Portland cements are made by burning

together chalk or limestone and clay or

shale in a rotary kiln at approx 1500oC to
form a Clinker, rich in calcium silicates, he
kiln takes the form of an inclined steel
cylinder that rotates along it longitudinal
axis (at a slope) for 20-30 minutes. he
clinker is then cooled and Gypsum
(calcium sulfate) is added at 3-5% to
the clinker to prevent flash setting,
when cement is mixed with water

Ciment compounds: Tricalcium silicate

(50%)- C3S- Rapid ,Dicalcium silicate
(20%),- C2S- Slow Tricalcium aluminate
(12%)- C3A- Rapid ,Tetracalcium
aluminoferrite (8%)- C4AF- Extremely
slow

three other alternative cement types:

-RAPID HARDENING CEMENT-:It

contains higher c3s content and finer
grinding, gives greater strength
development at an early stage than
OPC, advantage of using it is that the
formwork can be removed earlier and
reused in other areas which save the
cost, used in prefabricated concrete

construction, road works./ LOW HEAT

CEMENT: manufactured by increasing
the proportion of C2S and by
decreasing the C3S and C3A content,
less reactive and its initial setting time is
greater than OPC, used in mass concrete
construction/SULFATE RESISTING
CEMENT: made by reducing C3A and
C4AF content, has excellent resistance
to sulfate attack, used in the construction
of foundation in soil where subsoil
contains very high proportions
of sulfate/WHITE CEMENT: ordinary
Portland Cement which is pure white in
color and has practically the same
composition and same strength as OPC,
the iron oxide content is considerably
reduced. The raw materials used in this
cement are limestone and china clay,
used for interior and exterior decorative
work/COLORED CEMENT: y adding 5-
10% mineral pigments with portland
cement during the time of grinding,
used for interior and exterior
decorative/HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT: by
mixing of bauxite ( aluminum ore) and
lime at a certain temperature,
compressive strength of this cement is
very high and more workable than
opc/Low-Heat Portland Blast Furnace
cement (PBFC): cement clinkers are
mixed with up to 65% of the blast
furnace slag for the final grinding,used in
dams, foundations, abutments of
bridges/AIR ENTRAINING CEMENT: by
air entraining agents such as resins,
glues, sodium salts of sulfate with
opc/PORTLAND POZZOLANA CEMENT:
by grinding together, portland cement
clinkers and pozzolana with the addition
of gypsum or calcium
sulfate/EXPANSIVE CEMENT: does not
shrink during and after the time of
hardening but expands slightly with
time/OIL-WELL CEMENT: extract oil
from the stratified sedimentary rocks,
Oil wells are dug to a greater depth,
manufactured by adding
retarders/HYDROPHOBIC CEMENT: by
adding water repellant chemicals to
ordinary portland cement in the process of
grinding, claimed to remain unaffected
when transported during rains, used for
water structures

Bleeding

is the process of the upward movement or

upward displacement of water.

indication of bleeding is the appearance of

a layer of water on the top surface of

concrete shortly after it is placed, In

extreme cases this can amount to 2% or
more of the total depth of the concrete
With time this water either evaporates or is
re-absorbed into the concrete with
continuing hydration, thus resulting in a
net reduction of the concrete’s original
volume.

Effects of bleeding:The cement paste at or

just below the top surface of the
concrete becomes water rich and
therefore hydrates to a weak
structure known as surface laitance/hard-
wearing concrete surfaces are
required/upward migrating water can be
trapped under aggregate particles
weakening between past and
aggregates/loss of concrete strength
Reducing the effects of bleeding

can be remedied by increasing the sand

content, using air entrainment (air
entraining admixture), Using
superplasticisers admixtures to produce
high workability concrete instead of using
high water content, Microsilica (mineral
admixture) which is an effective bleed-
control agent.

Curing

is protecting the concrete from loss of

moisture.

