5) B) B(–1, 2, 0) C) C(3, 0, –4)
A) (–3, 0, –1) B) (–3, 4, 0)
D) D(0, 3, –2) E) E(2, 0, 0)
C) (–3, 4, 1) D) (0, 4, –1)
E) (3, 0, –1)
6. Which point is closest to the xz-plane?

2. What is the shortest distance between the point
A(–1, 2, 5) and the xy-plane? A) (5, –2, –1) B) (3, 4, 0) C) (7, 3, 1)
A) 1 unit B) 2 units C) 5 units D) (4, 5, –1) E) (4, 1, –5)
D) ò29 units E) ò30 units
7. Which equation is not a standard equation of a

sphere?
A) (x – 3)2 + (y – 2)2 + (z – 1)2 = 16

3. Which point is 2 units from the xy-plane and 4 B) x2 + (y + 3)2 + (z + 5)2 = 7
units away from the yz-plane?
C) (x + 3)2 + (y – 6)2 + (z – 1)2 = 9
A) (4, –3, –2) B) (4, 2, 3) C) (2, –3, 4) D) x2 + y2 + z2 = 5
D) (2, 4, 3) E) (–3, 4, 2) E) (x – 3)2 + (y – 2)2 = 8
8. Find the center of the sphere given by the

equation x2 + y2 + z2 – 4x + 7y + 6z – 5 = 0.
–7 7
4. What is the distance between the points A(–2, 1, 0) A) (–4, 7, 6) B) (2, , – 3) C) (–4, , 3)
2 2
and B(1, –3, 2)?
7
D) (–2, , 6) E) (–4, 7, 3)
A) ò13 B) ò17 C) ò21 D) ò29 E) ñ9 2
Chapter Review Test 1A 57

9. What is the radius of the sphere with diameter 13. The spheres (x – 2)2 + (y + 1)2 + (z – 3)2 = 9 and
[AB] which passes through the points A(–3, 0, 2) (x – 2)2 + (y – 2)2 + (z + 1)2 = r2 are tangent to
and B(1, –3, 2)? each other. Find r.
3 5 7
A) B) 2 C) D) 3 E) A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 5 E) 6
2 2 2
14. Which equation defines a sphere tangent to the

yz-plane with radius 3?
A) (x – 2)2 + (y – 1)2 + (z – 3)2 = 9

10. On which sphere does the point P(–1, 3, 1) lie?
B) x2 + (y + 3)2 + (z + 5)2 = 9
A) (x – 3)2 + (y – 2)2 + (z – 1)2 = 16 C) (x + 3)2 + (y – 6)2 + (z – 1)2 = 9
B) (x + 3)2 + (y + 1)2 + (z – 2)2 = 9 D) x2 + y2 + (z – 3)2 = 9
C) (x – 4)2 + (y + 2)2 + (z – 1)2 = 16 E) (x – 1)2 + (y – 2)2 + (z – 2) = 9
D) (x – 1)2 + (y – 1)2 + z2 = 9
E) (x – 2)2 + (y – 2)2 + (z –1)2 = 16
15. Which of the following pieces of information is

enough to determine the equation of a sphere?
A) the coordinates of two points on the sphere

B) the coordinates of the center and a point on
the sphere
11. The equation x2 + y2 + z2 – 4x + 2y – 6z + p = 0
defines a sphere of radius 5. Find p. C) the coordinates of a point on the sphere and
the radius
A) –11 B) –7 C) –3 D) 1 E) 5 D) the coordinates of two points on the sphere
and the radius
E) the distance between the center and the
coordinate planes
12. Which point is equidistant from the points 16. What is the shortest distance between the
P(4, –3, 2) and Q(2, 0, –1)? spheres (x – 4)2 + (y + 1)2 + z2 = 4 and
A) (0, 1, 2) B) (–2, 6, 4) C) (1, 1, 5) (x + 2)2 + (y – 5)2 + (z + 3)2 = 9?
D) (2, –1, –3) E) (3, –1, 1) A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 5 E) 6

CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 1B
1. Which vector has initial point A(–1, 2, 3) and 5. Which vector is a unit vector in the opposite
→
terminal point B(2, –3, 0)? direction to v = (–2, 2, 1)?
−→ −→ 2 2 1 2 2 1
A) AB = (–3, 5, 3) B) AB = (1, –1, 3) A) ( – , , ) B) ( – , , )
−→ −→ 3 3 3 5 5 5
C) AB = (3, –5, –3) D) AB = (–3, –5, 3) 2 2 1
−→ C) (2, –2, –1) D) ( , – ,– )
E) AB = (1, 5, 3) 3 3 3
2 2 1
E) ( , – ,– )
5 5 5
→
2. What is the length of the vector u =(–ñ2, 4, 0)?
→ →
6. The vectors u =(–2, 1, 3) and v =(1, –1, 2) are
A) 3 B) 3ñ2 C) 4 D) 4ñ2 E) 5 → →
given. Find u ⋅ v.
A) 9 B) 7 C) 5 D) 3 E) 1
→ →
3. The vectors u = (–2, a – 1, 3) and v = (b + 1, 2, 3)
are equal vectors. Find a + b. 7. Find the cosine of the angle between the vectors
→ →
u =(–1, 1, 2) and v =(1, 3, –1).
A) –2 B) –1 C) 0 D) 1 E) 2
1 1 1 1
A) – B) – C) 0 D) E)
2 3 3 2
→ →
4. The vectors u = (–2, 1, 3) and v = (0, –1, 2) are
→ →
given. Find 3u +4v.
→ →
8. The vectors u =(p, –2, 5) and v =(1, p, –4) are
A) (–2, 0, 5) B) (–6, 1, 5) C) (–6, 0, 17) orthogonal. Find p.
D) (–2, 1, 17) E) (–6, –1, 17) A) –22 B) –20 C) –18 D) –16 E) –14
Chapter Review Test 1B 59

→ → → →
9. The vectors u =(4, a, –6) and v =(b, –1, 3) are 13. u =(–2, a + 2, 1) and v =(a + 1, 1, 2) are
parallel. Find a ⋅ b. orthogonal vectors. Find a.
A) –9 B) –4 C) –1 D) 1 E) 4 A) –2 B) –1 C) 0 D) 1 E) 2
→ → →
10. u = (–1, 0, 1), v = (0, 1, –1), w = (0, 0, –1) and
→ → → → →
(3, –4, 2) = a u + b v + c w are given. What is 14. u =(–1, 3, 0) and v =(2, –1, 0) are given.
a + b + c? → →
Find |u – 2v|.
A) –4 B) –6 C) –8 D) –10 E) –12 A) ñ2 B) 5ñ2 C) 3ñ2 D) 4ñ2 E) 5ñ2
11. Which statement is false?

→ → → → → →
A) u ⋅ v = u ⋅ w ⇒ v = w → → →
→ → → → → → → →
15. u = (3, –1, 2), v = (1, 0, 2), w = (3, –2, –2) and
B) v = w and u ≠ 0 ⇒ u ⋅ v = u ⋅ w → → →
(a ⋅ u ) + (b ⋅ v ) = w are given. Find a + b.
→ → → →
C) u = – 2 v ⇒ u ⋅ v ≠ 0
A) –2 B) –1 C) 0 D) 1 E) 2
→ → → →
D) u ⋅ v = v ⋅ u
→ → → → → → →
E) u ⋅ ( v + w ) = ( u ⋅ v )+ ( u ⋅ w )
→ → → → → → → → → → → →
12. u = (a, 4, –1), v =(–3, –4, –1) and u ⋅ v = –9 are 16. u = –3 i + 2 j – k, v = a i + b j + 2 k and
→ →
given. Find a. u = λ v, where λ ∈ ¡. Find a + b.
A) –2 B) –1 C) 0 D) 1 E) 2 A) –4 B) –2 C) 0 D) 2 E) 4

CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 1C
−→ → →
1. The terminal point of the vector PR = (3, –2, 1) is 5. The angle between the vectors u and v is 60°. If
→ → → →
R = (5, –4, 3). What is the y-component of point | u| = 8 and | v| = 5, what is | u – v|?
P?
A) 1 B) 3 C) 5 D) 7 E) 9
A) –2 B) –1 C) 0 D) 1 E) 2
→→ →
6. Three vectors u, v and w are such that
→ → → → → →
→ → u + v + w = 0. If | u| = 2, | v| = 3 and
2. |u| = 7 for the vector u =(–6, a, 2). What is the → → → → → → →
| w| = 5, what is ( u ⋅ v )+ ( u ⋅ w ) + ( v ⋅ w )?
product of all the possible values of a?
A) –21 B) –20 C) –19 D) –18 E) –17
A) –25 B) –16 C) –9 D) –4 E) –1
→
→ → → → 7. u = (a, b, 16) is perpendicular to both
3. |u| = 7, |v| = 9 and |u + v| = 16 are given. → →
→ → v = (2, –3, 1) and w = (4, 2, –1). Find a + b.
What is | u – v|?
A) 11 B) –1 C) 1 D) 5 E) 7
A) 16 B) 8 C) 4 D) 2 E) 1
→ → → → → → →
8. u = v + w, v ⊥ w and |u| = 2|w| are given.
→ → → →
4. u and v are perpendicular vectors such that What is the cosine of the angle between v and w?
→ → → →
| u| = 6 and | v| = 8. What is | u + v|?
3 3 2 1
A) – B) C) D) E) 0
A) 10 B) 12 C) 14 D) 16 E) 8 2 2 2 2
Chapter Review Test 1C 61

A B A
9. In the figure, ABCD is a 13. In the figure,
2
rectangle. If |AB| = 4 and ABC is an equilateral 4 F
|BC| = 3, what is triangle with |BC| = 6,
−→ −→ −→
BD ⋅ (AB + BC)? D C |AE| = 4 and |AF| = 2. E
−→ −→ −→
Find (AE + AF) ⋅ AC.
A) 25 B) 9 C) –7 D) –9 E) –25 B 6 C
7 9
A) 0 B) C) D) 15 E) 24
2 2
−→ −→
10. PQ ⊥ QR for points P(–1, 2, 3), Q = (0, 4, –1) and
→ → → → →
R = (0, a, 0). What is a? 14. u = (–3, 1, a), v = (3a, –2, –4) and u × v = 0 are
given. Find a.
A) 6 B) 7 C) 8 D) 9 E) 10
A) –2 B) –1 C) 0 D) 1 E) 2
→ →
15. u and v are non-zero vectors such that
→ → → →
→ → u + v ⊥ u – v.
11. u = (–2, 2, 1) and v = (3, –4, 2) are given. Which statement is always true?
→ →
Find u × v . → → → → →
A) |u + v| = |v| B) |u| = |v|
→ → → → → →
A) –8 i + 7 j + 2 k B) 8 i + 7 j + 2 k → → → →
C) |u – v| = 1 D) |u + v| = 1
→ → → → → →
C) 8 i – 7 j + 2 k D) 8 i + 7 j – 2 k → → →
E) |u – v| = |u|
→ → →
E) –8 i – 7 j – 2 k
16. Which vector is not the cross product of the vector

→
→ → → → u = (–2, 1, 3) and another vector?
12. 2u + 3v = (–4, –2, 12) and u – v = (–2, 4, 1) are
→
given. Find v . A) (1, 2, 0) B) (2, 1, 1)
A) (–2, 2, 3) B) (0, 2, 3) C) (–2, –2, 2) C) (1, –2, 4) D) (–3, –3, –1)
D) (0, 2, 2) E) (0, –2, 2) E) (–2, 2, –2)

A. LINES IN SPACE
Recall that a line in two-dimensional space is z
determined by a point on the line and the slope of the
line. If the point is (x1, y1) and the slope is m then we
,z )
can write the equation of the line in point-sslope form P 0(x 0, y 0 0
P(x, y, z)
as y – y1 = m(x – x1). l
® , b, c)
O v = (a
Similarly, a line l in three-dimensional space is
y
determined by a point P0(x0, y0, z0) on l and a vector
→ →
v = (a, b, c) which is parallel to l. v is called the x
direction vector of l. l is the set of all points P(x, y, z)
−→ → −→ →
for which P0P is parallel to v. In other words, P lies on l if and only if P0P = t ⋅ v for t ∈ ¡.
1. The Equation of a Line in Space

Theorem parametric equations of a line
The parametric equations of the line that passes through the point P0(x0, y0, z0) and which is
→
parallel to the vector v = (a, b, c) are
l: x = x0 + t ⋅ a, y = y0 + t ⋅ b, z = z0 + t ⋅ c
where t ∈ ¡.
→
Proof Let P(x, y, z) be an arbitrary point on the line l, then (x – x0, y – y0, z – z0) is parallel to v.
So (x – x0, y – y0, z – z0) = t ⋅ (a, b, c), t ∈ ¡
⇒ x – x0 = t ⋅ a, y – y0 = t ⋅ b, z – z0 = t ⋅ c
⇒ x = x0 + t ⋅ a, y = y0 + t ⋅ b, z = z0 + t ⋅ c
and so we have l: x = x0 + t ⋅ a, y = y0 + t ⋅ b, z = z0 + t ⋅ c as the parametric
equations of the line.
EXAMPLE 1 →
Find the parametric equations of the line parallel to v = (1, –4, 2) which passes through
P(–3, 2, –1).
Solution Since line l passes through P(–3, 2, –1), x0 = –3, y0 = 2 and z0 = –1.
→
l || v so a = 1, b = –4 and c = 2. So the equations are l: x = –3 + t, y = 2 – 4t, z = –1 + 2t.

We can also describe a line l by eliminating t from its parametric equations:
x – x 0 y – y0 z –z0
l: x = x0 + t ⋅ a, y = y0 + t ⋅ b, z = z0 + t ⋅ c ⇒ = = = t
a b c
This is called the Cartesian equation of the line.
Definition Cartesian equation of a line

→
The Cartesian equation of the line parallel to v = (a, b, c) which passes through a point
x – x0 y – y0 z – z0
P0(x0, y0, z0) is l: = = .
a b c
Note
→
Notice the relation beween the components of vector v = (a, b, c) and the denominators of
x – x0 y – y0 z – z0
the fractions in the equation l: = = .
a →b c
If one of the components of the vector v = (a, b, c) is zero, we write the corresponding
coordinate of the point P0(x0, y0, z0) separately in the Cartesian equation.
x – x0 z – z0
For example, if b = 0 then the equation becomes l: = , y = y0 .
a c
EXAMPLE 2 Find the parametric and Cartesian equations of the line l that passes through the point
→
P0(–1, 3, –2) and is parallel to the vector v = (–3, 4, 5).
Solution (x + 1, y – 3, z + 2) = t ⋅ (–3, 4, 5)
x + 1 = –3t, y – 3 = 4t, z + 2 = 5t
So l: x = –1 – 3t, y = 3 + 4t, z = –2 + 5t are the parametric equations of the line l, and by

x +1 y – 3 z + 2
eliminating t we obtain l: = = as the Cartesian equation of l.
–3 4 5
EXAMPLE 3 Find the equation of the line that passes through the point P0(1, 0, –3) and which is parallel
x +1 y – 1
to the line l: = = z + 4.
–4 –2
→
Solution The vector v = (–4, –2, 1) is parallel to the line which passes through point P0(1, 0, –3).
(x – 1, y – 0, z –(–3)) = t ⋅ (4, –2, 1)
x – 1 = 4t, y = –2t, z + 3 = t
so l: x = 1 + 4t, y = –2t, z = –3 + t are the parametric equations of the line, and by

x –1 y
eliminating t we obtain l: = = z + 3 as the Cartesian equation of l.
4 −2
Analytic Geometry in Space 65
EXAMPLE 4 Find the direction vector of the line l:
x – 2 y z +1
3
= =
2 –2
and find a point on this line.
→
Solution The direction vector of the line is v = (3, 2, –2).
We can write x – 2 = 3t, y = 2t, z + 1 = –2t, so in parametric form the equation is
l: x = 2 + 3t, y = 2t, z = –1 – 2t. Since t ∈ ¡, when we substitute t = 0 we find a point on
the line. When t = 0 we get x = 2, y = 0, z = –1 and so P0(2, 0, –1) is a point on the line.
Note
1. The equation of a line is not unique. By using different points on the line, we can obtain
different equations for the same line. For example,
x – 1 y+ 2 x – 3 y +5
l1: = = z +1 and l2: = = z represent the same line through
2 –3 2 –3
→
the points A(1, –2, –1) and B(3, –5, 0) which is parallel to the vector v = (2, –3, 1).
2. We can also obtain different equations for the same line by using diffferent direction vectors.
x+ 2 y – 1 z x+ 2 y – 1 z
For example, l1: = = and l2: = = represent the same line
3 2 –1 –6 –4 2
→
through the point A(–2, 1, 0) which is parallel to the vectors v1 = (3, 2, –1) and
→
v2 = (–6, –4, 2).
2. The Equation of a Line through Two Points in Space

Theorem equation of a line through two points
The equation of the line which passes through two points A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) is
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1 .
l: = =
x2 – x1 y2 – y1 z2 – z1
Proof Let P(x, y, z) be an arbitrary point on the line l, then z

