Process of highway design

Horizontal alignments/Vertical alignments/Pavement layers/Cross sections

Intersections/includes both costing and time planning

Roadway geometric design :vertical alignment/horizontal alignment/cross section.

SSD: The minimum sight distance along the roadway that must be provided to enable

drivers to control their vehicles, sum of the distance travelled during a driver’s perception

and brake reaction time and the braking distance.

to reduce the ssd: Decrease the Speed/Increase Decelerating rate.

PSD: minimum distance, on two-way single roadway roads, open to the vision of the driver

of a vehicle intending to pass the slow vehicle ahead safely without interfering with the

speed of an oncoming vehicle.

road Intersections:is an area shared by two or more roads

whose function is to change route direction.ntersections vary in complexity from a simple one

where two roadcross each other, to more complex intersections where three or more roads

cross within the same area.

basic principles of safe intersections: Priority to major traffic/Clear “right-of-way”/ Separate conflicts

Minimize conflict areas/Minimize difference in relative speeds between vehicles/Defined vehicle paths/

Provisions for all vehicular and non-vehicular traffic.

Intersections could be classified according to:Road segments/Traffic controls/Lane design/

Treatment of crossing conflicts.

Types of intersections are classified to: At grade intersections/Grade separated intersections, which are

divided into:Grade separations with ramps/Grade separations without ramps.

At grade intersection( Four-leg/ Staggered/Roundabout)is defined as the meeting area of all roads at the same level/Grade-separated
intersections(Over or underpass with no access/Freeway interchange) allow an uninterrupted traffic flow while also eliminating the safety
threat posed by trains, pedestrians, or other vehicles.

Roundabout has 75% fewer vehicle conflict points

Site investigation:the study of the local environment and ground conditions on and around a specific piece of land.

the main reasons for undertaking a site investigation: Determine the suitability of the site and its immediate surrounding
environment for the suggested project/Provide information for both the design and construction of the civil works/It enhances the safety
of ground workers.

Stages/Components of site investigation: Desk study/Site visit/Topographic survey/Ground-Soil investigation/Foundation Engineering

Report.

1. Desk study:research into existing documentation and maps of the site, information can be collected through a desk study are:
Ordnance Survey (the national mapping agency for Great Britain)- both current and old maps/British Geological Survey: geological
maps/Aerial photographs- Google Earth/ Information held by the local authorities, e.g. old records (mines, tunnels) and planning
restrictions/Other sources (Services/ Utilities details).

2. Site Visit:reports on the appearance and the characteristics of the site, exploring the site for any obvious features that would affect the
use of the site for a proposed building development, much of it is down to common sense: Local Knowledge/Topological Features/Trees &
Vegetation/Existing Buildings/Watercourses.

What can we find from a site visit?: Contamination/Slope/Ground subsidence/Excavation.

3. Topographic surveys: GPR –ground penetrating radar/Robotic camera.

4. Ground-Soil Investigation: used to determine the strength of the soil and hence the size and depth of the proposed foundation, on-site
problems fall into two categories: Man made obstructions/Natural obstructions.

Intrusive methods involve breaking the ground surface for the purpose of collecting samples/Non-intrusive methods can image and detect
variations in the ground depending on physical and chemical properties of the soil without breaking through the ground surface.

In-situ and Laboratory Testing:Penetration test/California bearing ratio (CBR).

1. Penetration test: The number of blows required for 30 cm penetration into soil, used to measure the bearing capacity of soil directly at
a certain depth.

2. California Bearing Ratio (CBR): is a penetration test for estimation of the load-bearing capacity of soils, and other natural formations,
used for building roads , it is performed by measuring the pressure required to penetrate natural formation with a plunger of standard
area. The obtained pressure is then divided by the required pressure to achieve an equal penetration on a similar sample of standard
crushed rock.

Classification of Soils:Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)/ American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO)/ United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)/ Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)/ Burmister Soil Identification
System.

Soil Contamination:the occurrence of pollutants in soil above a certain level causing a deterioration or loss of one or more soil functions.

Sources of soil contamination: Rupture of underground storage tanks/Oil and fuel dumping/Application of pesticides/Livestock manure
from agricultural operations/Percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface strata.

soil can affect human: Direct contact with soil (skin contact)/Inhalation of soil contaminants/Potentially greater threats are posed by the
infiltration of soil contaminants into groundwater aquifers used for human consumption.

Investigation of contaminated soil: Phase I: Desk Study/Phase II: Intrusive Investigation-Sampling/Phase III: Remediation Scheme/Phase
IV: Site Completion-Verification Report.