Benefits of curring: Reduce or eliminate

plastic shrinkage cracking, Ensures that
there is an adequate supply of water for
continued hydration and strength gain,
Applied as soon as possible after placing
concrete, and for the first few days of
hardening, essential part of any successful
concreting operation.

Curing methods: Spraying the surface of

the concrete with water, Protecting
exposed surfaces from wind and sun by
using
windbreaks and sunshades, Covering
surfaces with wet-hessian and/or
polythene sheets, Applying a curing
membrane, usually a spray-applied resin
seal.

Cement- Hydration process

starts immediately after adding water to

cement when some of the clinker
sulphates and gypsum
dissolve producing an alkaline, sulphate-
rich, solution, After mixing, the Aluminates
(C3A) phase reacts with the water to form
an aluminate-rich gel, The C3A reaction
with water generates heat, but for only a
few minutes, and is followed by up to two
hours of low heat evolution, during which
the concrete is workable, Then C3S and
C2S in the cement start to react, to form
calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and
calcium hydroxide (CH), The hydration of
C3S produces more than twice the CH as
C2S hydration. C3S sets first with C2S
stiffening more gradually, The rate of
hydration then increases slowly leading
concrete strength increase, The period of
maximum heat evolution occurs typically
between about 10 and 20 hours after
mixing and then gradually tails off,
although it can happen as early as 4 hours
after mixing, most of the strength gain
would have occurred within about 28 days

Setting of cement paste

Is The gradual stiffening of the cement

paste as it changes from a workable to a
hardened state

workability/consistence

is The amount of work needed to produce

full compaction.

Workability test methods

Slump: concrete would be placed in the

slump cone in three
layers with each layer compacted by
tapping 25 times.
Then the cone is removed and the drop in
the concrete
height from the top of the cone level would
be measured

Vebe: The sump test is performed in the

container and the
Perspex disc is brought into contact with
the top of the
slumped concrete, The vibrator and a
stop-watch are started simultaneously
and are stopped when the concrete is flat,
Times from 1 to about 25 seconds are
generally obtained

the initial and final setting of concrete

Initial set: defines the time limit for

handling and placing the concrete.

Final set: indicates the start of the

development of strength gain

Measurement method of setting concrete

concrete- Vicat Needle method

Fine aggregate is: Less than 4.76mm

(5mm)
Characteristic strength of concrete:
defined as the level of strength below
which only a specified proportion of all test
results is expected to be This proportion is
5%.

Durability of concrete:
the ability of concrete to remain
serviceable for at least the required
lifetime of the structure that it forms part
of.

Aggregate segregation and water bleeding

often occur at the
same time

durability of concrete can be improved

Achieving a less ‘permeable’ concrete is

one if the principal objectives when
trying to obtain durability. The main
means of doing this is to produce a
concrete with low water/cement ratio
Increasing the water/cement ratio would
lead directly to concrete which is more
vulnerable to freeze–thaw, weathering,
sulfate attack and the penetration of
carbon dioxide and chloride solutions
leading to reinforcement corrosion. The
lower workability resulting from low
w/c ratio and/or high temperature can
lead to poor compaction which also
leaves the concrete more vulnerable to
deterioration. Plastic shrinkage or early
thermal cracks can also lead to reduced
durability as they may permit moisture,
carbon dioxide, oxygen or chlorides to
gain easy access to the concrete or
reinforcement

Alloys: A compound of metal with other

metals or materials

examples of alloys

Aluminium:
aluminium with other materials, such as
iron, copper, manganese, magnesium,
nickel, chromium, zinc, lead, tin, titanium,
and silicon/ Steel: iron and
carbon/Bronze:copper and
tin/brass:copper and zinc

carbon content affect steel ductility

ncreasing the carbon content reduces the

ductility of steel with carbon used in the
range 0-0.8%.