−→ −→
A, B, P are collinear and AB and AP are parallel vectors.
−→
We have AB = (x2 – x1, y2 – y1, z2 – z1) and P(x, y, z)
B(x2, y2, z2)
−→ A(x1, y1, z1)
AP = (x – x1, y – y1, z – z1).
−→ −→ −→ −→ l
If AB || AP then AP = t ⋅ AB where t ∈ ¡. So O
y
(x – x1, y – y1, z – z1) = t ⋅ (x2 – x1, y2 – y1, z2 – z1),
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1
= = = t. x
x2 – x1 y2 – y1 z2 – z1
So the equation of the line which passes through the points A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) is
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1
l: = = , as required.
x2 – x1 y2 – y1 z2 – z1

EXAMPLE 5 Find the Cartesian equation and the direction vector of the line which passes through the
points A(3, –1, 5) and B(2, –3, 4).
Solution The equation of the line which passes through the points A(3, –1, 5) and B(2, –3, 4) is
x–3 y – (–1) z–5 y +1
l: = = . Rearranging the terms gives us l: x – 3 = = z – 5.
3 – 2 –1 – (–3) 5 – 4 2
We can easily write the coordinates of the direction vector of the line by looking at the
→
denominators in the equation: v = (1, 2, 1).
Check Yourself 1
1. Find the parametric and Cartesian equations of the line that passes through the point
→
(2, –1, 4) and which is parallel to the vector v = (–1, 0, 2).
2. The parametric equations l: x = 3 + t, y = 1 – 4t, z = 2 + 4t are given. Find the direction
vector of l and a point on the line.
3. Find the parametric and Cartesian equations of the line which passes through the points
A(–2, 1, 0) and B(2, 2, –3).
4. Find the parametric and Cartesian equations of the line through the point Q(–1, 0, 5) which
x–2 y
is parallel to the line l: = = z +1.
3 –2
Answers
x–2 z–4
1. l: x = 2 – t, y = –1, z = 4 + 2t and l: = , y = –1
–1 2
→
2. direction vector v = (1, –4, 4); P(3, 1, 2) ∈ l
x+ 2 y–1 z
3. l: x = –2 – 4t, y =1 – t, z = 3t and l: = =
–4 –1 3
x +1 y
4. l: x = –1 + 3t, y = –2t, z = t + 5 and l: = =z–5
3 –2
3. The Angle Between Two Lines

The angle between two lines is the same as the angle between their direction vectors.
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1 x – x2 y – y2 z – z2
Let l1: = = and l2 : = = be two lines, then
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
→ →
v1 = (a1, b1, c1) and v2 = (a2, b2, c2) are the direction vectors of l1 and l2 respectively. The
cosine of the angle α between these two vectors (and therefore the angle between the two
lines) is given by
→ →
v1 . v2 ( a1 ⋅ a2 )+( b1 ⋅ b2 ) +( c1 ⋅ c2 )
cos α = → → = .
| v1| . | v2| a12 + b12 + c12 ⋅ a2 2 + b22 + c22

EXAMPLE 6 Find the cosine of the angle between the lines l1:
x – 3 y – 3 z+ 2
5
=
3
=
2
and
x + 3 y – 1 z +5
l2 : = = .
–1 4 –2 2
→ →
Solution The direction vectors are v1 = (5, 3, ñ2) and v2 = (–1, 4, –2ñ2). Let the angle between these
vectors be α, then
→ →
v ⋅ v2 5 ⋅ (–1)+ 3 ⋅ 4+ 2 ⋅(–2 2 ) –5+12 – 4 3 1
cos α = → 1 → = = = = .
| v1| ⋅ | v2| 5 + 3 +( 2 ) ⋅ (–1) + 4 +(–2 2 )
2 2 2 2 2 2 36 ⋅ 25 30 10
EXAMPLE 7 Show that the angle θ between the lines l1:

x–7 y–2
4
=
–1
= z and l2 :
x–2
–1
= z +1, y = –2 is
120°.
→ →
Solution v1 = (4, –1, 1) and v2 = (–1, 0, 1) are the direction vectors of the lines l1 and l2 respectively.
→ →
v . v2 –4+0+1 –3 –3 –1
So cos θ = → 1 → = = = = and
| v1| . | v2|
2 2 2
4 +(–1) +1 ⋅ (–1) +0 +12 2 2
18 ⋅ 2 6 2
therefore θ = 120°.
PARALLEL LINES
Two lines are parallel if and only if their direction vectors are parallel. In other words,
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1 x – x2 y – y2 z – z2
l1: = = and l2: = = are parallel if and only if
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
→ →
v1 = (a1, b1, c1) and v2 = (a2, b2, c2) are parallel.
→ → a1 b1 c a1 b1 c
v1 || v2 ⇔ = = 1 ⇔ l1 P l2 ⇔ = = 1
a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2
EXAMPLE 8 l1:
x – 3 y +1 z – 1 and
p
=
2
=
3
l2 :
x + 2 y – 5 z +6 are parallel lines. Find p and q.
–1
=
q
=
–6
p 2 3 1
Solution l1 || l2 ⇔ = = so p = and q = –4.
–1 q –6 2

PERPENDICULAR LINES
Two lines are perpendicular to each other if and only if their direction vectors are
orthogonal. In other words,
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1 x – x2 y – y2 z – z2
l1: = = and l2: = = are perpendicular to each other
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
→ →
if and only if v1 =(a1, b1, c1) and v2 = (a2, b2, c2) are orthogonal.
→ → → →
l1 ⊥ l2 ⇔ v1 ⊥ v2 ⇔ v1 ⋅ v2 = 0 so (a1 ⋅ a2) + (b1 ⋅ b2) + (c1 ⋅ c2) = 0, i.e.
l1 ⊥ l2 ⇔ (a1 ⋅ a2 ) + (b1 ⋅ b2) + (c1 ⋅ c2 ) = 0 .
EXAMPLE 9 The lines l1:

x – 5 y+ 3
3
=
2
=
z
–1
and l2 :
x +1 y – 3 z – 2
4
=
p
=
–2
are perpendicular. Find p.
→ →
Solution v1 = (3, 2, –1) and v2 = (4, p, –2) are the direction vectors of l1 and l2 respectively. Since l1
→ →
is perpendicular to l2, v1 must be orthogonal to v2. So v1 ⋅ v2 = 0.
(3 ⋅ 4) + (2 ⋅ p) + [(–1) ⋅ (–2)] = 0
2p + 14 = 0
p = –7
EXAMPLE 10 Show that the lines l1: x = 2 + 3t, y = –1 + t, z = –2t and l2: x = –3 – k, y = 2 + 5k,
z = –2 + k are perpendicular to each other.
x–2 z x+ 3 y – 2
Solution The Cartesian equations of the lines are l1: = y +1= and l2 : = = z + 2.
3 –2 –1 5
→ →
So v1 = (3, 1, –2) and v2 = (–1, 5, 1) are the direction vectors of l1 and l2.
→ → → →
Now v1 ⋅ v2 = [3 ⋅ (–1)] + (1 ⋅ 5) + [(–2) ⋅ 1] = 0, which means v1 ⊥ v2. This implies l1 ⊥ l2.
Check Yourself 2
1. Find the cosine of the angle between the lines l1: x = 1 + t, y = 4 – t, z = 3t and
l2: x = 2 – t, y = 1 + 2t, z = 3 + t.
2. Find a + b such that the lines l1: x = 1 + at, y = 4 + 2t, z = 3t and
l2: x = 2 – t, y = 1 + 2t, z = 3 + bt are parallel.
3. Show that the lines l1: x = 1 + t, y = 2 + 2t, z = 3t and
l2: x = 2 – t, y = 1 + 2t, z = 3 – t are perpendicular.
Answers
1. 0 2. 2 3. (Hint: Look at Example 10)

POINT OF INTERSECTION OF TWO LINES
We can find the point of intersection of two lines by using the parametric equations of the
lines and solving the resulting system of equations.
EXAMPLE 11 Find the intersection point of the lines l1:

x – 1 y +1
–3
=
2
= z – 2 and l2:
x
–1
= y+1=
z +1
2
.
Solution l1: x = –3t + 1, y = 2t – 1, z = t + 2 and l1

l2: x = –p, y = p – 1, z = 2p – 1 are the parametric
Q
equations of the lines.
At the intersection point, the corresponding
l2
components of l1 and l2 take the same value.
So we have the system of linear equations
⎧ –3t +1= – p ⎧ –3t + p = –1 (1)
⎪ ⎪
⎨ 2t – 1= p – 1 which we can rearrange to get ⎨2t – p = 0 (2 )
⎪ t + 2 = 2p – 1 ⎪t – 2 p = –3. (3)
⎩ ⎩
Adding (1) and (2) gives –3t + p = –1

+ 2t – p = 0
––––––––––––––––
–t = –1
t = 1.
Substituting t = 1 in (1) gives us –3 ⋅ 1 + p = –1, i.e. p = 2.
We can substitute either t = 1 in l1: x = –3t + 1, y = 2t – 1, z = t + 2 or
p = 2 in l2: x = –p, y = p – 1, z = 2p – 1 to find the intersection point.
Substituting t in l1 gives us
x = (–3 ⋅ 1) + 1 = –2, y = (2 ⋅ 1) – 1 = 1, z = 1 + 2 = 3.
So Q(–2, 1, 3) is the intersection point of the lines l1 and l2.
SKEW LINES
Two lines l1 and l2 in space are called skew lines if

1. l1 || l2 (i.e. they are not parallel), and
2. l1 ∩ l2 = ∅ (i.e. their intersection is the empty set).

EXAMPLE 12 Show that the lines l1:
x – 2 y – 1 z+ 3
3
=
1
=
2
and l2:
x +1 y – 2 z – 1
–2
=
3
=
1
are skew.
Solution We need to show l1 || l2 and l1 ∩ l2 = ∅.
3 1 2
• Since ≠ ≠ , l1 || l2.
–2 3 1
• l1: x = 3t + 2, y = t + 1, z = 2t – 3 and
l2: –2p – 1, y = 3p + 2, z = p + 1 are the
parametric equations of the given lines.
We need to check the solution set of the
⎧3t + 2 = –2 p – 1
⎪
system ⎨t +1= 3p + 2 .
⎪2t – 3 = p +1
⎩
⎧3t + 2 p = –3 (1)
⎪
Rearranging the terms gives us ⎨t – 3 p =1 ( 2)
⎪2t – p = 4. (3)
⎩
When we multiply (1) by 3 and (2) by 2 we get 9t + 6p = –9 and 2t – 6p = 2.

Adding these gives 9t + 6p = –9
+ 2t – 6p = 2
––––––––––––––––
11t = –7
7
t= – .
11
7 7 6
If we substitute t = – in (2) we get – – 3 p =1 so p = – .
11 11 11
7 6 8
If we substitute these results in (3) we find 2 ⋅ (– ) – (– ) = 4, i.e. – = 4.
11 11 11
This is false, so the system of equations has no solution and therefore l1 ∩ l2 = ∅.
• We have shown that l1 || l2 and l1 ∩ l2 = ∅ and so we conclude that l1 and l2 are skew
lines.
Check Yourself 3
y z–2 x–3 z–1
1. Find the point of intersection of the lines l1: x – 1= = and l2 : = y – 1= .
3 –2 2 –1
x–1 z +1 x–2 z–2
2. Show that the lines l1: =y– 2= and l2: = y– 3 = are skew.
2 2 3 2
Answers
1. (1, 0, 2)

4. The Distance Between a Point and a Line
Theorem distance between a point and a line
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1
The distance d between a point R(x0, y0, z0) and the line l: = = is
a b c
1 −→ → −→ →
d= → ⋅ |PR|2 ⋅ | v |2 – (PR ⋅ v )2
| v|
→
where v = (a, b, c) is the direction vector of l and P is any point on l.
Proof Let P(x1, y1, z1) be a point on the line l and let the angle R(x0, y0, z0)
−→
between the vector PR and the line l be α. If the d
a
projection of the point R on line l is S, then by the right l
P(x1, y1, z1) S
triangle PSR,
d −→ ®
v = (a, b, c)
sin α = ⇒ d = |PR| ⋅ sin α.
−→
|PR|
−→ →
→ PR ⋅ v
v = (a, b, c) is the direction vector of l, so cos α = .
−→ →
|PR| ⋅ | v|
⎛ −→ → ⎞ 2
−→ −→ −→ ⎜ PR ⋅ v ⎟
sin2 α + cos2 α = 1, so So d = |PR| ⋅ sin α = |PR| ⋅ 1 – cos 2 α = |PR| ⋅ 1 – ⎜
−→
⎜ |PR| → ⎟⎟
sin α = 1 – cos 2 α .
⎜ ⋅ | v|
⎝ ⎟
⎠
−→ → −→ → −→ →
−→ (PR ⋅ v )2 −→ |PR|2 ⋅ | v|2 – (PR ⋅ v )2
= |PR| ⋅ 1–
−→ 2 → 2 =|PR| ⋅ −→ →
|PR| ⋅ | v| |PR|2 ⋅ | v|2
−→
|PR| −→ → −→ → 1 −→ → −→ →
= |PR|2 ⋅ | v|2 – (PR ⋅ v )2 = ⋅ |PR|2 ⋅ | v|2 – (PR ⋅ v )2 .
−→ → →
|PR| ⋅ | v| |v |
Example 13 Find the distance between the point R(2, –1, 0) and the line l:
x – 1 y – 1 z+ 2
2
=
–2
=
–1
.
→
Solution P(1, 1, –2) is a point on l and v = (2, –2, –1) is the direction vector of l.
−→ −→ 2 2 2
PR = ((2 – 1), (–1 – 1), [0 – (–2)]) = (1, –2, 2) and |PR| = 1 +(–2) + 2 = 3.
→ −→ →
|v | = 22 +(–2)2 +(–1) 2 = 3 and PR ⋅ v = 1 ⋅ 2 + (–2)(–2) + 2 ⋅ (–1) = 4.

So the distance between R(2, –1, 0) and the line l is
1 −→ → −→ → 1 1
d= ⋅ 2 2 2
|PR|2 ⋅ | v |2 – (PR ⋅ v )2 = ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 − 4 = ⋅ 65.
→ 3 3
| v|
EXAMPLE 14 Find the distance d between the point R(1, 1, 2) and the line l: x = 2 + 3t, y = –3 + 6t, z = 1 – 2t.
Solution By substituting t = 0 we find a point on the line: P(2, –3, 1). The direction vector of l is
→ −→
v = (3, 6, –2) and PR = (–1, 4, 1).
1 −→ → −→ →
So d = ⋅ |PR|2 ⋅ | v|2 – (PR ⋅ v)2
→
| v|
1 521
= ⋅ ((–1)2 + 4 2 +12 )(3 2 +6 2 +(–2) 2 ) – (–3+ 24 – 2) 2 = .
2 2
3 +6 +(–2) 2 7
Check Yourself 4
1. Find the distance between the point R(2, –4, 0) and the line l: x – 2 = y – 1 = z + 3 .
1 2 –2
Answers
5 2
1. units
3
B. PLANES IN SPACE
Although a line in space is determined by a point and its direction, a plane in space is more
difficult to describe. A single vector parallel to a plane is not enough to convey the ‘direction’
of the plane because there are infinitely many planes which are parallel to a vector. However,
a vector perpendicular to the plane does completely specify its direction.
Definition normal vector
A vector which is perpendicular to a plane is called a ®

n
→ →
normal vector to the plane. In the figure n ⊥ E, so n is a
normal vector to the plane E.

Remark
A plane has an infinite number of normal vectors. Every vector perpendicular to the plane is
a normal to the plane and all of the normal vectors are parallel.
1. The Equation of a Plane

A plane in space is determined by a point P0(x0, y0, z0) in the plane and a normal vector
→
n which is perpendicular to the plane.
Theorem Cartesian equation of a plane

The Cartesian equation of the plane E that passes ®
n = (a, b, c)
through the point P(x0, y0, z0) and which is
→ P(x, y, z)
perpendicular to the vector n = (a, b, c) is
E: ax + by + cz + d = 0 P0(x0, y0, z0)

E
where d = –(ax0 + by0 + cz0) ∈ ¡.
Proof Let P(x, y, z) be an arbitrary point in the plane, then we have the vector
−→ →
P0P = (x – x0, y – y0, z – z0) in the plane. n is perpendicular to every vector in the given plane
→ −→ → −→
so n ⊥ P0P and n ⋅ P0P = 0, i.e. (a, b, c) ⋅ (x – x0, y – y0, z – z0) = 0.
This equation is satisfied for all points in the plane so the equation of the plane is
a ⋅ (x – x0) + b ⋅ (y – y0) + c ⋅ (z – z0) = 0 ⇒ ax + by + cz – (ax0 + by0 + cz0) = 0.
If we write –(ax0 + by0 + cz0) = d, then we have E: ax + by + cz + d = 0.
EXAMPLE 15 Find an equation for the plane E that passes through the point A(2, –1, 3) and which is
→
perpendicular to the vector n = (4, 5, 6).
Solution Let point P(x, y, z) be an arbitrary point in E, then the ®

n = (4, 5, 6)
−→
vector AP = (x – 2, y + 1, z – 3) is perpendicular to the
→ P(x, y, z)
vector n =(4, 5, 6).
AP =(x 2, y + 1, z 3)
→ −→ → −→ A(2, 1, 3)
So n ⊥ AP and n ⋅ AP = 0, i.e.
E
(4, 5, 6) ⋅ (x – 2, y + 1, z – 3) = 0
4 ⋅ (x – 2) + 5 ⋅ (y + 1) + 6 ⋅ (z – 3) = 0
4x – 8 + 5y + 5 + 6z – 18 = 0. So E: 4x + 5y + 6z – 21 = 0 is an equation for the plane.