Remediation: 1.Excavation and disposal: Excavate soil and take it to a disposal site away from ready pathways/Services should include
proper manifesting and labelling of waste shipments/use of heavy equipment, operators and field technicians necessary to excavate,
process, transport and dispose of soil classified as hazardous or contaminated/waste removal process should provide site restoration
services including backfilling, grading, landscaping, storm water drainage, paving and monitoring well installation .2. Thermal Treatment:
could be achieved using:Steam-hot air injection,Electrical resistance,Radio frequency heating.3. Electrochemical Techniques: based on
the transport processes that occur when an electric current is passed through a soil, The electric current tends to pass the soil in the micro
pores due to the lower resistance acting exactly where the heavy metals are mainly adsorbed in the soil, Extraction of groundwater or soil
vapour with an active electromechanical system, with subsequent stripping of the contaminants from the extract.
Pavement: defined as a set of layers of materials, each of which receives the load from the above layer, distributes it out (according to its
material properties), then passes it on to the layer below (subgrade)

Pavement structure: Brief description of each of the components of the flexible pavement
 Excessive amount of prime coat reduces the bonding action/ Lack of prime coat could
cause slipping
problems between
layers.

Lack of tack coat could cause slipping problems between the asphalt wearing course and the supporting layer. At the same time, excessive

application of tack coat reduces the bonding action.

A seal coat is used to protect the surface of the pavement against the drying action of the sun.

Pavement types:Flexible Construction/ Rigid Construction/Composite Construction.

difference between the types of road pavement: 1.Flexible – use of bitumen bound material: The advantages is very quick to lay and easy
to maintain, but its initial construction costs are more expensive than the concrete equivalent, thickness are used for surfacing in car
parks, and lightly trafficked roads, fully flexible pavement design lifeshould be 20 years.

Thickness of the flexible Pavement in inch:Surface layer(1-2)/Binder layer (2-4)/Base layer (4-12)/Sub-base layer (4-12)/Sub-grade layer
(6).

2. Rigid Pavement: Concrete is cheaper and more durable than bitumen-bound materials, has a design life of 40 years without major
reconstruction. In practice, however, it is usually the joints of the formation that fail before this time,The disadvantage is that slow to
construct in comparison to bituminous-bound materials,is expensive to set up and work must be continuous to effect economics, is
difficult to maintain and difficult to overlay because in time it separates from the concrete beneath.3. Composite Pavement:composed of
the two types of Flexible composite and Rigid composite.

Pavement materials – bitumen bound:SMA (Stone Mastic Asphalt) mainly of a stone grading with a much smaller amount of filler/HRA
(hot rolled asphalt) is a dense, gap graded mixture of mineral aggregate, sand, filler and bitumen. HRA contains a high percentage of sand,
which reduces the percentage of air voids/Asphaltic Concrete (AC) mineral aggregate bounded together with asphalt, laid in layers, and
compacted. This type is widely used in roads, parking places, and airports.

Pavement tests:1- Penetration test It is carried out to determine:1- Consistency of bituminous material.2- Suitability of bituminous
material for use under different weather conditions and different types of construction/2- Compressive test it is the capacity of a material
to withstand loads tending to reduce size For road pavements, compressive strength of 30 to 50 N/mm2 (MPa) is commonly specified/3. -
Four-point bending test It is used for the investigation of pavement material properties, such as modulus of elasticity in bending and
flexural stress.

Failure mechanisms:Sub-grade deformation: caused by excessive vertical stress on the top of the sub-grade layer by heavy wheel
loads/Bound layer deformation: caused by inadequate mix design/Fatigue cracking: influenced by the environment and traffic loading.For
example poor drainage in the road bed could cause this type of failure.

Rail Transport

Track system:Types of sleepers:1. Timber/2. Concrete( Mono-block- Twin-block).

Defects of track system

Rail defects are codified by the International Union of Railways base on the Characteristics,
Causes, Effects and Treatments.
main advantages of rail transport compared to road: Capacity/Speed, punctuality,reliability/Safety/Cost/Energy efficiency/ Environment.

the sound: is a form of energy that is transmitted by pressure variation (compressed and rarefied regions ).

Basics of sound: Cycle: Is one complete variation in pressure or oscillation/Wavelength (λ): The distance travelled by a wave during one
cycle/Frequency: Is the number of complete cycles per second/Period (T): The required time to complete one cycle.

the noise: any unwanted sound, could affect people in different ways, mentally or physically, depends on two parameters, noise level and
exposure duration.

Noise Control-designs: Vibration isolation (damping)/ Barriers/Absorbent materials/Enclosure.

factors that influence the noise level from road traffic: Speed/Vehicle type/Traffic volume/Pavement surface/Others (e.g. tyre conditions,
driving pattern).

Design and Mitigation Measures: Noise barriers –These can be in the form of acoustic fencing of various types/(DMRB) gives guidance on
the environmental assessment of trunk road schemes including motorways/Volume 11 Section 3 deals with noise and vibration.

formula used to determine the sound pressure level (Lp) at a certain point (in decibels (dB)):

following formula could be used to determine the sound pressure level (Lp) at different distances from a moving sound source (in
decibels (dB))

Groundwater Control: Water can be classified by its relative position to (or within) the ground

Problems of water within subsoil: high water table can cause flooding problems during wet seasons/Groundwater can cause problems
during excavation works/Can cause an unacceptable humidity level around the support of finished buildings/causes corrosion
problems/increases the migration of contaminants.