0.25% carbon - low carbon steel/ 0.3 to

0.6% – medium carbon steel/ 0.6% - 0.8%
- high carbon steel.

advantages and disadvantages of using

metals in civil engineering:

Advantages: Metals can be ductile, which

is an important property in structural
design and construction, Stronger metals
exhibit greater stiffness & tensile strength,
Metals are non-porous, easily alloyed with
other metals, Strong bonding is easily
achieved using welding, brazing and
soldering

Disadvantages: Relatively expensive in

terms of energy requirements, Liable to
corrosion, Have high density.

Exercice: A mild steel rod is placed

under tensile stress until its failure
point is reached and the rod snaps.
Sketch the force-displacement plot that
such an experiment would produce,
labelling all axes and major features

Poison’s ratio: When Load is applied to a

material (stressed) in one direction, it will
deform (or strain) in the direction of the
load (longitudinally), and perpendicular to
the load (laterally), The Poisson’s ratio is
the ratio of the two strains – Longitudinal
and lateral.

x
If Longitudinal strain x =
and Lateral
L
−y −z
strain y = =¿ z = .
Ly Lz
−εy −εz
→ Poisson ’ s ratio=¿ = the −ve signindicates contraction
εx εx
.

Poisson’s ratio can vary from 0.15 to 0.49,

with many materials
between 0.25 and 0.35, and does not
exceed 0.5.

equation that describes the elastic

modulus

𝐸=

σ N N
( , Pa , ,GPa , MPa)
ε m2 mm
2

Stress 𝜎 =

F N
( , Pa ,Gpa , MPa)
A m2

Strain 𝜀 =
∆ l (no unit)
l0

effects of reduction in temperature on

steel behaviour:

materials that are ductile at normal

temperatures become brittle at
lower temperatures,Reducing temperature
increases the yield point of steel, Plastic
flow becomes more difficult – brittleness
increases, Toughness must be considered
for the use of structural steel in cold
climates

process of manufacturing Aluminium

Aluminium is produced from its naturally

occurring oxide alumina, which is
extracted from its ore (bauxite) with the
introduction of sodium hydroxide and high

temperature (1050oC), Alumina is then

combined with carbon to produce
aluminium.

Plastics: manufactured from by-products

of the oil industry, Most polymers become
soft & malleable when heated, Nearly all
polymeric materials are organic(based on
carbon).

Plastics- Advantages

Low density, Various forms can be

produced due to the ease of bonding of
the carbon atom, Tend to be inert – do not
absorb water & air unaffected by dilute
acids & alkalis, Good thermal insulation.

Plastics- Disadvantages

Deterioration with exposure to ultraviolet

light, Low stiffness (‘E’ value), Low
resistance to heat & some easily catch fire
& burn, Fossil fuels are the main source of
the raw materials.

Plastics- Environmental Impact

Availability of raw material: limited

by-product of oil/ Extraction process:
Possible pollution problems/ Energy
consumed: High- due to chemical
processes/ Health & safety: Fire hazard/
Waste disposal: Many do not break down
& require some form of recycling.

Importance of Carbon

Lightest element that has four

electrons in the outer shell –good for
bonding, Wants to share electrons with
other atoms to produce an octet,Easiest
with atoms of similar size, Bonding may
result in regular patterns of atoms –
(crystals),irregular arrangements
(amorphous) or long chains (fibres).

Polymeric Materials

Polymers – produced by combining large

numbers of smaller molecular units called
monomers/ Combined using a chemical
process to produce long chain molecules/
Process known as polymerisation.

Polymer types

Thermoplastic: all chains of the molecules

are separate & can slide over each other.

Thermosetting: chains become cross-

linked producing a solid material which
cannot be softened & resists flow

Characteristics of two main types of

polymers

Thermoplastic Polymers: Long chain

molecules held together by Van der
Waals forces which are relatively weak,
Chemical bonding along the length of the
chain is very strong, Heating weakens the
intermolecular forces & the material soften

and becomes a viscous melt – cooling

allows re-solidification.