Remark
The equation for a plane is not unique, since any scalar multiple of the equation is also an
equation for the plane.
For example, the equations x + y + z + d = 0 and 2x + 2y + 2z+ 2d = 0 define the same plane.
EXAMPLE 16 Find a normal vector to the plane E: –2x + 3y – 4z + 11 = 0 and find a point in this plane.
→
Solution A normal vector is n = (–2, 3, –4). To find a point in the plane we can set two coordinates of
the point arbitrarily and find the third coordinate using the equation of the plane. If we
choose x = 1, y = 1 then we get
–2x + 3y – 4z + 11 = 0
–2 ⋅ 1 + 3 ⋅ 1 – 4z+ 11 = 0
12 – 4z = 0, i.e. z = 3. So the point P(1, 1, 3) lies in the plane.
EXAMPLE 17 Find an equation for the plane which passes through

®
n = PQ ×PR
the points P(1, 3, 2), Q(3, –1, 6) and R(5, 2, 0).
−→ −→ R(5, 2, 0)
Solution PQ = (2, –4, 4) and PR = (4, –1, –2). Since both
−→ −→
PQ and PR lie in the plane, their cross product P(1, 3, 2)
−→ −→ Q(3, 1, 6)
PQ × PR is orthogonal to the plane, i.e. it is a E
normal vector. Thus

→ → →
i j k
→ −→ −→ → → →
n = PQ × PR = 2 –4 4 = 12 i + 20 j + 14 k .
4 –1 –2
So an equation for the plane is 12 ⋅ (x – 1) + 20 ⋅ (y – 3) + 14 ⋅ (z – 2) = 0, i.e.

E: 12x + 20y + 14z – 100 = 0.
EXAMPLE 18 Find an equation for the plane which intersects the coordinate axes at the points P(6, 0, 0),
Q(0, 2, 0) and R(0, 0, 1).
Solution Let E: Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 be the equation of the plane. We can substitute any real
number for D and find the values of A, B and C according to this. Let D = 4, then
–2
when we substitute the coordinates of P(6, 0, 0) in the equation we get 6A + 4 = 0 and A = ;
3
when we substitute the coordinates of Q(0, 2, 0) in the equation we get 2B + 4 = 0 and B = –2;
when we substitute the coordinates of R(0, 0, 1) in the equation we get C + 4 = 0 and C = –4.
2
So E: – x – 2y – 4z + 4 = 0 or E: –2x – 6y – 12z + 12 = 0 is an equation of the plane.
3
EXAMPLE 19 Find an equation for the plane that passes through the point P(1, –1, 2) which is perpendicular
x – 2 y +1
to the line l: = = z – 1.
3 –2
x – 2 y +1 →
Solution The line l: = = z – 1 has direction vector v = (3, –2, 1), which is a normal vector
3 –2
to the plane since the plane and the line must be perpendicular.
→ →
The plane which passes through the point P(1, –1, 2) with normal vector n = v = (3, –2, 1) is
E: 3 ⋅ (x – 1) + (–2) ⋅ (y – (–1)) + 1 ⋅ (z – 2) = 0, i.e. E: 3x – 2y + z – 7 = 0.
EXAMPLE 20 Find the equation of the line l that passes through the point A(1, 2, 3) and which is
perpendicular to the plane E: –x + 4y + 5z = 2.
→
Solution The line has the same direction as a normal vector to the plane: n = (–1, 4, 5).
−→ → −→
Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the line l, then AP = (x – 1, y – 2, z – 3) and since n || AP,
(x – 1, y – 2, z – 3) = t ⋅ (–1, 4, 5)
x – 1 = –t, y – 2 = 4t, z – 3 = 5t.
x –1 y– 2 z– 3
So l: = = is the equation of the line.
–1 4 5
Rule equation of a plane through three points

The equation for the plane which passes through three non-collinear points P(x1, y1, z1),
Q(x2, y2, z2) and R(x3, y3, z3) is given by
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1
x2 – x1 y2 – y1 z2 – z1 = 0.
x3 – x1 y3 – y1 z3 – z1
EXAMPLE 21 Find the equation of the plane that passes through the points P(1, 0, –1), Q(2, –1, 3) and
R(–1, 1, 2).
Solution Let us apply the rule above:

x–1 y–0 z – (–1)
2 –1 –1 – 0 3 – (–1) = 0.
–1 – 1 1– 0 2 – (–1)
If we expand the determinant we have

–1 4 1 4 1 –1
( x – 1) ⋅ – y⋅ + ( z + 1) ⋅ =0
1 3 –2 3 –2 1
–7 ⋅ ( x – 1) – y ⋅11 – ( z +1) = 0.
Rearranging this gives us E: –7x – 11y – z + 6 = 0 as the equation for the plane.

Rule equation of a plane through a point which is parallel to two vectors
The equation for the plane that passes through a point P(x1, y1, z1) and which is parallel to
→ →
the vectors u = (u1, u2, u3) and v = (v1, v2, v3) is given by
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1
u1 u2 u3 = 0.
v1 v2 v3
EXAMPLE 22 Find the equation of the plane that passes through P(2, –1, 0) and which is parallel to the
→ →
vectors u = (2, 3, –1) and v = (3, 0, –2).
x–2 y – (–1) z– 0
Solution By the rule given above we have 2 3 –1 = 0.
3 0 –2
3 –1 2 –1 2 3
( x – 2) ⋅ – ( y + 1) ⋅ +z⋅ =0
0 –2 3 –2 3 0
–6 ⋅ ( x – 2) + ( y + 1) – 9 z = 0.
Rearranging the terms gives us E: –6x + y – 9z + 13 = 0 as the equation of the plane.
Rule equation of a plane through two points which is parallel to a line

The equation for the plane that passes through the points P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) and which
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1
x – x0 y – y0 z – z0
is parallel to the line l: = = is given by x2 – x1 y2 – y1 z2 – z1 = 0.
a b c
a b c
EXAMPLE 23 Find the equation of the plane that passes through the points P(–1, 3, 2) and Q(0, 2, 0) and
x – 2 y +1 z – 3
which is parallel to the line l: = = .
3 2 2
x – (–1) y– 3 z– 2
Solution By the rule given above we have 0 – (–1) 2–3 0 – 2 = 0.
3 2 2
–1 –2 1 –2 1 –1
( x +1) ⋅ – ( y – 3) ⋅ +( z – 2) ⋅ =0
2 2 3 2 3 2
2 ⋅ ( x + 1) – 8 ⋅ ( y – 3)+5 ⋅( z – 2) = 0.
Rearranging the terms gives us E: 2x – 8y + 5z + 16 = 0 as the equation of the plane.
Check Yourself 5
1. Find a normal vector to the plane E: 4x – 2y – 3z + 6 = 0.
2. Find the plane E that satisfies each set of conditions.
x +1 y – 2 z
a. E passes through P(2, 1, 3) and is perpendicular to the line l: = = .
–2 1 3
b. E passes through A(2, 1, 3), B(1, –1, 0) and C(1, 0, –3).
c. E passes through A(2, 1, 0) and is parallel to the plane E: 5x – 2y + 3z – 6 = 0.
Answers
→
1. n = (4, –2, –3)
2. a. E: –2x + y + 3z – 6 = 0 b. E: 9x – 3y – z – 12 = 0 c. E: 5x – 2y + 3z – 8 = 0
2. The Angle Between Two Planes

Look the figure. It shows us that the acute angle θ ®
n1 = (a1, b1, c1)
between two planes
®
n2 = (a2, b2, c2)
E1: a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and
q
E2: a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0
is the same as the acute angle between their normals: E2
→ →
n1 ⋅ n2
cos θ = . E1
→ →
| n 1| ⋅ | n 2|
q
EXAMPLE 24 Find the angle θ between the planes E1: ñ2x – 2y + ñ2z – 1 = 0 and E2: 2x + 2ñ2y – 2z + 3 = 0.
→ →
Solution The normal vectors to the planes are n1 = (ñ2, – 2, ñ2) and n2 = (2, 2ñ2, –2) respectively, so
2 ⋅ 2 +(–2) ⋅ 2 2 +(–2) ⋅ 2 1
cos θ = = ⇒ θ = 60 °.
2 2 2 2
( 2 ) +(–2) +( 2 ) ⋅ 2 +(2 2) +(–2) 2 2 2
PARALLEL PLANES
Two planes E1: a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and ®

n1 = (a1, b1, c1)
E2: a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0
are parallel if and only if their normals are parallel, i.e.

E1
a1 b c ®
E1 P E2 ⇔ = 1= 1 . n2 = (a2, b2, c2)
a2 b2 c2
E2

EXAMPLE 25 E1: ax + 2y – z + 5 = 0 and E2: 6x + by + 2z + 6 = 0 are parallel planes. Find a and b.
a 2 –1
Solution If E1 P E2 then = = so a = –3 and b = −4.
6 b 2
PERPENDICULAR PLANES
Two planes E1: a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and E2: a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 are
perpendicular if and only if their normal vectors are orthogonal, i.e.
E1 ⊥ E2 ⇔ (a1 ⋅ a2) + (b1 ⋅ b2) + (c1 ⋅ c2) = 0 .
EXAMPLE 26 E1: 3x – 2y + 4z – 7 = 0 and E2: –2x + ay + z + 1 = 0 are two perpendicular planes. Find a.
→ →
Solution n1 = (3, –2, 4) and n2 = (–2, a, 1) are normal vectors to the given planes.
→ → → →
Since E1 ⊥ E2, n1 ⊥ n2 so n1 ⋅ n2 = 0.
Substituting gives 3 ⋅ (–2) + (–2) ⋅ a + 4 ⋅ 1 = 0 ⇒ a = –1.
Check Yourself 6
1. Find the cosine of the acute angle θ between the planes E1: 2x – y – z – 5 = 0 and
E2: x + y – 2z + 6 = 0.
2. Find a + b if E1: x + ay + 4z – 7 = 0 and E2: bx – 6y – 8z + 5 = 0 are parallel planes.
3. Find a + b if E1: x + 4y + az + 2 = 0 and E2: bx – 3y + z + 1 = 0 are perpendicular planes.

Answers
1
1. cos θ = 2. 1 3. 12
2
INTERSECTION OF TWO PLANES
When two planes intersect each other, their intersection is a line.

EXAMPLE 27 Find the intersection of the planes E1: x + 2y – z + 2 = 0 and E2: 2x + y + 3z – 1 = 0.
Solution We rewrite the first equation as x = z – 2y – 2 and

substitute this result in the second equation:
2(z – 2y – 2) + y + 3z – 1 = 0
5z – 3y – 5 = 0
5z − 5
y= .
3
5t – 5 4 − 7t
If we let z = t then y = and x = .
3 3
Rewriting each component as equal to t gives us the line of intersection of the planes E1 and
3x – 4 3y +5
E2 as l: = = z.
–7 5
EXAMPLE 28 Find the line of intersection of the planes E1: x + y + z – 1 = 0 and E2: x – 2y + 3z – 1 = 0.
Solution We could use the same approach as in the previous example. However, here is a different way
to solve the problem:
Let us begin by finding a point on the line of intersection.
We can substitute z = 0 in E1 and E2 to find where the line intersects the xy-plane:
x + y =1⎫⎪ x =1
⎬ ⇒ . So P(1, 0, 0) lies on the intersection line.
x − 2 y =1⎪⎭ y=0
→
Since the line belongs to both of the planes, it is perpendicular to both n1 = (1, 1, 1) and
→
n2 = (1, –2, 3) which are normal vectors to E1 and E2 respectively.
→ → →
i j k
→ → → → →
So n1 × n2 = 1 1 1 = 5 i – 2 j – 3 k is a vector parallel to the line.
1 –2 3
The equation of the line that passes through the point P(1, 0, 0) and which is parallel to the
→ → → → x –1 y z
vector v = 5 i – 2 j – 3 k is l: = = .
5 –2 –3
Check Yourself 7
1. Find the line of intersection of the planes E1: 2x – y + z – 1 = 0 and E2: x – 2y + z – 2 = 0.
Answers
y +1 z
1. l: x = =
–1 –3

3. Families of Planes
Definition family of planes
The set of planes which all pass through the intersection of

two planes is called a family of planes. The family of planes
which pass through the line of intersection of the planes
E1: a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and
E2: a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 has the equation
a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 + t ⋅ (a2x + b2y + c2z + d2) = 0 where
t ∈ ¡.
EXAMPLE 29 Find an equation for the plane which passes through the point P(1, 2, –1) and the
intersection of the planes E1: 3x – 2y + z – 8 = 0 and E2: x + y – z + 1 = 0.
Solution By the definition above, 3x – 2y + z – 8 + t(x + y – z + 1) = 0 is the equation of the

family of planes. When we substitute the point P(1, 2, –1) in this equation we get
(3 ⋅ 1) – (2 ⋅ 2) + (–1) – 8 + t(1 + 2 – (–1) + 1) = 0, i.e. t = 2.
So the required plane is E: 3x – 2y + z – 8 + [2 ⋅ (x + y – z + 1)] = 0, i.e. E: 5x – z – 6 = 0.
EXAMPLE 30 Find an equation for the plane E which passes through the intersection of the planes
E1: x – 2y + z – 1 = 0 and E2: 2x + y – z + 2 = 0 and which is parallel to the line
x – 1 y+ 3 z – 2
l: = = .
3 2 4
Solution E: x – 2y + z – 1 + t ⋅ (2x + y – z + 2) = 0 is the equation of the plane which passes through

the intersection of the planes E1: x – 2y + z – 1 and E2: 2x + y – z + 2 = 0.
→
n = (1 + 2t, –2 + t, 1 – t) is the normal vector of this plane.
→ x – 1 y+ 3 z – 2
v = (3, 2, 4) is the direction vector of the given l: = = .
3 2 4
→ → → →
If l P E then n ⊥ v and so n ⋅ v = 0, i.e.
3 ⋅ (1 + 2t) + 2 ⋅ (–2 + t) + 4 ⋅ (1 – t) = 0
3 + 6t – 4 + 2t + 4 – 4t = 0
–3
4t + 3 = 0 and t = .
4
If we substitute this value in the equation we get
3
E: x – 2y + z – 1 – [ ⋅ (2x + y – z + 2)] = 0, i.e.
4
E: –2x – 11y + 7z – 10 = 0. This is the required equation of the plane.
ANGLE BETWEEN A LINE AND A PLANE
The angle θ between a line l and a plane E is given by the ®

n l
equation
90° q
→ →
v⋅n
sin θ =
→ → q
| v | ⋅ | n|
→ → E
where v is the direction vector of the line l and n is a normal
vector to the plane E.
This equation is based on the formula for the angle between two vectors. Let the angle
between the line and the plane be θ, then the angle between the direction vector of the plane
and any normal to the plane is (90° – θ ).
→ → → →
v⋅ n v⋅ n
So cos(90° – θ ) = , i.e. sin θ = .
→ → → →
| v| ⋅ | n| | v| ⋅ | n|
EXAMPLE 31 Find the angle between the plane E: ñ2x + y + z – 3 = 0 and the line
x – 3 y +1 z – 2
l: = = .
2 –1 1
→
Solution A normal vector to the plane is n = (ñ2, 1, 1) and the direction vector of the line l is
→
v = (ñ2, –1, 1). Let the angle between the plane and the line be θ, then
→ →
v⋅ n 2 ⋅ 2 +1 ⋅ (–1)+1 ⋅1 2 – 1 +1 1
sin θ = = = = , so θ = 30 °.
→ → 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 2
| v| ⋅ | n| ( 2 ) +1 +1 ⋅ ( 2 ) +(–1) +1
EXAMPLE 32 The line l:

x – 1 y+ 3 z
3
=
–1
= is perpendicular to the plane E: x – by + 2z – 5 = 0. Find a
a
and b. ®
n l
→
Solution The direction vector of the line is v = (3, –1, a), and a normal
→
vector to the plane is n = (1, – b, 2).
→ → 3 –1 a
l ⊥ E so v || n and = = , so
1 –b 2
1 E
a = 6 and b = .
3