Buoyant force on foundations: is an upward force exerted by a fluid on an immersed object, calculated using the following formula:

methods to controlling groundwater: 1,Cut-off walls/2.Sump Pumping(allow water to flow into the excavation and require it to be
pumped out from sumps and ditches not suitable for clay)/3.Well point(Lowers groundwater over an area using simultaneous pumping
from a number of well points inserted below the groundwater level)/4. Bored Wells(Shallow bored wells and Deep bored wells/5. Electro-
osmosis(suitable for clay)/ 6.Grouting(Compaction Grouting is a ground improvement system to correct settlement caused by the natural
occurrence,Stop the ground movement,Improve the strength of soils)/7.Freezing(Expensive and time consuming,Shape to suit excavation,
installed horizontally or vertically)

problems Associated with groundwater control:could cause collapse of adjacent buildings due to(More wells-Pumping rate much higher-
Extraction of too much groundwater).

Drainage System :

Types of sewers pipes: Asbestos cement (AC) sewers/Brick

sewers/Cement sewers/Cast iron (CT) sewer/Steel sewers/Plastic sewers.

factors to consider when selecting the material of sewers pipe:Chemical properties of the sewage/Durability of the sewers pipe/Physical
properties of the sewers pipe/Cost and maintenance.

Types of sewers pipe joints: The sleeve joint: used with

plain end pipes/The 0-ring joint: used with socketed
pipes.

Foundatiom:Solid base, usually below ground level,

natural or artificial on which a structure rests.

Purposes of Foundations:distribute the load to the ground so it is not over-stressed/ensure movements (e.g. settlement) at the structural
supports/The foundations must be financially economical whilst achieving technical functions.

Types of settlement: total settlement/Tilt settlement/Differential settlement.

Types of Foundations:1. Shallow Foundation(Placed at a depth which is less than width or breadth of foundation (or less than 3m)-
Examples: pad, strip and raft foundations)/2. Deep Foundation(Transmits loads of structure to considerably greater depth, e.g. > 3m below
ground level Examples: piles, piers and caisson).

Shallow foundations :Pads: are isolated foundations supporting the point load of structural/Strips are continuous foundations supporting
loads of walls or closely spaced columns/Raft foundations are used to spread the load, from a structure, over a large area( usually the
entire area of the structure).

Deep Foundations: Piles: is divided into two types according to the mechanism of load transfer,Friction piles and End bearing
piles:1.Friction piles: Load supported by friction between piles and surrounding soil layer/2. End bearing piles: Load supported at end of
piles, They derive most of their load-carrying capacity from the penetration resistance of the soil at the toe of the pile.

Piles are classified according to the mechanism of load transfer into:

Friction pile: End bearing piles:

Piles could be classified, according to the construction method into:Replacement Piles (Bored piles): are used when a soil replacement is
required and when there is a need to minimise vibration/Displacement Piles:the pile is driven into the ground so that the soilis displaced
verticaly it may be steel or precast concrete.

factors of selecting the choice of a piling system: Loads to be carried/Acceptability of noise and vibration/How deep are piles likely to
be/At what depth is an adequate bearing strata/What type of soil is the pile likely to end in/What type of soil does the pile need to pass-
through/Is groundwater likely to be encountered/Site access and headroom.

Project Programming

Steps for Planning:Identify activities/Estimate time (duration) and resources/Logically identify dependencies/Create the network, critical
path method (CPM)/Identify schedule constraints/Determine time and resources/Fix schedule/Control changes to the project.

Scheduling Tools: Gantt Chart (Bar Chart) Developed by Henry Gantt (1861-1919) A simple graphical time-scale of project schedule Each
activity is typically represented by a bar on a scaled sheet/Linked Bar Chart/Critical Path Method (CPM) Activity-on-Node (AoN) diagram It
is a project management method which calculates the total duration of a project based upon individual task duration and
dependencies,helps construction managers to identify the critical tasks to take proactive actions in project delivery.

Advantages of Gantt: Easy to interpret/Simple to create

Disadvantages of Gantt: not show the relationship between project activities/Does not identify critical activities.

Advantages of CPM: Identifies the minimum length of time to complete a project/Identifies tasks, which must be completed on
time/Identifies tasks which can be delayed for a while if resources need to be allocated to catch up on missed tasks/Helps to identify which
tasks need to be accelerated if you need to run an accelerated programme.

Disadvantages of CPM: The relation of tasks to time is not immediately obvious, i.e.no timeline/more difficult to understand if you are not
familiar with this technique.

Critical Path Method (CPM) analysis:Preparation of the network chart (CPM) and its analysis could be done manually/Software such as MS
Project or ASTA Powerproject can be used for this purpose; the inputs to be entered are:– Activities– Duration– Relationships.

Predecessor: A task which precedes another task and is related to it by a dependency link/Successor: A task which follows another task
and is related to it by a dependency link/Float: The amount of time an activity can be delayed without delaying the completion date of the
project.

Basic Principles:Develop a basic logic diagram in relation to the construction sequence/Enter data,duration and reference box number in
the precedence boxes/Enter relationships that is finish-to-start, start-to- start, and start-to-finish relationships/Analyse the diagram by
applying the forward and backward pass/Calculate the floats/highlight the critical operations/convert the precendence into a bar chart.