Thermosetting Polymers: Formed in a two-

stage chemical process: 1.) Long chain
polymerised molecules produced, 2.)
Cross-linking takes place: Thermosets
cannot be softened by heating & products
must be moulded prior to polymerisation
Achieved by mixing a resin & hardener &
moulding quite quickly Material begins to
degrade with the application of excessive
heat.

the use polymers in construction providing

some examples

Window frames – UPVC

• Rain-water goods – UPVC
• Waste systems – UPVC / ABS
• Glazing – Acrylics
• Cold-water cisterns – Glass reinforced
polyester
• Cavity insulation – Polystyrene bats
• Sealants are specified with a movement
accommodation factor -
Bonding on all side should be avoided –
allows change in shape to
occur with movement

Polymers a fire

Due to their organic nature, polymers

decompose readily in fire
• Hazard in buildings due to:
- Emission of toxic gasses
- Contribution to the fire – flaming/heat
emission
- Emission of dense smoke – makes
escape difficult
- Melting of sheet material used in glazing
may allow venting of the
fire – increases the spread of fire

Masonry

is to build a stable and interlocked

stack of pieces of material, using units of
bricks or blocks of stone fired
clay,concrete blocks or calcium silicate
blocks, Constructed using units and
Mortar a key component in the
construction of most buildings.

properties of modern bricks

Conventional size: 215 mm x 102.5 mm x

65 mm, Portable, Can provide a pleasing
façade for domestic buildings, Usually
joined with 10 mm mortar.

properties of block masonry

Conventional size: 440 mm x 215 mm x

100 mm, Larger units with face
dimensions upto 1500 mm x 500 mm,
Suitable for rapid and economical
construction, Available in a range of
strengths, finishes, densities & thermal
properties, Large units may require two
handed placement or even mobile crane.

Bricks- Forming and manufacture

Rocks- Main type of rocks: Sedimentary

rocks: formed from compressed sediments
on the bottom of ancient seas (Limestone
and sandstone, High porosity and low
strength, layered structure, stronger in one

direction)/ Metamorphic rocks: ormed by

the action of pressure and high
temperature on other rock deposits(
Marbles and Slates, Medium porosity and

strength,considered to be Isotropic)/
Igneous rocks: formed by melting of rock
during volcanic activity(Granites and
Basalts, Low porosity and high strength).

chemical constituents of clay

a) Kaolin group which is basically

hydrated alumino sulphate
(Al2O3,2SiO2,2H2O)/ b) Montmorillonite
group(Hydrated

Sodium,Calcium,Aluminium Silicate)/ c)
Clay Mica/ d) Silica/ e) Lime/ f) Carbon/
g) Iron based compounds that add
colours to the brick.

Compare the soft mud, wire cut and stiff

and plastic mud forming methods

common damage conditions for brickwork

Frost Damage involves freezing and

thawing cycle of moisture within the brick
which leads to expansion of the water and
thereafter, Crystallization Damage
involves transmission of salts to the
drier surface of the brick leading to a build-
up, Sulphate Attack occurs when high
cement content mortar reacts with
sulphates originating from the brick
creating expansion and disruption of the
mortar joints between the brickwork.

characteristics and disadvantages of high

cement content mortar

Stronger ,Denser ,More impervious, More

durable , Bond better to units under
normal circumstances ,Harden rapidly at
normal temperatures.

Disadvantages

High drying shrinkage,Affects rigidity of

the masonry, cause shrinkage cracks in
low strength shrinkable units,

The role of sand in mortars

Mortars made with well-graded sands can

have
− Very high compressive strength
− Low permeability
− Generally good bond
− Poor workability/consistence

Mortars prepared with fine loamy sand will

have
- High workability/consistence
- Generally reduced compressive strength

- Sometimes reduced bond

additives can be added to mortar

Lime,Air entrainment plasticizer,

Pigments, Retarders.