EXAMPLE 33 The line l:
x y – 1 z +1
2
=
a
=
–5
and the plane E: (a – 1)x + 2y – 2z + 7 = 0 are parallel. Find a.
®
n
→
Solution v = (2, a, –5) is the direction vector of the line and
→
n = (a – 1, 2, –2) is a normal vector to the plane. l
→ → → →
If E P l then v ⊥ n and v ⋅ n = 0, i.e.
2 ⋅ (a – 1) + a ⋅ 2 + (–5) ⋅ (–2) = 0
2a – 2 + 2a + 10 = 0
E
4a + 8 = 0
E|| l
a = –2.
INTERSECTION OF A LINE AND A PLANE
When a line and plane intersect, their intersection is a point. We can find the coordinates
of the point with the help of the parametric equations of the line. We simply substitute the
parametric values of the line in the equation of the plane to determine the coordinates.
y + 3 z +5
EXAMPLE 34 Find the intersection point of the line l: x – 1=
2
=
3
and the plane
E: x – 3y + 2z + 2 = 0.
Solution We can write the parametric equations of the line as l

l: x = t + 1, y = 2t – 3, z = 3t – 5.
If we substitute these values in the equation of the plane we
have (t + 1) – 3(2t – 3) + 2(3t – 5) + 2 = 0, i.e. P(1, 7, 11)
t + 2 = 0 and so t = –2. When we substitute t = –2 in the
E
parametric equations of the line we get x = –2 + 1,
y = 2(–2) – 3, z = 3(–2) – 5, i.e. x = –1, y = –7 and z = –11.
So the intersection of l and E is the point P(–1, –7, –11).
Check Yourself 8
x y–2
1. Find the angle between the plane E: x + ñ2y + z = 1 and the line l: = = z + 3.
–1 2
x – 2 y z +3
2. Find a + b if the line l: = = is perpendicular to the plane
a 3 b
E: 3x – 5y + 2z – 1 = 0.
y+ 2 y – 1
3. Find the point of intersection of the line l: = = z +1 and the plane
3 –2
E: 2x + y – z + 3 = 0.
Answers
5 4
1. 30° 2. –3 3. P(–3, , – )
3 3
4. The Distance Between a Point and a Plane
Theorem distance between a point and a plane
The distance D between a point P1(x1, y1, z1) and the plane E: ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
| ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d |
D= .
a2 + b2 + c2
Proof Let P0(x0, y0, z0) be any point in the given plane and let
P1(x1, y1, z1)
→ −→ →
v = P0P1, i.e. v = (x1 – x0, y1 – y0, z1 – z0).
From the figure we can see that the distance P0 P1
®
→ n
D from P1 to the plane E is D = |proj→n v| where
→ → P0(x0, y0, z0)
→ v⋅n →
proj→n v = ⋅ n and →
n = (a, b, c).
→2 E
| n|
→ → →
We know that | a| = a ⋅ a , so
⎛→ → → → → →
→ v ⋅ n →⎞ ⎛ v ⋅ n →⎞ ( v ⋅ n)2 → → → → →
|proj→n v |= ⎜ ⋅n ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⋅n⎟= (n ⋅ n) . Since n ⋅ n = | n|2,
⎜ |→ ⎟ ⎜ → ⎟ →4
⎝ n| 2
⎠ ⎝ | n|2 ⎠ | n|
→ → → → → →
( v ⋅ n)2 → → ( v ⋅ n)2 | v ⋅ n|
we have ⋅
(n n) = =
→ → →
| n|4 | n|2 | n|
| a( x1 – x0 )+ b( y1 – y0 )+ c( z1 – z0 )|
=
a2 + b2 + c2
|( ax1 + by1 + cz1 ) – ( ax0 + by0 + cz 0 )|

= .
a2 + b2 + c2
P0 lies in the plane and so we have ax0 + by0 + cz0 + d = 0, i.e. d = –(ax0 + by0 + cz0).
Thus the formula for D can be written as
| ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d |

D= .
a 2 + b2 + c2
EXAMPLE 35 Find the distance between the point P(3, –1, 2) and the plane E: 2x – 2y + z + 2 = 0.
| ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d | |2 ⋅ 3 – 2 ⋅ (–1)+1 ⋅ 2+ 2| 12

Solution D= = = = 4 units
a2 + b2 + c2 22 +(–2)2 +12 3

EXAMPLE 36 Find the distance between the parallel planes E1: 10x + 2y – 2z = 5 and E2: 5x + y – z = 1.
Solution E1 P E2 is given. To find the distance D between the parallel planes we can choose any point
in one of the planes and calculate its distance to the other plane.
1 1
If we substitute y = z = 0 in E1: 10x + 2y – 2z = 5 we get x = and so ( , 0, 0) is a point
2 2
in E1.
1
By the distance formula, the distance between the point ( , 0, 0) and the plane
2
E2: 5x + y – z = 1 is
1 3
5 ⋅ ( )+1 ⋅ (0) – 1 ⋅(0) – 1
2 2 3
D= = = units. So this is the distance between the planes.
52 +12 +(–1)2 3 3 6
EXAMPLE 37 Find the equation of the sphere with center C(1, 2, –3) which is tangent to the plane
E: 2x + 6y – 9z + 3 = 0.
Solution Since the sphere is tangent to the given plane, the radius r
of the sphere is equal to the distance D from the center
C(1, 2, 3)
C(1, 2, –3) to the plane:
r
|2 ⋅ 1+6 ⋅ 2 – 9 ⋅(–3)+ 3| |2+12+ 27+ 3|
r = D= = = 4.
22 +62 +(–9)2 121
So the equation of the sphere is E
(x – 1)2 + (y – 2)2 + (z + 3)2 = 16 or

x2 + y2 + z2 – 2x – 4y + 6z – 2 = 0.
Check Yourself 9
1. Find the distance from the point A(–1, 1, 3) to the plane E: 9x + 2y – 6z – 8 = 0.
2. Find the equation of the sphere with center C(0, 2, 0) which is tangent to the plane
E: x + y + z – 5 = 0.
3. Find the distance between the parallel planes E1: 2x + y – 3z – 8 = 0 and
E2: –4x – 2y + 6z + 10 = 0.
Answers
3 14
1. 3 units 2. x2 + (y – 2)2 + z2 = 3 3. units
14
EXERCISES 2 .1
A. Lines in Space 9. Find the distance between the point R(1, –1, 1) and
1. Find the Cartesian equation of the line that passes the line l: x = 2 – 3t, y = 1 + 4t, z = –1 + 12t.
through each pair of points. 10. Determine whether each statement is true or false.
a. A(2, –1, 1) and B(3, 2, –4) a. Two lines are either parallel or intersect each
b. C(4, –2, 0) and D(2, 0, –3) other.
c. E(0, –2, 6) and F(2, –2, 1) b. Two lines which are parallel to a third line are
parallel.
2. Find the direction vector of each line. c. Two lines which are perpendicular to a third
x– 2 y–1 3– z line are parallel.
a. l1: = =
–4 6 3
11. Find the Cartesian equation of the line through
x y +1
b. l2 : = , z= 2 the origin which is parallel to the line
2 3
y z –1
c. l3 : x = –3 + 4t, y = 5 – 4t, z = –1 + 5t l: x – 2 = = .
4 –1
3. Find the parametric equations of the line which 12. Find the parametric equations of the line
passes through the point A(1, 2, 3) in the through A(0, 1, 2) which is parallel to the line
→
direction of the vector u = (1, –2, 3). l: x = 2t, y = 4 – t, z = 3 + 3t.
4. In each case, find the parametric and Cartesian 13. Find the parametric equations of the line through
equations of the line through point P which is the point P(1, 0, –2) which is parallel to the
→ x-axis.
parallel to the vector u.
→
a. P(–2, 3, 0) and u = (–1, 2, 3) 14. Find the Cartesian equation of the line through
→
b. P(2, –1, 4) and u = (4, –2, 5) A(1, 0, –3) which is parallel to the line through
B(1, –2, 3) and C(3, –2, 4)
5. Write the parametric equations of the y-axis.
15. Find the parametric equations of the line through
x +1 y – 2 z +1 the point P(3, 5, –2) which is parallel to the line
6. The lines l1: = = and
a –3 5 x +1 y – 2
l: = , z =1.
x +1 y +1 1 – z –2 5
l2 : = = are perpendicular. Find a.
1 a –2
16. Find the Cartesian equation of the line through
x – 5 y +6 z – 4 the point P(–2, 0, 3) which is parallel to the line
7. Find p and q if the lines l1: = =
3 p 2 l: x = 4t + 1, y = –2t – 3, z = 5t – 2.
x y – 2 z+ 3 17 . Determine whether the lines
and l2 : = = are parallel.
–2 1 q x +1 y – 1 x z–2
l1: = = z + 3 and l2: = y+1=
3 2 2 3
8. Find the distance between the point R(1, 0, 3) are skew or not skew. If they are not skew, find
y +1 z – 1
and the line l: x +1= = . their point of intersection.
–2 2
B. Planes in Space 23. Find the values of a and b which make the two
planes parallel.
18. Find a normal vector to each plane.
a. E1: 5x – y + az + 5 = 0,
a. E1: 2x + y – 4z + 5 = 0
E2: 2x + by + 4z – 7 = 0
b. E2: 2x + 5y + z = 0
b. E3: ax + 4y – 2z + 4 = 0,
c. E3: 6x – 4y + 7 = 0
E4: 2x – 5y – bz = 0
d. E4: 15y – 4z = 0
e. E5: 2x + 4 = 0
24. Find t if the planes E1: x – 7y + 5z – 4 = 0 and
f. E6: y + 3 = 0 E2: 2x + 3y + tz + 1 = 0 are perpendicular.
19. Find an equation for the plane through the given 25. →
n = (–4, 3, 12) is a normal vector to the plane E,
point which is perpendicular to the given vector. and the distance between the point P(1, –2, 2) and
→
a. A(1, 2, 3), u = (2, 3, –5) E is 3 units. Find an equation for the plane E.
→
b. B(2, 1, 3), v = (–2, 0, 1)
→
c. C(–2, 0, 5), w = (1, 1, –1)
26. Find an equation for the plane that passes through
the point P(–1, 1, 1) and which contains the
intersection line of the planes E1: x + y – z – 2 = 0
20. In each case, find the cosine of the acute angle and E2: 2x – y + 3z – 6 = 0.
between the two planes.
a. E1: x – 2y – z = 1, E2: 4x + 2y + z – 3 = 0
27. Find the distance between the point A(–3, 4, 5)
b. E3: –x + 6y + 2z – 1 = 0, E4: –x + 2y + 2z – 3 = 0 and the plane E: 3x + y – 4z – 7 = 0.
21. In each case, determine whether the two planes 28. Find the equation of the sphere with center
are parallel. C(–1, 1, 2) which is tangent to the plane
a. E1: 4x + 3y – 5z – 9 = 0, E: 3x + y + 4z + 20 = 0.
E2: 4x + 3y – 5z – 6 = 0
29 . The sphere x2 + y2 + z2 – 4x + 2y – 10z – 6 = 0 is
b. E3: 4x + 2y – 4z + 6 = 0, tangent to the plane E: 6x – 7y – 6z + p = 0. Find
E4: 2x – y + 2z – 4 = 0
p.
c. E5: 2x + 3z + 3 = 0,
E6: 4x + 4z – 5 = 0
30. Find the distance between the planes
E1: ñ3x – 3y + 2z + 6 = 0 and
22. In each case, determine whether the two planes
are perpendicular. E2: 2ñ3x – 6y + 4z – 7 = 0.
a. E1: 3x – y – 2z – 5 = 0,
31. Find the set of points which are equidistant from
E2: 2x + 3y – z = 0
the planes E1: 4x – 2y – 6z – 8 = 0 and
b. E3: 2x + 3y – z = 0,
E2: 8x – 4y – 12z + 9 = 0.
E 4: x – y – z + 5 = 0
c. E5: 2x – 5y + z = 0, 32. Find the set of points which are 3 units away from
E6: x + 2z – 3 = 0 the plane E: 2x + y – 2z + 3 = 0.

Mixed Problems 41. Find the angle between the plane
E: x + y + z – 3 = 0 and the line
33. Determine whether each statement is true or false. x+ 3 y – 4
l: = = z +6.
–2 2
a. Two planes parallel to a third plane are parallel.
b. Two planes perpendicular to a third plane are x − 5 y+ 2 z − 4
42. The line l: = = is perpendicular
parallel. 3 a −6
to the plane E: 2x – y + bz – 3 = 0. Find a and b.
c. Two lines parallel to a plane are always parallel.
d. Two planes perpendicular to a line are parallel. 43. The line l: x = –2 – 3t, y = 4 + t, z = 5 – 2t
e. A plane and a line are either parallel or and the plane E: ax + 5y + 4z – 2 = 0 are
intersect each other. perpendicular. Find a.
44. Find the intersection of the line

34. Find an equation for the plane that passes through
the points P(1, –1, –2) and R(3, 1, 1) and which is x – 2 y +1 z – 1
l: = = and the plane
3 4 –1
perpendicular to the plane E1: x – 2y + 3z – 5 = 0.
E: 5x – 2y + z – 1 = 0.
35. Find the angle between the x-axis and the 45. Find the intersection of the plane
intersection line of the planes
E: 2x + y – z + 5 = 0 and the line
E1: 2x + y – z = 0 and E2: x + y + 2z = 0. x –1
l: = z, y = –1.
2
36. Find an equation for the plane through the point
A(1, 2, 3) which is perpendicular to the line 46. Find an equation for the plane through the point
x +1 z P(2, 3, –1) which is parallel to the vectors
l: = y– 4= . → →
–2 –5 u = (1, –1, 2) and v = (3, 2, –3).
37 . Find the plane which contains the intersecting 47 . Find an equation for the plane containing the line
y–1 l: x = 3 – 2t, y = t, z = 8 – 3t which is parallel to
lines l1: x +1= = z and
–1 the plane E: 3x + 9y + z – 13 = 0.
l2: x = t – 2, y = 2t – 1, z = –3t + 3.
48. Find an equation for the plane through the point
38. The points P(2, –1, 3), Q(2, –3, 0), R(1, 0, –2) are P(–2, 0, 5) which contains the line
given. Find an equation for the plane through P l: x = 4 + 2t, y = 2 + t, z = 8 + 3t.

−→
which is perpendicular to the vector QR. 49. Find the parametric equations of the line of
39. Find an equation for the plane through the point intersection of the planes E1: x + y – z – 2 = 0
and E2: 3x – 4y + 5z – 6 = 0.
A(2, –1, 3) which is parallel to the plane
E1: –4x + 2y + 5z – 7 = 0. 50. Find an equation for the plane through the point
P(1, –1, 2) which contains the line l: x = 2y = 3z.
40. Find an equation for the plane which passes
through the point P(1, –2, 1) and the intersection 51. Find an equation for the plane that passes through
the intersection of the planes E : x – z + 2 = 0 and
of the planes E1: x – 3y + 2z – 1 = 0 and 1
E2: y + 2z + 3 = 0 and which is perpendicular to
E2: 2x – y + z – 3 = 0. the plane E3: x + y – 2z + 3 = 0.

Up to now in your studies, you have probably looked at the algebraic solution of systems of
linear equations. In this section we will look at the geometric interpretation of systems of
linear equations in three variables. By interpreting each equation in a system as a plane, we can
find the solution of the system by looking at the position of the planes relative to each other.
In systems involving two equations we look at the relative positions of two planes, and in
systems involving three equations we look at the relative positions of three planes.
A. SYSTEMS OF TWO EQUATIONS

We know that the linear equation ax + by + cz + d = 0 represents the equation of a plane
in space.
⎧ a x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0
Let us consider the system ⎨ 1 .
⎩ a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0
If each equation represents a plane then there are three different possibilities:
1. the planes are coincident
2. the planes are parallel
3. the planes intersect along a line.
Let us look at each case in turn.
CASE 1: Coincident planes
a1 b1 c1 d1
If
= = = then the two planes coincide and
Two planes are coincident a2 b2 c2 d2
E2
if they have different the system has infinitely many solutions. A point which
E1
equations but represent
the same plane. E1 = E2
satisfies any of the equations will satisfy the whole
system.
EXAMPLE 38 ⎧ –3x + y + 2 z – 7 = 0
Interpret the system ⎨
⎩6 x – 2 y – 4 z +14 = 0
geometrically and find its solution set.
–3 1 2 –7
Solution Since = = = , E1: –3x + y + 2z – 7 = 0 and E2: 6x – 2y – 4z + 14 = 0 are
6 –2 –4 14
coincident planes and so the system has infinitely many solutions. If y = p and z = t then
p + 2t – 7
the solution set of the system is {( , p, t); p, t ∈ ¡}. .
3

CASE 2: Parallel planes
a1 b1 c1 d1
If = = ≠ then the two planes are parallel.
a2 b2 c2 d2 E1
Therefore their intersection is the empty set and the
system has no solution.

E2
E1 P E2
⎧ x – 2y + z – 4 = 0
EXAMPLE 39 Interpret the system ⎨
⎩ –2 x + 4 y – 2 z +6 = 0
1 –2 1 –4
Solution Since = = ≠ , E1: x – 2y + z – 4 = 0 and E2: –2x + 4y – 2z + 6 = 0 are parallel
–2 4 –2 6
planes and so the system has no solution.
CASE 3: Two planes intersecting along a line l
a1 b1 a c
If ≠ or 1 ≠ 1 then the two planes intersect along a
a2 b2 a2 c2
line. The system has infinitely many solutions because any
point on the intersection line will satisfy the system. E2

E1
E1 Ç E2 = l
EXAMPLE 40 ⎧4x + y + z = 0
Interpret the system ⎨
⎩2 x + 3y – 2 z = –5
4 1
Solution ≠ so the two planes intersect along a line and
2 3
the system has infinitely many solutions.
If we multiply the first equation by 2 and add the
equations we can eliminate the term in z:
2/ 4x + y + z = 0
+ 2x + 3y – 2z = –5
10x + 5y = –5.
This gives us y = –1 – 2x and when we substitute this in one of the equations we get z = 1 – 2x.
In conclusion, if x = p then the solution set of the system is {(p, –1 – 2p, 1 – 2p); p ∈ ¡}.

Check Yourself 10
⎧⎪ –2 x + y + 3z – 1= 0
1. Interpret the system ⎨ geometrically and find its solution set.
⎪⎩4x – 2 y – 6 z + 4 = 0
⎧⎪5x – 3y + 2 z + 3 = 0
⎪⎩ – x + 2 y + z +5 = 0
⎧⎪ –3x + y + 2 z + 4 = 0
⎪⎩6 x – 2 y – 4 z – 8 = 0
Answers
1. The system represents two parallel planes. It has no solution.
2. The system represents two intersecting planes. The solution set is {(–p – 3, –p – 4, p); p ∈ ¡}.
3. The system represents two coincident planes.
p + 2t + 4
The solution set is { ( , p, t) ; p, t ∈ ¡}.
3
B. SYSTEMS OF THREE EQUATIONS

⎧ a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0
⎪
In the system ⎨ a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0 , each equation can be represented by a plane.
⎪a x+ b y+ c z + d = 0
⎩ 3 3 3 3
There are six possible cases:

1. the three planes are coincident
2. the three planes are parallel
3. two planes are parallel and are intersected by the third plane
4. the three planes intersect in three parallel lines
5. the three planes intersect in a single line
6. the three planes intersect at a single point.
Let us look at each case in turn.
CASE 1: Three coincident planes
a1 b c d a b c d
If = 1 = 1 = 1 and 1 = 1 = 1 = 1 ,
a2 b2 c2 d2 a3 b3 c3 d3
then the system represents three coincident E3
planes. This system has infinitely many E2
E1
solutions. Any point which satisfies one of
E1 = E2 = E3
the equations will satisfy the whole system.

⎧ 4x + 2 y – 2 z – 2 = 0
EXAMPLE 41 ⎪
Interpret the system ⎨ –4 x – 2 y + 2 z + 2 = 0 geometrically and find its solution set.
⎪ 2 x + y – z – 1= 0
⎩
4 2 –2 –2 4 2 –2 –2
Solution = = = and = = = so E1: 4x + 2y – 2z – 2 = 0,
–4 –2 2 2 2 1 –1 –1
E2: –4x – 2y + 2z + 2 = 0 and E3: 2x + y – z – 1 = 0 are coincident planes.
− p + t +1
Let y = p and z = t, then the solution set of the system is {( , p, t); p, t ∈ ¡}.
2
CASE 2: Three parallel planes
a1 b c d a1 b c d
If = 1 = 1 ≠ 1 and = 1 = 1 ≠ 1 then the
a2 b2 c2 d2 a3 b3 c3 d3
E1
system represents three parallel planes.
This system has no solution.
E2
E3
E1 P E2 P E3
⎧4x + 2 y – 2 z – 2 = 0
EXAMPLE 42 ⎪
Interpret the system ⎨2 x + y – z – 5 = 0
⎪ –4 x – 2 y + 2 z + 3 = 0
⎩
4 2 –2 –2
Solution Since = = ≠ , E1 || E2 for E1: 4x + 2y – 2z – 2 = 0 and E2: 2x + y – z – 5 = 0.
2 1 –1 –5
4 2 –2 –2
Since = = ≠ , E1 || E3 for E1: 4x + 2y – 2z – 2 = 0 and E3: –4x – 2y + 2z + 3 = 0.
–4 –2 2 3
So E1 || E2 || E3. These are three parallel planes and therefore the system has no solution.

CASE 3: Two parallel planes both intersected by a third plane
a1 b c d a b a c
If = 1 = 1 ≠ 1 and either 1 ≠ 1 or 1 ≠ 1 then E3
a2 b2 c2 d2 a3 b3 a3 c3
the system represents two parallel planes which are both
intersected by a third plane. This system has no solution.

E1
E2
⎧ –3x + y + 2 z – 7 = 0
EXAMPLE 43 ⎪
Interpret the system ⎨ 6 x – 2 y − 4 z + 5 = 0 geometrically and find its solution set.
⎪2 x – 3y +5 z +6 = 0
⎩
–3 1 2 –7
Solution Since = = ≠ , E1 || E2 where E1: –3x + y + 2z – 7 = 0 and
6 –2 –4 5
–3 1
E2: 6x – 2y – 4z + 5 = 0. Since ≠ , E3 intersects both E1 and E2.
2 –3
So the system has no solution.
CASE 4: Three planes intersecting in three parallel lines l2

l3
Look at the figure. l1
E1 ∩ E2 = l1, E1 ∩ E3 = l2 and a
E 3
E2 ∩ E3 = l3 but E1 ∩ E2 ∩ E3 = ∅. Eb2
The system represented by these planes has no solution.
E1

⎧x – z – 2 = 0
EXAMPLE 44 ⎪
Interpret the system ⎨ x – y + z – 5 = 0
⎪ – x + 2 y – 3z + 4 = 0
geometrically and find the solution set.
⎩
Solution Let us check the equations in pairs. We will begin with the first and second planes,
E1: x – z – 2 = 0 and E2: x – y + z – 5 = 0:
x–z–2=0
+ x–y+z–5=0
2x – y – 7 = 0.
This gives us an equation without a term in z.

When we express y in terms of x we get y = 2x – 7. Now we can substitute this result in the
second equation in the system to express z in terms of x:
x – (2x – 7) + z – 5 = 0
x – 2x + 7 + z – 5 = 0
z = x – 2.
So y = 2x – 7 and z = x – 2.
y +7
If we rearrange these terms we get l1: x = = z + 2 as the intersection line of E1 and
2
→
E2, i.e. E1 ∩ E2 = l1 and v1 = (1, 2, 1) is the direction vector of l1.
Now let us check the first and third planes, E1: x – z – 2 = 0 and E3 = –x + 2y – 3z + 4 = 0:
x–z–2=0
–x + 2y – 3z + 4 = 0
+
2y – 4z + 2 = 0.
We have eliminated the term in x. When we express y in terms of z we get y = 2z – 1.

Now we substitute this result in the third equation of the system to express x in terms of z:
–x + 2(2z – 1) – 3z + 4 = 0
–x + 4z – 2 – 3z + 4 = 0
x = z + 2.
So y = 2z – 1 and x = z + 2.
y +1
Rearranging these terms gives us l2 : x – 2 = = z as the intersection line of E1 and
2
→ → →
E3, i.e. E1 ∩ E3 = l2 and v2 = (1, 2, 1) is the direction vector of l2. So v1 = v2 and l1 || l2 because
→
both lines have the same direction vector v = (1, 2, 1).
So l1 ∩ l2 = ∅ because l1 || l2 and l1 ≠ l2. Therefore the system has no solution.

CASE 5: Three planes intersecting in a single line l
Look at the figure. E1 ∩ E2 ∩ E3 = l.
The system represented by these planes has infinitely many
solutions.
Every point on the line of intersection satisfies the system.
E1 E2 E3
⎧ –7 x +7 y – 2 z – 1= 0
EXAMPLE 45 ⎪
Interpret the system ⎨ x – y + z – 2 = 0
⎪ x – y – 3z +10 = 0
⎩
Solution Again we begin by checking the planes. Let us start by checking E1: –7x + 7y – 2z – 1 = 0
and E2: x – y + z – 2 = 0:
–7x + 7y – 2z – 1 = 0
+ 7/ x–y+z–2=0
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
5z – 15 = 0
z = 3.
When we substitute this value in any of the given equations we get x – y = –1.
So the intersection of the planes E1: –7x + 7y – 2z – 1 = 0 and E2: x – y + z – 2 = 0 is the line
l: x = y – 1, z = 3.
Now let us check the planes E2: x – y + z – 2 = 0 and E3: x – y + 3z + 10 = 0:
x–y+z–2=0
x – y – 3z + 10 = 0
–
4z – 12 = 0
z = 3.
When we substitute this value in any of the given equations we get x – y = –1.
So the intersection of the planes E2: x – y + z – 2 = 0 and E3: x – y + 3z + 10 = 0 is the
line l2: x = y – 1, z = 3. Since l1 = l2, the planes E1, E2 and E3 all intersect along the same
line. The system therefore has infinitely many solutions.
All the points on the line l1 = l2: x = y – 1, z = 3 satisfy the given system, so the solution set
of the system is {(t, t + 1, 3); t ∈ ¡}.

CASE 6: Three planes intersecting at a single point
Look at the figure. E1 ∩ E2 ∩ E3 = P.
The system represented by these planes has a unique
solution, which is the single point of intersection.
P
E1
E3
E2
⎧x – y + z – 2 = 0
EXAMPLE 46 ⎪
Interpret the system ⎨ –2 x + y – z + 3 = 0 geometrically and find its solution set.
⎪ x – y – 3z +10 = 0
⎩
Solution Let us check the planes E1: x – y + z – 2 = 0 and E2: –2x + y – z + 3 = 0:

x–y+z–2=0
+ –2x + y – z + 3 = 0
–x + 1 = 0
x = 1.
Substituting this value in E1 gives us z – y = 1.
So the intersection of the planes E1: x – y + z – 2 = 0 and E2: –2x + y – z + 3 = 0 is the
line l1: y = z – 1, x = 1.
Now let us check the planes E1: x – y + z – 2 = 0 and E3: x – y – 3z + 10 = 0:
x–y+z–2=0
– x – y – 3z + 10 = 0
4z – 12 = 0
z = 3.
When we substitute this value in E3 we obtain x – y = –1.
So the intersection of the planes E1: x – y + z – 2 = 0 and
E3: x – y + 3z + 10 = 0 is the line l2: x = y – 1, z = 3.
Now let us find the intersection of lines l1 and l2.
We begin by writing the parametric equations of l1 and l2:
l1: y = z – 1, x = 1 has the parametric form l1: x = 1, y = p,
z = p + 1, p ∈ ¡.
l2: x = y – 1, z = 3 has the parametric form l2: x = t, y = t + 1, z = 3, t ∈ ¡.
Now we equate the corresponding coordinates: t = 1, p = t + 1 and p + 1 = 3.
So we have t = 1 and p = 2.
When we substitute these values in both lines we get (1, 2, 3). So the solution set of the
system is {(1, 2, 3)}.

Check Yourself 11
1. Interpret each system geometrically and find its solution set.
⎧ x + 2y – z + 3 = 0 ⎧2 x + y + z + 3 = 0
⎪ ⎪
a. ⎨ 3x +6 y – 3z +9 = 0 b. ⎨ – x + 2 z +5 = 0
⎪ –2 x – 4 y + 2 z – 6 = 0 ⎪ y +5z +13 = 0
⎩ ⎩
⎧ 3x + y – z +5 = 0 ⎧ x – 2 y +6 z + 3 = 0
⎪ ⎪
c. ⎨ x – y + z + 3 = 0 d. ⎨ 4 x + y – 3z = 0
⎪3x + y – 2z +1= 0 ⎪5x + 2 y – 6 z +1= 0
⎩ ⎩
⎧ –2 x + 4 y + z – 3 = 0
⎪
e. ⎨ x + 2 y + z +1= 0
⎪ 4x – 8 y – 2 z +6 = 0
⎩
Answers
1. a. The system represents three parallel planes. It has no solution.
x – 5 y – 13
b. The system represents three planes which intersect along the line l: = = z.
2 –5
The solution set is {(2t + 5, –5t – 13, t); t ∈ ¢)}.
c. The system represents three planes which intersect at a point. The solution set is
{(–2, –3, –4)}.
d. The system represents three pairs of intersecting planes. It has no solution.
e. The system represents two parallel planes both intersected by a third plane. It has no
solution.
C. CRAMER’S RULE
In this section we will learn another method for solving linear equations, namely Cramer’s
rule. Cramer’s rule can be applied to any linear system of n equations in n variables, but here
we will only deal with its application to a system of linear equations in three variables.
Cramer’s rule for the solution of a linear system in three variables uses the determinant of a
3 × 3 matrix. For this reason, we will begin by learning another way of finding the
determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix, called Sarrus expansion.
SARRUS EXPANSION
⎡ a11 a12 a13 ⎤

⎢ ⎥
To find the determinant of A = ⎢ a21 a22 a23 ⎥ , we begin by writing the first two rows of
⎢⎣ a31 a32 a33 ⎥⎦
the matrix below the third one:
a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23 .
Then we find the sum of the products of the three ‘downward diagonals’:
D = (a11 ⋅ a22 ⋅ a33) + (a21 ⋅ a32 ⋅ a13) + (a31 ⋅ a12 ⋅ a23)
and the sum of the products of the three ‘upward diagonals’:
U = (a31 ⋅ a22 ⋅ a13) + (a11 ⋅ a32 ⋅ a23) + (a21 ⋅ a12 ⋅ a33).
The determinant of A is then
det(A) = D – U
= [(a11 ⋅a22 ⋅a33)+(a21 ⋅a32 ⋅a13)+(a31 ⋅a12 ⋅a23)]–[(a13 ⋅a22 ⋅a31)+(a23 ⋅a32 ⋅a11)+(a33 ⋅a12 ⋅a21)].
⎡ 1 0 2⎤
EXAMPLE 47 ⎢
Find the determinant of A = ⎢ –3 1 4 ⎥⎥ using Sarrus expansion.
⎢⎣ 2 –4 1 ⎥⎦
Solution 1 0 2
3 1 4
2 4 1
1 0 2
3 1 4
det(A) = |A| = [(1 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 1) + [(–3) ⋅ (–4) ⋅ 2 + (2 ⋅ 0 ⋅ 4)] – [(2 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 2) + (1 ⋅ (–4) ⋅ 4) + ((–3) ⋅ 0 ⋅ 1)]
= (1 + 24) – (–12)
= 37

Now we are ready to learn Cramer’s rule for solving linear systems in three variables.
CRAMER’S RULE
Given the system of equations

⎧ a11 ⋅ x + a12 ⋅ y + a13 ⋅ z = d1
⎪
⎨ a21 ⋅ x + a22 ⋅ y + a23 ⋅ z = d2
⎪
⎩ a31 ⋅ x + a32 ⋅ y + a33 ⋅ z = d3
we calculate the determinants
a11 a12 a13 d1 a12 a13 a11 d1 a13 a11 a12 d1
∆ = a21 a22 a23 , ∆x = d2 a22 a23 , ∆y = a21 d2 a23 , and ∆ z = a21 a22 d2 .
a31 a32 a33 d3 a32 a33 a31 d3 a33 a31 a32 d3
1. If ∆ ≠ 0 then the system has a unique solution:

∆ ∆y ∆
x= x , y= , z= z .
∆ ∆ ∆
2. If ∆ = ∆x = ∆y = ∆z = 0 then the system has infinitely many solutions.
3. If ∆ = 0 and at least one of ∆x, ∆y and ∆z is non-zero, then the solution set is the empty set.
⎧ x–y+z=0
EXAMPLE 48 ⎪
Solve ⎨ 2x – y + z = –1 using Cramer’s rule.
⎪
⎩ x + 2y – 3z = 6
Solution We begin by calculating the determinant ∆ of the corresponding matrix. Using Sarrus expansion,
1 1 1
D= 2 1 1
1 2 3
1 1 1
2 1 1
= (1 ⋅ (–1) ⋅ (–3) + 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ (–1) ⋅ 1) – (1 ⋅ (–1) ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 + (–3) ⋅ (–1) ⋅ 2)

= (3 + 4 – 1) – (–1 + 2 + 6)
=6–7
= –1.
Since ∆ ≠ 0, the system has a unique solution.