address the issue of high thermal

conductivity of mortar

Use insulating mortars, Use 1–5 mm

thick joints of high-bond thin-layer
mortars (BRE Digest 432).

the difference between sapwood and

heartwood in terms of natural durability
and resistance against fungal and insect
attack

Sapwood: Width varies from species to

species, rate of growth & age of tree,
Except for very young trees sapwood
represents 20 to 50% of the total radius,
more porous and therefore less durable
than heartwood, Heartwood advances to
include former sapwood cells, acidity of
the heartwood increases & extractives are
formed, Resistance to fungal & insect
attack increases and heartwood is less
porous than sapwood, Many timbers
develop gums & resins in the heartwood.
the effects of moisture on strength of
timber

Changes in moisture content affect

strength, Timber exposed to high humidity
will absorb moisture & the strength will
reduce with increase in moisture content.

The advantages of using timber over other

materials

high strength and cheaper than other

materials, It has lighter density than other
construction materials, such as brick,
concrete, and metals, has lower thermal
conductivity than many other construction
materials.

difference between softwood and

hardwood cellular structure

In what form is moisture present in Wood

In both cell walls and cell cavities

Timber is hygroscopic: has different

properties in different direction

the constituents of paints and their role

and characteristics

Vehicle or binder: Fluid material in which

the paint hardens by (Polymerisation –
reaction with the air leading to film forming
– oil paints, Coalescence of an emulsion –
pre-polymerised particles prevented from
combining by an emulsifying agent – set
by water evaporation, Evaporation of a
solvent, Driers – aid hardening,
Plasticisers – make the film more flexible,
Solvents – alter the viscosity of the liquid
paint, Fungicidal additives – prevents fungi
from forming on the painted surface)

Pigments: Fine insoluble particles which

produce the colouring & main body of the
paint.
Primers & undercoats have more
pigments than the finish coats.
Maximum covering capabilities with
minimum thickness.

Extender: Control the flow & gloss of the

liquid paint. Particle size is larger than the
pigment Reduce the cost & increase area
of cover.

the main types of paints:

Oil or alkyd based paints: Most widely

used, Older paints based on linseed oil,
Modern paints based on alkyd or
polyurethane, Polymer chains, Become
brittle with time exposed to sun, Cracking
occurs/Emulsion Paints: interior
decoration, Polyvinyl acetate, Minimum
film formation temperature, Brushes &
rollers may be washed out in water before
drying/Solvent based: Cellulose dissolved,
Plasticisers added, Needs to be
ventilated,flammable,environment friendly.

specific heat capacity

he amount of energy required to heat 1 kg

of a substance by 1 oC (or 1 K), tells us
how much heat can be stored by a
substance, ubstances with a high SHC are
better at retaining heat than those with a
low SHC, Water has a relatively high SHC
of 4200 J / kg / oC.

principal modes of heat transfer

The transfer of heat through a medium

(solid or liquid), The transfer of heat in a
fluid/gas by the circulation flow due to
temperature differences is called
convection, Energy transfer as a photon of
a wavelength.

he most common insulation materials for

cavity insulation

Mineral Wool: Material is wrapped around

the building as the cavity is completely
filled, Treated with a water repellent during
manufacture, Similar to the wool used to
insulate lofts, Dust can pose health
hazards

Urea formaldehyde foam: Mixed on-site

and injected with compressed air to give
shaving foam consistency, Very highly
insulating, Strongly carcinogenic.
Expanded Polystyrene Beads:
Polystyrene beads are blown into the
cavity, rolling together to capture pockets
of air, Similar to bean-bag filling, An
adhesive is used to bind the beads
together.

Concrete is a construction material

composed of:Cement, Aggregate, Water,
Other additions and Admixtures.

Advantages of Concrete: Low cost,

Various finishes, Very good compressive
strength, Alkaline pH protects steel
reinforcement.

Disadvantages of Concrete:Low tensile

strength, High density (self weight),
Susceptible to frost, Susceptible to
chemical attack – salts.