Now we calculate the other three determinants:
0 1 1
Dx = 1 1 1
6 2 3
0 1 1
1 1 1
= (0 ⋅ (–1) ⋅ (–3) + (–1) ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 + 6 ⋅ (–1) ⋅ 1) – (1 ⋅ (–1) ⋅ 6 + 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 0 + (–3) ⋅ (–1) ⋅ (–1))

= (0 – 2 – 6) – (–6 + 0 – 3)
= (–8) – (–9)
=1
1 0 1
Dy = 2 1 1
1 6 3
1 0 1
2 1 1
= (0 ⋅ (–1) ⋅ (–3) + 2 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 0 ⋅ 1) – (1 ⋅ (–1) ⋅ 1 + 1 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 1 + (–3) ⋅ 0 ⋅ 2)

= (3 + 12 + 0) – (–1 + 6 + 0)
= 15 – 5
= 10
1 1 0
and finally, Dz = 2 1 1
1 2 6
1 1 0
2 1 1
= (1 ⋅ (–1) ⋅ 6 + 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 0 + 1 ⋅ (–1) ⋅ (–1)) – (0 ⋅ (–1) ⋅ 1 + (–1) ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 + 6 ⋅ (–1) ⋅ 2)
= (–6 + 0 + 1) – (0 – 2 – 12)
= –5 + 14
= 9.
∆x 1 ∆ y 10 ∆ 9
So x = = = –1, y = = = –10, z = z = = –9
∆ –1 ∆ –1 ∆ –1
and the solution set of the system is {(–1, –10, –9)}.

EXAMPLE 49 For which value(s) of p does the linear system
⎧ px + y – 5z = 1
⎪
⎨ x + 2y + pz = p + 5
⎪ –y + 2z = –1
⎩
have a. a unique solution?
b. infinitely many solutions?
c. no solution?
p 1 –5
2 p 1 p 1 2
Solution ∆= 1 2 p =p⋅ –1⋅ +(–5) ⋅
0 –1 2 –1 2 0 2 0 –1
= p ⋅ (4 + p) – 1(2 – 0) + (–5) ⋅ (–1 – 0)

= 4p + p2 – 2 + 5
= p2 + 4p + 3
= (p + 3)(p + 1)
a. ∆ ≠ 0 means the system has a unique solution, so p ∈ ¡ – {–3, –1} gives a unique solution.
b. ∆ = ∆x = ∆y = ∆z = 0 means the system has infinitely many solutions.
For p = –3, ∆ = 0 and
1 1 –5
2 –3 2 –3 2 2
∆x = 2 2 –3 =1 ⋅ –1⋅ +(–5) ⋅ =1 – 1+0 = 0
–1 –1 2 –1 2 –1 2 –1 – 1
–3 1 –5
2 –3 1 –3 1 2
∆y = 1 2 –3 = ( − 3) ⋅ –1⋅ +( −5) = −3 − 2+5 = 0
0 –1 2 –1 2 0 2 0 −1
–3 1 1
∆z = 1 2 2 = 0.
0 –1 –1
So the system has infinitely many solutions when p = –3.
c. For p = –1, ∆ = 0 and
1 1 –5
2 –1 4 –1 4 2
∆x = 4 2 –1 =1 ⋅ –1⋅ +(–5) ⋅
–1 –1 2 –1 2 –1 2 –1 – 1
= 1 ⋅ (4 – 1) – 1 ⋅ (8 – 1) + (–5) ⋅ (–4 + 2)
= 3 – 7 + 10 = 6.
Since ∆ = 0 and ∆x = 6 ≠ 0, the system has no solution for p = –1.

Check Yourself 12
1. Use Cramer’s rule to solve the linear system
⎧ 3x + y – z +1= 0
⎪
⎨ x + y – z + 2 = 0 ..
⎪ x – y + 2z + 3 = 0
⎩
⎧ px + y – 3z =1
⎪
2. For which value(s) of p does the linear system ⎨ y + pz = p – 1 have
⎪ x – y + 3z = –1
⎩
a. a unique solution?
b. infinitely many solutions?
c. no solution?
Answers
1. {( 1 , –19 , – 7)} 2. a. p ∈ ¡ – {–1, –3} b. –1 c. –3

2 2

EXERCISES 2 .2
A. Systems of Two Equations 2. The planes E1: x – 3y + 3z – 2 = 0,
E2: 3x – 2y + z – 4 = 0 and
B. Systems of Three Equations
E3: 2x + py – 2z – 1 = 0 intersect in three
1. Interpret each system geometrically and find its parallel lines. Find p.
solution set.
⎧ − x + 3y – 2 z – 6 = 0
a. ⎨
⎩2 x – y + z – 1= 0
3. Show that the planes E1: –x – y + z – 4 = 0,

b. ⎧⎨ –2 x + 3y – z – 3 = 0 E2: 2x – y – z – 1 = 0 and E3: x + 2y + z – 5 = 0
⎩4x – 6 y + 2 z – 1= 0 intersect at a single point and find the coordinates
of this point.
⎧ x + 3y – z – 3 = 0
c. ⎨
⎩ –2 x – 6 y + 2 z +6 = 0
⎧2 x + 2 y + z – 10 = 0
⎪
d. ⎨ x + y – z + 4 = 0
⎪ –3x – 3 y + 2 z – 6 = 0
C. Cramer’s Rule
⎩
⎧ x + 3y + 2 z – 4 = 0
⎪
4. The system ⎨3x – y – 4 z – 3 = 0
⎪ px – 2 y − 3z − 1= 0
⎧ 2 x + 3y + z – 9 = 0 ⎩
⎪
e. ⎨ x + 2 y – z – 3 = 0 has a unique solution. Find p.
⎪3x + y + 2 z – 4 = 0
⎩
⎧2 x + 3y – 1= 0
⎪
f. ⎨ y + 2z – 5 = 0
⎪3x – 2 z = 0
⎩
⎧3x + y – 2 z – 5 = 0
⎪
⎧2 x + 3y – z – 1= 0 5. The system ⎨2 x – y + z – 3 = 0
⎪ ⎪ x + 2 y + pz – 1= 0
g. ⎨ x + y + 2 z – 5 = 0 ⎩
⎪ −4 x − 6 y + 2 z + 3 = 0 has no solution. Find p.
⎩
Mixed Problems ⎧2 x – 4y +8 z – 7 = 0
10. Interpret the system ⎪⎨ x – 3y + 3z + 4 = 0
6. The planes E1: x – 4y + 3z – 2 = 0, ⎪3x – 6 y +12 z – 2 = 0
⎩
E2: 2x – 3y + z – 5 = 0 and geometrically and find its solution set.
E3: ax + y – 2z – 3 = 0 intersect along a single
line. Find the value of a and the equation of the
line of intersection.
⎧ x + y + z – 1= 0
11 . Interpret the system ⎪⎨2 x – 3y – 2 z + 4 = 0
⎪3x – 2 y – z – 2 = 0
⎧ mx + 3y – z – 3 = 0 ⎩
7. The system ⎨ has no solution.
⎩ –2 x + ny + 2 z + 4 = 0 geometrically and find its solution set.
Find m + n.
⎧3x – y + 4z – 7 = 0
⎧3x – 2 y + 4z − 3 = 0
⎪ 12. Interpret the system ⎪⎨2 x + y + z – 3 = 0
8. Interpret the system ⎨ x – y + 2 z – 2 = 0 ⎪8 x – y +9 z – 17 = 0
⎪2 x – y + 2 z – 1= 0 ⎩
⎩
⎧ x – y + z – 1= 0 ⎧2 x – y + 3z +9 = 0
⎪
9. The system ⎨2 x + y − 3z − 2 = 0 has a unique 13. Interpret the system ⎪⎨ x + 3y – z +10 = 0
⎪ x + 2 y – pz − 3 = 0 ⎪3x + y – z – 8 = 0
⎩ ⎩
solution. Find p. geometrically and find its solution set.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
• l: x = x0 + ta, y = y0 + tb, z = z0 + tc (t ∈ ¡) are the • ax + by + cz + d = 0 is the Cartesian equation of the
→
parametric equations of the line l through the point plane which is perpendicular to the vector n = (a, b, c).
P0(x0, y0, z0) which is parallel to the vector v→= (a, b, c). • The equation of the plane through three points P(x1, y1, z1),
x – x1 y – y0 z – z0 Q(x2, y2, z2) and R(x3, y3, z3) is given by
• l: = = is the Cartesian equation of the
a b c x – x1 y – y1 z – z1
line through P0(x0, y0, z0) which is parallel to the vector
→ x2 – x1 y2 – y1 z2 – z1 = 0.
v = (a, b, c).
x3 – x1 y3 – y1 z3 – z1
• The equation of the line which passes through the points
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1 • The equation of the plane through a point P(x1, y1, z1)
A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) is l: = = . →
x2 – x1 y2 – y1 z2 – z1 which is parallel to the vectors u = (u1, u2, u3) and
→
v = (v1, v2, v3) is given by
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1
• The angle α between two lines l1: = =
a1 b1 c1 x – x1 y – y1 z – z1
x – x2 y – y2 z – z2
and l2 : = = is the same as the angle u1 u2 u3 = 0.
a2 b2 c2
→ v1 v2 v3
between their direction vectors v1 = (a1, b1, c1) and
→ → • The equation of the plane through the points
→ v1 ⋅ v2
v2 = (a2, b2, c2), and cos α = → → . P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) which is parallel to the line
| v1| ⋅ | v2|
x – x0 y – y0 z – z0
l: = = is given by
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1 a b c
• The lines l1: = = and
a1 b1 c1 x – x1 y – y1 z – z1
x – x2 y – y2 z – z2 are parallel if and only if their x2 – x1 y2 – y1 z2 – z1 = 0.
l2 : = =
a2 b2 c2 a b c
a b c
direction vectors are parallel: l1 || l2 ⇔ 1 = 1 = 1 .
a2 b2 c2 • The acute angle θ between two planes E1 and E2 is the
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1
• Two lines l1: = = and same as the acute angle between their normals:
a1 b1 c1
→ →
x – x2 y – y2 z – z2 n1 ⋅ n2
l2 : = = are perpendicular if and only cos θ = .
a2 b2 c2 → →
| n 1| ⋅ | n 2|
if their direction vectors are orthogonal:
l1 ⊥ l2 ⇔ (a1 ⋅ a2) + (b1 ⋅ b2) + (c1 ⋅ c2) = 0. • Two planes E1: a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and
• Two lines l1 and l2 are called skew lines if E2: a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 are parallel if and only if
a b c
1. l1 P l2 (they are not parallel), and their normals are parallel: E1 || E2 ⇔ 1 = 1 = 1 .
a2 b2 c2
2. l1 ∩ l2 = ∅ (their intersection is empty set).
• Two planes E1: a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and
• The distance d between a point R(x0, y0, z0) and the line E2: a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 are perpendicular if and only
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1 if their normal vectors are orthogonal:
l: = = is
a b c E1 ⊥ E2 ⇔ a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0.
1 −→ → −→ → →
d= |PR|2 ⋅ | v |2 – (PR ⋅ v )2 where v = (a, b, c) • The family of planes which pass through the line of
→ ⋅
| v| intersection of the planes E1: a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and
is the direction vector of l and P is an arbitrary point on l. E2: a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 has the equation
• A vector which is perpendicular to a plane is called a a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 + t ⋅ (a2x + b2y + c2z + d2) = 0 where
normal vector to the plane. t ∈ ¡.
Chapter Summary 105

• When two non-coincident planes intersect each other, we can calculate the determinants
their intersection is a line. a11 a12 a13 d1 a12 a13
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1 ∆ = a21 a22 a23 , ∆ x = d2 a22 a23 ,
• The angle θ between a line l: = = and
a b c a31 a32 a33 d3 a32 a33
a plane E: ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given by
→ → a11 d1 a13 a11 a12 d1
v⋅n → ∆ y = a21 d2 a23 , and ∆ z = a21 a22 d2 .
sin θ = where v = (a1, b1, c1) is the direction
→ →
| v| ⋅ | n| a31 d3 a33 a31 a32 d3
→
vector of l and n = (a2, b2, c2) is a normal vector to E. 1. If ∆ ≠ 0 then the system has a unique solution:
∆ ∆y ∆
• The distance D between a point P(x1, y1, z1) and the plane x= x , y= , z= z .
∆ ∆ ∆
| ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d |
E: ax + by + cz + d = 0 is D = . 2. If ∆ = ∆x = ∆y = ∆z = 0 then the system has
a2 + b 2 + c2 infinitely many solutions.
• Any linear equation in three variables can be represented
3. If ∆ = 0 and at least one of ∆x, ∆y and ∆z is non-zero,
by a plane in analytic space.
then the solution set is the empty set.
A system of two equations represents two planes in space.
There are three possible cases: Concept Check
1. The planes are coincident and the system has
1. Which two things define a line in analytic space?
infinitely many solutions.
2. How do we determine the parametric equations of a line
2. The planes are parallel and the system has no solution.
through a given point which is parallel to another line?
3. The planes intersect along a line and the system has
3. What is the equation of a line which passes through two
given points?
A system of three equations represents three planes in 4. How do we determine the angle between two lines?
space. There are six possible cases:
5. What is the necessary condition for two lines to be parallel?
1. The planes are coincident and the system has
6. How can we determine whether two given lines are
perpendicular?
2. The planes are all parallel and the system has no solution.
7. Which two conditions tell us that two given lines are
3. Two parallel planes are intersected by a third plane skew lines?
and the system has no solution. 8. Explain the procedure for finding the distance between
4. The three planes intersect in three parallel lines. This a point and a line.
system has no solution. 9. Which two things determine a plane in space?
5. The three planes intersect in a single line. This system 10. How can we determine the equation of a plane through
has infinitely many solutions. three given points?
6. The three planes intersect at a point. This system has 11. Explain the procedure for finding the acute angle
a unique solution. between two planes.
• Sarrus expansion is a method for finding the determinant 12. How can we determine the equation of a plane which
of a 3×3 matrix. We copy the first two rows of the matrix passes through the intersection of two planes?
below the third row. The determinant of the matrix is 13. Explain how analytic space is useful for solving
D–U where D is the sum of the products of the three systems of equations in three variables.
‘downward diagonals’ and U is the sum of the products of
14. A system of equations is represented by two parallel
the three ‘upward diagonals’.
planes both intersected by a third plane. What kind of
• Cramer’s rule: Given the system of equations solution set does the system have?
⎧ a11 ⋅ x + a12 ⋅ y + a13 ⋅ z = d1 15. If a linear system of three equations in three variables
⎪ a ⋅x+a ⋅y+a ⋅z=d
⎨ 21 22 23 2 has no solution, in how many different ways can this be
⎪ a31 ⋅ x + a32 ⋅ y + a33 ⋅ z = d3 represented in analytic space?
⎩

CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2A
1. Which point lies on the line 5. Which vector is parallel to the line
y+ 2 z – 1 l: 5x = –4y = 2z?
l: x – 4 = = ?
3 4
A) (5, –4, 2) B) (2, –4, 5)
A) (1, –2, 3) B) (4, 1, –2) C) (1, 3, 4)
1 1 1
C) (–2, 5, –4) D) ( , , )
D) (5, 1, 5) E) (4, –2, –1) 2 4 5
1 1 1
E) ( , – , )
5 4 2
2. What is the equation of the line through the point
→
P(2, 0, –1) which is parallel to v = (–2, 1, 3)?
x + 2 z +1
A) l: = , y=0
2 3
x–2 z +1
B) l: = y=
–2 3
x z
C) l: = y=
–2 3
x z x +1 y – 2 z – 4
D) l: = , y = 0 6. The lines l1: = = and
2 –1 2 3 –1
x y z
E) l: x = 2, y = 0, z = –1 l2 : = = are perpendicular. Find a.
a –2 4
A) 7 B) 5 C) 3 D) 1 E) –1
3. What is the equation of the line which passes

through the points A(–1, 3, 4) and B(2, 0, 1)?
A) l: –x – 1 = y – 3 = z – 4
B) l: x + 2 = y + 1 = z
C) l: x + 1 = y – 3 = z – 4
7. Which line passes through the point P(3, –1, 2)
D) l: x + 2 = y = z + 1
and the origin?
E) l: x – 1 = y + 3= z + 4
A) l: 3x = –y = 2z
x y z
B) l: = =
x – 2 y +1 z –3 –1 –2
4. The lines l1: = = and
5 4 t C) l: x – 3 = y + 1 = z – 2
x +1 y z
l2 : = = are parallel. Find t. x – 3 y +1 z – 2
10 8 –2 D) l: = =
3 –1 2
A) 3 B) –2 C) –1 D) 0 E) 1 E) l: x + 3 = y – 1 = z – 2
Chapter Review Test 2A 107
8. Find the equation of the line through the point 12. What is the angle between the lines
−→
P(–1, 0, 2) which is parallel to the vector QR for x – 2 y +5 z
l1: = = and
4 2 –4
Q(2, –1, 3) and R(3, 1, 2).
y – 1 z+ 2
y z–2 l2 : x – 3 = = ?
A) l: x +1= = 4 3
2 –1
x +1 y A) 30° B) 45° C) 60° D) 75° E) 90°
B) l: = =z–2
–1 2
x +1 y
C) l: = =z–2
–1 –2 13. What is the point of intersection of the lines
y z+ 2 x y x– 3 y– 4
D) l: x – 1= = l1: = = z and l2 : = = z – 2?
2 –1 3 2 4 2
x –1 y z+ 2 A) (–2, –6, –4) B) (–1, –4, –2) C) (1, 3, 2)
E) l: = =
–1 –2 –1
D) (2, 8, 4) E) (15, 10, 5)
x – 2 y z+ 3
9. The lines l1: = = and 14. What is the point of intersection of the yz-plane
3 b 4
x y+ 2 z and the line which passes through the points
l2 : = = are parallel. What is a + b? (3, 4, –1) and (–1, –14, –7)?
a 2 3
59 35 7 5 1 23 11 23 11
A) B) C) D) E) A) (0, , ) B) (0, – , )
12 12 12 12 12 2 2 2 2
23 11 23 11
C) (0, , ) D) (0, – , – )
4 4 2 2
10. What is the cosine of the angle between the lines
x – 5 y+ 2 z – 1 E) (0, – 23 , – 11)
l1: = = and 4 4
3 –4 5
x+ 2 y – 3 z
l2 : = = ?
4 3 5 15. Which line is perpendicular to the z-axis?
2 –1 1 2 A) l: 3x = y = 2z B) l: 2x = 3z, y = 1
A) – B) C) 0 D) E)
2 2 2 2
C) l: y = 3z, x = 2 D) l: x = y, z = 3
E) l: x + 1 = 2y = 3z
x–2 z
11. The lines l1: = y +1= and
3 5
16. What is the distance between the point P(1, 0, 1)
x–5 y
l2 : = = z – 2 are perpendicular. x+ 2 y – 1 z
a 3 and the line l: = = ?
3 2 –1
What is a?
–8 74 59 59 59 59
A) 15 B) 9 C) 0 D) –2 E) A) B) C) D) E)
3 7 7 56 14 28

CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2B
1. What is the equation of the plane through the 5. Which point lies in the plane
point P(2, –1, 0) which is perpendicular to the E: –2x + 3y + 4z + 5 = 0?
→
vector v = (1, –2, 2)?
A) (–1, –1, –1) B) (0, 1, 2) C) (2, 0, 1)
A) –x + 2y – 2z + 15 = 0
D) (1, 1, 1) E) (–2, 0, –1)
B) x – 2y + 2z = 0
C) 2x – 4y + 4z – 8 = 0
D) –x + 2y + 2z – 5 = 0
E) 2x – y = 5
6. The planes E1: 2x + my – z = 0 and

E2: nx – 4y + 2z – 3 = 0 are parallel. What is
2. What is the equation of the plane through the
m + n?
point P(3, –2, 4) which is perpendicular to the
line l: x + 2 = y – 1 = z ? A) –2 B) –1 C) 0 D) 1 E) 2
3 4 5
A) x + 2y + z = 0 B) 3x + 4y + 5z – 21 = 0
C) 2x + y – z = 0 D) x + y + z – 5 = 0
E) 2x + 4y + z = 0
7. The planes E1: x – 2y + 3z – 7 = 0 and

E2: 2x + 3y – tz + 4 = 0 are perpendicular. Find t.
3. Which vector is normal to the plane
E: 3x + y – 2z + 5 = 0? 32 4 4 32
A) – B) – C) –1 D) E)
A) (3, –1, –2) B) (–3, 1, –2) 3 3 3 3
C) (–3, –2, 4) D) (6, –2, –4)

1 2
E) ( 1, , )
3 3
4. Which equation defines a plane?

8. Find the angle between the planes
A) x = z B) x2 + y2 + (z – 2)2 = 5 E1: ñ2x – y + z – 3 = 0 and
C) x = 2, y = 4 D) 2x = 3y = 4z E2: ñ2x + y + z + 5 = 0.
2
E) x + y – 3z = 5 A) 30° B) 45° C) 60° D) 75° E) 90°
Chapter Review Test 2B 109

→
9. Find the distance between the point P(–3, 2, 1) 13. Which plane is perpendicular to v = (1, 2, –3) and
and the plane E: 12x + 3y – 4z – 5 = 0. intersects the y-axis at the point P(0, 2, 0)?
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 E) 5 A) E: x + 2y + 3z – 4 = 0
B) E: x – 2y – 3z = 0
C) E: x + 2y – 3z – 4 = 0
D) E: –x – 2y – 3z + 6 = 0
E) E: x – 2y – 3z – 6 = 0
10. A sphere has center C(1, 1, 1) and is tangent to
the plane E: 2x – 6y + 9z + 2 = 0. Find its radius.
14. Which equation defines a plane passing through
25 35
A) 1 B) 2 C) D) 3 E) the point P(1, –1, 2) which is parallel to both
11 11
x +1 y – 1 z x + 2 y +1 z – 1
l1: = = and l2 : = = ?
–1 2 2 3 –1 2
A) 6x – 8y + 5z – 12 = 0
B) 6x + 8y – 5z + 12 = 0
C) –6x + 8y – 5z + 12 = 0
11. Which equation defines a plane parallel to both D) 6x + 8y – 5z + 12 = 0

→ → E) –6x + 8y + 5z – 12 = 0
u = (2, 1, –1) and v = (1, –2, 0)?
A) –2x + y – 5z + 3 = 0 B) 2x – y – 5z = 0
C) –2x – y + 5z + 7 = 0 D) –2x – y – 5z = 0 15. Which equation defines a plane passing through

the point P(3, 1, –1) which is parallel to the plane
E) 2x + y – 5z + 2 = 0
E: 2x + y – z – 6 = 0?
A) 2x + y – z – 8 = 0
B) –2x – y + z + 6 = 0
C) 4x + 2y – 2z + 4 = 0
12. Which plane passes through the origin and the D) –4x – 2y + 2z + 5 = 0
intersection of the two planes E1: 2x + y + z – 3 = 0 E) 2x + y – z + 6 = 0
and E2: 3x – z + 1 = 0?
A) E: 9x + y – 4z = 0
16. Which equation defines a plane through the point
B) E: 11x – y + 2z + 3 = 0 P(1, –2, 0) which is parallel to the xz-plane?
C) E: 11x + y – 2z = 0
A) x – 2y – 5 = 0 B) x – 2y = 0 C) x = 1
D) E: 9x + 2y – z = 0
E) E: 11x – 2y + z = 0 D) y = –2 E) z = 0

CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2C
1. Which equation defines a plane perpendicular to 5. What is the equation of the plane through the
→
n = (–2, 4, –1) which intersects the y-axis at the point P(–1, 2, 5) which is parallel to the yz-plane?
point (0, 1, 0)?
A) –x + 2y + 5z = 0
A) –2x + 4y – z + 1 = 0 B) x – 2y – 5z + 6 = 0
B) –2x + 4y – z – 4 = 0 C) x = –1
C) –2x + 4y – z – 1 = 0 D) y = 2
D) –2x + 4y – z + 4 = 0 E) z = 5
E) –2x + 4y – z = 0
2. Which plane passes through the origin and

x – 1 y +1 z 6. What is the distance between the planes
includes the line l: = = ?
2 3 4 E1: 2x + 2y – z – 8 = 0 and E2: 2x + 2y – z + 7 = 0?
A) E: x + y + z = 0 B) E: x + y + z = 4 A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 5 E) 6
C) E: 4x + 4y – 5z = 0 D) E: 2x – 3y + z = 0
E) E: 2x – 3y – z = 0
7. Find the intersection point of the xy-plane and

3. Which point is the intersection of the line the line which passes through the points P(3, –2, 1)
x +1 y – 1 z – 2 and Q(4, 0, 2).
l: = = and the plane
2 3 –1
E: 3x + 2y – z + 16 = 0? A) (2, 4, 0) B) (2, –4, 0) C) (–2, 4, 0)
A) (1, 4, 1) B) (3, 7, 0) C) (–5, –5, 4) D) (–2, –4, 0) E) (4, 2, 0)
D) (–3, –2, 3) E) (0, 0, 3)
4. Which equation defines a plane which passes

8. Which plane contains the parallel lines
through the points P(1, 0, 2), Q(0, –1, 1) and
x +1 y + 2 z – 1 x –1 y–1 z – 2
R(0, 1, –1)? l1: = = and l2 : = = ?
–2 –3 –1 –2 –3 –1
A) 4x + 2y + 2z = 0 B) 4x + 2y – 2z = 0 A) E: –5x + 3y + z = 0 B) E: –5x – 3y + z = 0
C) 4x – 2y – 2z = 0 D) –4x + 2y – 2z = 0 C) E: –5x + 3y – z = 0 D) E: –5x – 3y – z = 0
E) –4x – 2y – 2z = 0 E) E: –5x – 3y – z + 2 = 0
Chapter Review Test 2C 111
9. Which plane passes through the origin and is 13. Find the set of points which are equidistant from
parallel to the plane E: 2x – y + 3z – 5 = 0? the planes E1: 2x + y – 3z + 2 = 0 and
E2: 4x + 2y – 6z + 6 = 0.
A) E: 2x – y + 3z = 0 B) E: 2x + y – 3z = 0
C) E: 2x + y + 3z = 0 D) E: –2x – y + 3z = 0 A) {(x, y, z); 4x + 2y – 5z + 5 = 0}
E) E: –2x + y + 3z = 0 B) {(x, y, z); 2x + y – 3z + 1 = 0}

C) {(x, y, z); 2x + y – 3z + 4 = 0}
D) {(x, y, z); 4x + 2y – 6z + 3 = 0}
E) {(x, y, z); 4x + 2y – 6z + 5 = 0}
10. Which equation defines the plane through the

points P(2, 2, 1) and Q(1, 0, 1) which is
14. Which plane is tangent to the sphere
perpendicular to the plane E: 2x + y – 3z – 5 = 0?
S: (x + 1)2 + (y – 2)2 + (z – 3)2 = 11 at the
A) x + y – z – 3 = 0 B) –2x + y + z + 1 = 0 point P(0, 3, 6)?
C) x + y + z – 5 = 0 D) 2x – y + z – 3 = 0 A) E: x + y + 3z – 21 = 0
E) –x + y + z + 1 = 0 B) E: x – y + 3z + 21 = 0
C) E: x – y – 3z – 21 = 0
D) E: –x + y + 3z – 21 = 0
E) E: x + y + 3z + 21 = 0
11. The distance between the point P(1, –2, 0) and

the plane E: x + 2y – z + t = 0 is ñ6. What is the
x–3 z+ 2
sum of the possible values of t? 15. The lines l1: = y+ 2 = and
–1 2
A) –9 B) –6 C) –3 D) 3 E) 6 x – 4 y–1
l2 : = = z – 1 intersect at a single
p 3
point. What is p?
3 6 6 11 11
A) – B) – C) D) – E)
5 5 5 3 3
12. Find the set of points which are equidistant from

the points P(2, 0, –1) and Q(–1, 3, 2).
16. For which value of k are the lines
A) {(x, y, z); 2x + 2y + 2z – 3 = 0} x+ 2 y+ 2
l1: = = z +1 and
k 3
B) {(x, y, z); 2x – 2y + 2z + 3 = 0}
y +1 z – 1
C) {(x, y, z); 2x – 2y – 2z – 3 = 0} l2 : x – 1= = not skew?
–2 2
D) {(x, y, z); 2x – 2y – 2z + 3 = 0}
19 19 8 8 19
E) {(x, y, z); –2x – 2y + 2z + 3 = 0} A) B) C) D) – E) –
3 6 3 3 3

CHAPTER REVIEW TEST 2D
1. Which point lies in both E1: x + 2y + z – 3 = 0 and 5. Which statement is always true?
E2: 2x – 3y + z – 5 = 0?
A) Two planes always have a common point.
A) (7, 1, –6) B) (7, 1, 6) C) (–7, 1, 6) B) If the intersection of three planes is empty set
then planes are parallel.
D) (–7, 1, –6) E) (–7, –1, –6)
C) If two planes intersect each other, they are
perpendicular.
D) If a plane intersects two distinct planes, these
three planes have at least one common point.
E) If two planes have two common points, they
2. The planes E1: 2x + y – z – 3 = 0 and have a common line.
E2: px – 2y + 2z + 5 = 0 have no common point.
What is p?
6. What is the point of intersection of the planes
A) 4 B) 2 C) 0 D) –2 E) –4 E1: x = 0, E2: y = 0 and E3: z = 0?
A) (0, 1, 0) B) (2, 1, 0) C) (0, 0, 0)
D) (1, 2, 0) E) (0, 1, 2)
3. The planes E1: mx + 4y – 6z + 8 = 0 and 7. Which line passes through the intersection of
E2: 2x – 2y + nz – 4 = 0 coincide. the planes E1: 2x + y + z – 3 = 0 and
What is m + n? E2: x – y + z + 1 = 0?
A) –2 B) –1 C) 0 D) 1 E) 2 3x – 2 3x – 2
A) = 3y +5 = z B) = 3y – 5 = z
2 –2
2 – 3x 3x – 2
C) = 3y – 5 = z D) = 5 – 3y = z
2 –2
2 – 3x
E) = 5 – 3y = z
2
⎧ x + 3y + 2 z = 0
⎪
4. The linear system ⎨ x – py + 2z = 0 has a unique 8. What is the intersection point of the planes
⎪ x + 2y – z = 0
⎩ E1: x + 2y – 2z – 5 = 0,
solution. What are the possible values of p?
E2: 3x + y – 2z – 7 = 0 and
A) p ∈ ¡ \ {–3} B) p ∈ ¡ \ {–1} E3: –x – y + z + 3 = 0?
C) p ∈ ¡ \ {1} D) p ∈ ¡ \ {3} A) (1, 0, 2) B) (–1, 0, 2) C) (–1, 0, –2)
E) p ∈ ¡ \ {5} D) (1, 0, –2) E) (2, 0, –1)
Chapter Review Test 2D 113
9. The system of linear equations 13. The planes E1: 6x + 4y – 6z – 10 = 0,
⎧ 6x + 2y + 2kz = 0 E2: – 2x + 2y + 4z – 2 = 0 and
⎪ E3: x + 4y + z – p = 0 intersect along a line.
⎨ 2x – 2y + 2z = 0
⎪ 2x + z = 0 Find p.
⎩
has infinitely many solutions. Find k. A) 3 B) 4 C) 5 D) 6 E) 7
A) –2 B) –1 C) 0 D) 1 E) 2
⎧ x – 2 y + 3z – 6 = 0
14. The system ⎪⎨ –2 x + 4 y – 6 z +12 = 0 represents
10. The planes E1: x + 2y – z – 1 = 0, ⎪ ax – 6 y +9z – 18 = 0
⎩
E2: 2x + 3y + z – 4 = 0 and three coincident planes. What is a?
E3: x – ay + 2z – 1 = 0 intersect each other at the
A) –3 B) –1 C) 0 D) 1 E) 3
point (0, 1, 1). What is a?
A) –2 B) –1 C) 0 D) 1 E) 2
15. For what values of t does the system

⎧ x + y – 2z + 4 = 0
⎪
11. Which point lies in all the planes ⎨tx – y + 2z + 3 = 0 have no solution?
⎪2 x + 2 y – 4 z +8 = 0
E1: –2x + 2z + 4 = 0, E2: 2x – y + z – 5 = 0 ⎩
and E3: –2x + 4y – 6z + 8 = 0? A) –3 B) –1 C) 0 D) 1 E) 3
A) (3, 1, 1) B) (7, 3, 1) C) (–1, 1, 1)
D) (4, 5, 2) E) none of these
16. Which line passes through the intersection of the

planes
E1: –x + y – z + 3 = 0, E2: 2x + y + z + 4 = 0
and E3: 4x + 2y + 2z + 8 = 0?
12. The plane E1: 2x – py + 3z + 1 = 0 intersects the
7–x z – 10 –7 – x z +10
parallel planes E2: 4x + 2y + 6z = 0 and A) = y= B) = y=
2 3 2 3
E3: –2x – y – 3z + 7 = 0. Find p.
7+ x z – 10 –7 – x z – 10
A) p ∈ ¡ \ {–2} B) p ∈ ¡ \ {–1} C) = y= D) = y=
2 3 2 3
C) p ∈ ¡ \ {0} D) p ∈ ¡ \ {1}
7+ x z +10
E) = y=
E) p ∈ ¡ \ {2} 2 3

EXERCISES 1 .1
2. 11 units 3. 7 units 4. a. {(4, 2, 3), (4, 2, –3), (4, –2, –3), (4, –2, 3), (–4, 2, 3), (–4, –2, 3), (–4, 2, –3), (–4, –2, –3)}
b. {(6, 2, z), (6, –2, z), (–6, 2, z), (–6, –2, z); z ∈ ¡} 5. a. yz-plane b. xy-plane c. xy-, xz- and yz-planes
d. xz-plane e. xz- and yz-planes f. xy- and xz-planes 6. (3, –2, 0) on the xy-plane, (3, 0, 7) on the xz-plane,
(0, –2, 7) on the yz-plane 7. a. 3 units b. ñ5 units from the x-axis, 2ñ2 units from the y-axis, ñ5 units from the
z-axis c. 2 units from the xy-plane, 1 unit from the xz-plane, 2 units from the yz-plane 8. (–5, 0, 0) and (11, 0, 0)
9. (0, 2, 0) 10. a. A(3, 0, 0), B(3, 5, 0), C(0, 5, 0), O(0, 0, 0), D(0, 0, 4), E(3, 0, 4), F(3, 5, 4), G(0, 5, 4)
b. 5 units c. 5ñ2 units 11. |AB| = ñ6 units, |AC| = 3ñ3 units, BC = ò33 units; |AB|2 + |AC|2 = |BC|2 so
ABC is a right triangle but not an isosceles triangle 12. a. (2, 4, 0) b. 7 units c. 36 cubic units 13. |VAB| = ò19 units,
|VBC| = 2 units, |VAC| = ò19 units 14. ñ3 units 15. (x + 2)2 + (y – 3)2 + (z – 1)2 = 14
16. (x – 1)2 + (y – 2)2 + (z – 3)2 = 9 17. (x – 2)2 + (y + 2)2 + (z – 2)2 = 4 18. C(–3, 3, 3) , r = 3 units
19. C(1, –2, 3), r = 5 units 20. b. B(2, –8, 0) 21. (x + 1)2 + (y – 3)2 + (z + 1)2 = 18 22. b ∈ {13, 12, 11, 10}
25
23. p = –26, r = units 24. C(1, 3, 4), r = 5 units 25. ò43 – 5 units
2
EXERCISES 1 .2
1. a. (2, –6, –2) b. (0, 0, 3) 2. A(1, 4, –5) 3. a. 13 units b. 9 units 4. 13 units 5. a ∈ {–1, 11}
3 3 9
6. a = 4, b = 1, c = 3 7. (– , – , 3) 8. a. (1, 0, 2) b. (1, 3, –1) 9. a. (4, –2, 6) b. (–6, 3, –9)
2 2
–1
c. (6, 7, 1) d. (2, –11, 11) 10. (–4, 0, 8) 12. (–4, 3, 0) 13. (4, 4, –3) 14. m = , n = –4, t = 11 15. 7 units
2
2 3 4 2
16. (2, 3, 4) 17. (2, –1, 3) 18. a. 2ñ6 units b. ò69 units 19. ± 20. a. ( , , )
7 29 29 29
3 4 2 8 → 1→ 4 → → → → → → → → →
b. (– ,– ,– ) 21. i– j+ k 22. u = 9 i + 6 j + 7 k 23. –5 24. u = v1 – 5 v2 + 7 v3
29 29 29 9 9 9
→ 2→ 3→ 9→ 1
25. 3 26. u = – v1 – v2 – v3 27. a = , b = –7 28. 12 29. a. –7 b. –6 c. –7 30. a. 5 units b. 11 units
7 7 7 3
5 3
c. 3ñ6 units 31. a. –6 b. –48 c. 2 32. Hint: use the formula for the angle between two vectors 33. a.
18
Answers to Exercises 115
21 30
b. c. 34. Hint: the dot product of two perpendicular vectors is 0 35. 4 ± 2ñ3 36. 10 37. t ∈ {–5, 1}
38 20
1 1 1
38. (1, , ) 40. –21 41. a. meaningful b. meaningful c. meaningful d. meaningless e. meaningful 42.
2 2 2
1
43. a. 0 b. 46. the amount of money the vendor receives on the given day 47. a. neither b. neither
2
a1 + b1 a2 + b2 a3 + b3 1
c. parallel 48. m ∈ {–2, 0, 2} 50. C( , , ), r = ( a1 – b1) 2 +( a2 – b2 ) 2 +( a3 – b3 ) 2 units
2 2 2 2
6 3 1 3
51. θ = arccos 53. –1 54. 11 55. ( , 1, – ) 56. 22 units 57. 13 units 58. ± 59. m = 1, n = 6
3 2 2 5
60. 45º 61. 8 units 62. –1 63. a. (–1, –1, 5) b. (–4, 15, –21) c. (2, 13, –8) d. (2, –1, 1)
6 6 6 6 6 6
64. a. (– ,– , ) and ( , ,– ) b. ( 6 , – 6 , – 6 ) and (– 6 , 6 , 6 )
3 6 6 3 6 6 6 6 3 6 6 3
65. a. meaningful, a scalar b. meaningless c. meaningful, a vector d. meaningless e. meaningless
f. meaningful, a scalar 66. a. maximum 15 units, minimum 0 units b. along the positive or negative z-axis
67. a. no b. yes c. yes 68. ó477 units 68. the set describes a circle with center (x0, y0, z0) and radius 1
EXERCISES 2 .1
y +1 z – 1 x – 4 y+ 2 z x z–6
1. a. l: x – 2 = = b. l: = = c. l: = , y = –2 2. a. (–4, 6, 3) b. (2, 3, 0)
3 –5 –2 2 –3 2 –5
c. (4, –4, 5) 3. l: x = 1 + t, y = 2 – 2t, z = 3 + 3t4. a. l: x + 2 = y – 3 = z ; l: x = –2 – t, y = 3+ 2 t, z = 3 t

–1 2 3
x – 2 y +1 z – 4 3 4
b. l: = = ; l: x = 2+ 4t, y = –1 – 2 t, z = 4+5 t 5. l : y = t, x = z = 0 6. –5 7. p = – , q = –
4 –2 5 2 3
65 2 y z
8. units 9. 290 units 10. a. false b. true c. true 11. l: x = = 12. l: x = 2t, y = –t + 1, z = 3t + 2
3 13 4 –1
x –1 x+ 2 y z–3
13. l: x = t, y = 0, z = –2 14. l: = z + 3, y = 0 15. l: x = 3 – 2t, y = 5 + 5t, z = –2 16. l: = =
2 4 –2 5
→ → → → →
17. skew lines 18. a. n = (2, 1, –4) b. n = (2, 5, 1) c. n = (6, –4, 0) d. n = (0, 15, –4) e. n = (2, 0, 0)
→ 14
f. n = (0, 1, 0) 19. a. E: 2x + 3y – 5z + 7 = 0 b. E: –2x + z + 1 = 0 c. E: x + y – z + 7 = 0 20. a.
42
17 41
b. 21. a. parallel b. not parallel c. not parallel 22. a. not perpendicular b. perpendicular c. not perpendicular
123
2 8 5 19
23. a. a = 10, b = – b. a = – , b = – 24. 25. E: –4x + 3y + 12z + 25 = 0 or E: –4x + 3y + 12z – 53 = 0
5 5 2 5
16 26 19
26. E: –3y + 5z – 2 = 0 27. units 28. (x + 1)2 + (y – 1)2 + (z – 2)2 = 26 29. p = –55 or p = 77 30. units
13 8
31. {(x, y, z) | 16x – 8y – 24z – 7 = 0} 32. {(x, y, z) | 2x + y – 2z – 6 = 0} ∪ {(x, y, z) | 2x + y – 2z + 12 = 0}
3
33. a. true b. true c. false d. true e. true 34. E: 12x – 3y – 6z – 27 = 0 35. arccos ( ) 36. E: –2x + y – 5z + 15 = 0
35
37. E: x + 4y + 3z – 3 = 0 38. E: –x + 3y – 2z + 11 = 0 39. E: –4x + 2y + 5z – 5 = 0
3 –3
40. E: –7x + y + 2z – 11 = 0 41. arcsin 42. a = , b = –4 43. –1 44. (–4, –9, 3) 45. (–3, –1, –2)
9 2
46. E: –x + 9y + 5z – 20 = 0 47. E: 3x + 9y + z – 17 = 0 48. E: 3x – 12y + 2z – 4 = 0
t 7.t
49. l : x = 2 – , y = t, z = 50. E: 8x – 10y – 9z = 0 51. E: x + y + z + 5 = 0
8 8
EXERCISES 2 .2
3z +13 8– p 5 p – 13
1. a. two planes intersecting along the line l: 8 – 3x = y = ; solution set {( , p, ); p ∈ ¡}
5 3 3
b. two parallel planes; no solution c. two coincident planes; solution set {(t + 3 – 3 p, p, t); p, t ∈ ¡}
d. three planes intersecting along the line l : 2 – x = y, z = 6; solution set {(2 –p, p, 6); p ∈ ¡} e. three planes
intersecting at a single point; solution set {(–1, 3, 2)} f. three planes intersecting in three parallel lines; no solution
17 9 36
g. the first and third planes are parallel and intersected by the second plane; no solution 2. 1 3. ( , – , )
7 7 7
5x – 14 5 y – 1
4. p ∈ ¡ – {1} 5. –3 6. a = 1, l : = =z 7. –5 8. three planes intersecting along a line;
5 5
solution set {(x, y, z) | y = 2z – 3, x = –1} 9. p ∈ ¡ – {4} 10. the first and third planes are parallel and
intersected by the second plane; no solution 11. three planes intersecting in three parallel lines; no solution
12. three planes intersecting along a line; solution set {(x, y, z) | 2 – x = y + 1 = z}

33 84 89
13. three planes intersecting at a point; solution set {( , – , – )}
13 13 13
Answers to Exercises 117

TEST 1A TEST 1B TEST 1C TEST 2A
1. D 9. C 1. C 9. B 1. A 9. C 1. D 9. A
2. C 10. D 2. B 10. C 2. C 10. A 2. B 10. D
3. A 11. A 3. C 11. A 3. D 11. B 3. A 11. E
4. D 12. E 4. E 12. A 4. A 12. E 4. C 12. E
5. D 13. A 5. D 13. E 5. D 13. E 5. E 13. E
6. E 14. C 6. D 14. B 6. C 14. E 6. B 14. D
7. E 15. B 7. C 15. B 7. E 15. B 7. D 15. D
8. B 16. C 8. B 16. D 8. D 16. C 8. A 16. B
TEST 2B TEST 2C TEST 2D

1. C 9. C 1. B 9. A 1. A 9. D
2. B 10. A 2. C 10. D 2. E 10. D
3. E 11. D 3. D 11. E 3. B 11. E
4. A 12. C 4. C 12. D 4. A 12. B
5. A 13. C 5. C 13. E 5. E 13. E
6. A 14. B 6. D 14. A 6. C 14. E
7. B 15. A 7. B 15. E 7. B 15. B
8. C 16. D 8. A 16. B 8. D 16. D

direction of a non-zzero vector: The direction of
→
a non-zero vector v is the unit vector obtained by
analytic space: the three-dimensional coordinate →
dividing v by its length.
system in which a point is represented by an ordered
direction vector: The direction vector of a line is a
triple of real numbers. Analytic space is also written as
vector which is parallel to the line.
¡3.
dot product: a real number which is the sum of the
products of the corresponding components of two vectors.
Cartesian coordinates: an ordered triple (x, y, z) of

real numbers which represent a point in analytic
equal vectors: two vectors whose corresponding
space.
components are equal.
coordinate axes: three directed perpendicular lines
which pass through a fixed point O (called the origin)
and which together form the three-dimensional
family of planes: the set of planes which all pass
coordinate system.
through the intersection of two planes.
coordinate planes: the three planes determined by the
coordinate axes in analytic space. These are the xy-
plane, the xz-plane and the yz-plane.
linear combination of vectors: a vector which is
components of a vector: the coordinates of the
expressed as the sum of scalar multiples of other
terminal point of a vector when its initial point is
→ vectors.
placed at the origin. v = (1, 2, 3) has components 1,
2 and 3.
→ →
cross product: the product u × v which is the
determinant of the matrix formed by the standard matrix: a rectangular array of real numbers.
→ →
basis vectors and u and v.
norm of a vector: another name for the length of a vector.
determinant: a scalar quantity which is associated normal vector: a vector which is perpendicular to a
with a square matrix. given plane.
octant: one of the eight regions in space which are right-h
hand rule: a rule which is used to determine the
formed by the intersection of the coordinate planes. direction of the z-axis in analytic space, or the
ordered triple: a group of three real numbers (x, y, z) direction of the vector formed by the cross product of
in order. In analytic space, any point can be represented two vectors.
by an ordered triple of its Cartesian coordinates.
origin: the intersection point of the coordinate axes in

analytic space. →
standard basis vectors: the unit vectors i(1, 0, 0),
orthogonal vectors: Two vectors are orthogonal if the → →
j(0,1, 0) and k(0, 0, 1).
π → →
angle between them is (i.e. 90°). u ⊥ v means that
→ → 2 sphere: the set of all points in space which are the
u and v are orthogonal.
same distance from a fixed point. The fixed point is
the center of the sphere and the distance is the radius
of the sphere.
parallel vectors: vectors which have the same direction. skew lines: two lines in space which are not parallel
and which have no common point.
parallel lines: lines which have parallel direction
vectors.
parallel planes: planes which have no intersection.

Parallel planes have parallel normal vectors. unit vector: a vector whose length is one unit.
perpendicular lines: lines at an angle of 90° to each
other. Perpendicular lines have perpendicular
direction vectors.
vector: a directed line segment which has both
perpendicular planes: planes at an angle of 90° to each
direction and magnitude.
other. Perpendicular planes have perpendicular
vector projection: a vector formed by the projection of
normal vectors.
the terminal point of a vector on another vector
perpendicular vectors: another name for orthogonal
which has the same initial point.
vectors.
position vector: The position vector of a point P(x0, y0, z0)

is a vector whose initial point is the origin and
whose terminal point is P. zero vector: a vector which has length zero.

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M O D U L A R S Y S T E M

Notes help you focus on important details. When you

Definition boxes give formal descriptions of new

Examples include problems and their solution along

Check Yourself sections help you to check your

Special boxes highlight important new information such

Exercises at the end of each section cover the

The Chapter Summary summarizes all the important

1. COORDINATES IN SPACE .......................10 2. The Equation of a Line through

B. SPHERES .....................................................19 B. PLANES IN SPACE .......................................73

4. The Distance Between a

In 1837, William Rowan Hamilton (1805-1865) showed that any complex

In 1827, August Ferdinand Möbius published a short book, The Barycentric

room where two walls and the floor intersect. We P(3, 4, 6)

Definition ordered triple, Cartesian coordinates

Definition coordinate axes

Coordinates and Vectors in Space 11

For example, (3, 4, 2) is a point in analytic space: (3, 4, 2) ∈ ¡3.

Definition coordinate planes

12 Vectors and Analytic Geometry in Space

A point P(a, b, c) in ¡ 3 determines a

Similarly, R(0, b, c) and S(a, 0, c) are the

the first octant

Coordinates and Vectors in Space 13

Step 2: Draw a line perpendicular to the y-axis at the z

Step 3: Draw a line perpendicular to the xy-plane at z

the point P′(2, 3, 0). Determine the point on this line 4

We can think of this process as similar to moving along z

three sides of a rectangular box. 4

14 Vectors and Analytic Geometry in Space

Coordinates and Vectors in Space 15

Solution P(2, 2, 5), R(2, 0, 5), S(0, 2, 5) and T(2, 2, 0)

16 Vectors and Analytic Geometry in Space

Rule midpoint of a line segment

Solution –1+ 2 3+7 5 – 2 1 3

2. The Distance Between Two Points

|AB| = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2 + (z2 – z1)2 .

Coordinates and Vectors in Space 17

Since triangles ARB and APR are both right

⇒ | AB|= ( x2 – x1 ) 2 +( y2 − y1 ) 2 +( z2 – z1) 2 , as required.

Solution We can use the theorem: |AB| = (5 – 7)2 + ( –1+ 3)2 + (1 – 2) 2 = 4 + 4 +1 = 3.

EXAMPLE 9 The figure shows a rectangular prism. Find the

|BC| = |AD| = |EF| = |HG| = (1 – 3)2 +(5 − 5) 2 +(0 − 0) 2 = 2

|BE| = |CF| = |AH| = |DG| = (3 – 3)2 +(5 – 5) 2 +(4 – 0) 2 = 4.

|AE| = |DF| = |HB| = |GC| = (3 – 3)2 +(5 – 3) 2 +(4 – 0) 2 = 2ñ5

|BF| = |AG| = |EC| = |HD| = (1 – 3)2 +(5 – 5) 2 +(4 – 0) 2 = 2ñ5.

The set of all points in ¡3 which are the same distance z

from a fixed point is called a sphere. The fixed point is P(x, y, z)

Theorem standard equation of a sphere

(x – x0)2 + (y – y0)2 + (z – z0)2 = r2 (x0, y0, z0, r ∈ ¡).

Coordinates and Vectors in Space 19

EXAMPLE 12 Show that x2 + y2 + z2 + 4x – 6y + 2z + 6 = 0 is the equation of a sphere and find its

Solution Let us begin by completing the squares:

2. The General Equation of a Sphere

The general equation of a sphere is x2 + y2 + z2 + Dx + Ey + Fz + G = 0 .

20 Vectors and Analytic Geometry in Space

Solution The equation is in general form with D = 4, E = –2, F = 6 and G = –2.

EXAMPLE 14 x2 + y2 + z2 + ax – 4z – 2z – 11 = 0 is a sphere with radius 5 units. Find all the possible

EXAMPLE 15 x2 + y2 + z2 – 8x + 2y – 4z + t = 0 is the equation of a sphere which is tangent to the

Coordinates and Vectors in Space 21

1. When one line passes behind P P P

another, break the line which is S S S

behind to show that it does not

vectors are physically in different parts of 2