A STUDY ON ALMOST CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

IN TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
A project report submitted to the
BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY, TIRUCHIRAPPALLI - 24
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE

Submitted by
Ms. S.R. NIVYA
Register No: P 21194374

Under the guidance of

Mrs. M. DEEPA M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed.,
Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics

PG DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

ANNAI WOMEN’S COLLEGE

(Affiliated to Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli – 24)
Karur – 639 136

APRIL–2023
CERTIFICATE
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project work entitled “A STUDY ON ALMOST

CONTINUOUS FUNCTION IN TOPOLOGICAL SPACES” is the bonafide record of
original work done by S.R. NIVYA (Register No. P 21194374) during the year
2022 - 2023 in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE under my supervision and guidance.

Signature of the HOD Signature of the Guide

Submitted for the BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY, TIRUCHIRAPPALLI - 24

Project evaluation and viva voce examination held on in the
Department of Mathematics, Annai Women’s College, Karur – 639 136.

Signature of the External Examiner Signature of the Internal Examiner

DECLARATION
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project work entitled “A STUDY ON ALMOST

CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS IN TOPOLOGICAL SPACES” is submitted to the
BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY, TIRUCHIRAPPALLI in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE. This project work
has not been submitted elsewhere before for the award of any other degree or for
publications in any other magazine.

Place: Signature of the Candidate

Date:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I offer my thanks to Almighty God for giving me the strength and wisdom of wish
the project work successfully.

I am highly elated in expression my sincere, abundant gratitude to the management

especially Thiru. P. Thangaraju, Chairman, ASAET extending the facilities need to this
project.

I sincerely thank Dr. I. Sarumathi M.Com., M.Phil., MBM, MBA., Ph.D., NET.,
Principal, Annai Women’s College, Karur for her concern regarding not only the
guidance but also the encouragement to carry out the project successfully.

I profusely thank Mrs. D. Deivanai M.Sc., M.Phil., M.A., B.Ed., H.D.C.A., Head of
the Department of Mathematics for her untiring consistent advice and providing us with a
supportive environment.

I wish to express my thanks to my guide Mrs. M. DEEPA M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed.,

Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics for her benevolent guidance and the
valuable suggestion, encouragement for doing this project in good form.

I express my sincere thanks to other faculty members of the Department of

Mathematics, for their encouragement for doing this project in a well ordered manner.

I owe my heartfelt thanks to my parents and my dear friends for their

encouragement and support through this project work.

[S.R. NIVYA]
CONTENT
 CONTENT

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO

INTRODUCTION
1

I PRELIMINARIES
2

II HUSAIN ̕S ALMOST CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

7

III SINGAL-SINGAL ̕S ALMOST CONTINUOUS

MAPPINGS 19

IV COMPARING ALMOST CONTINUOUS

FUNCTIONS 31

V ALMOST Sg -CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

39

CONCLUSION
49

BIBLIOGRAPHY
50
INTRODUCTION
 INTRODUCTION

Topology is the area of mathematics which investigates continuity and

related concepts. Important fundamental notions are for example open and closed
sets, continuity, homeomorphism. Originally coming from questions in analysis and
differential geometry, by now topology permeates mostly every field of math
including algebra, combinatorics, logic, and plays a fundamental role in
algebraic/arithmetic geometry as we know it today.

The objective of this Project is to present a class of mappings called almost

continuous mappings. This class contains the class of continuous mappings and is
contained in the class of weakly continuous mappings. Almost continuous mappings
turn out to be the natural tool for studying almost compact spaces. Most of the work
in function space topologies concerns continuous functions. An almost continuous
function is one whose graph can be approximated by graphs of continuous functions.

There are five main chapters in this project,

Chapter-I- begins with preliminaries.

Chapter-II- discuss about Husain’s almost continuous functions.

Chapter-III- discuss about Singal-Singal’s almost continuous mappings.

Chapter-IV- discuss about Comparing Almost Continuous Functions.

Chapter-V- discuss about Almost Sg-continuous Functions.

1
CHAPTER -I
 CHAPTER − I

PRELIMINARIES

Definition: 1.1

Let X be a set and τ be a collection of subsets of X. Then τ is said to be a

topology on X if it is satisfies the following properties:

(i) ∅ and X are in τ.

(ii) The union of the elements of any sub collection from τ is in τ.
(iii) The intersection of the elements of any finite sub collection from τ is in
τ.

A set X for which a topology τ has been specified is called a topological space.
A topological space is an ordered pair (X,τ) consisting of a set X and a τ on X.

Definition: 1.2

Let (X, τ) be a topological space. A subset U of X is said to be an open set of

X if U belongs to the collection τ i.e., U ∈ τ.

Example: 1.1

In the real line R,(a, b),(a, ∞),(b, ∞) are open in standard topology.

Definition: 1.3

Let X be a topological space. A subset A of X is said to be closed if X – A

is open.

Example: 1.2

The subset [a, b] of R is closed. Since R − [a, b] = (−∞, a) ∪ (b, ∞).

Since (−∞, a) and (a, ∞) are open and the union of finite number of open sets is also
open.
Therefore (−∞, a) ∪ (b, ∞), so that R − [a, b] is open.
Therefore [a, b] is closed.

2
Definition: 1.4

Let A be a subset of topological space X and let x be a point of X. We say

that x is a limit point of A if every neigbourhood of x intersects A in a point other
than x itself.

Example: 1.3

Consider the real line R. If A = (0, 1], then the point 0 is a limit point of A
1
and so is the point . In fact, every point of the interval [0, 1] is a limit point of A,
2

but no other point of R is a limit point of A.

Definition: 1.5

Let A be a subset of a topological space. A point x ∈ A is said to be an

interior point of A if A is a neighbourhood of x. The set of all interior points of A
is called the interior of A.
We write Int(A) for the interior of A. A is open if and only if A=Int(A).

Example: 1.4

Let X={a,b,c,d,e} with topology τ={ϕ,{b},{a,d},{a,b,d},{a,c,d,e},X}.

If A={a,b,c}, then Int(A). Since there is no open set containing {a} and a subset of
A, so {a} is not an interior point of A.
Similarly, {c} is not an interior point of A. Since {b} is an open set
containing b and is a subset of A, so {b} is an interior point of A.
Hence Int(A) ={b}.

Definition: 1.6

Let X be a topological space and let A be subset of X. Then closure of A is

defined as the smallest closed set containing A. We write Cl(A) for the closure of A.
A is closed if and only if A = Cl(A).

Example: 1.5

Consider the subspace Y = (0, 1] of the real line R.

1 1
The set A = (0, ) is a subset of Y; its closure in R is the set [0, ],
2 2

3
 1 1
and its closure in Y is the set [0, ] ∩ Y = (0, ].
2 2

Definition: 1.7

Let X be a set and A be subset of X. Then A is said to be dense subset of X if

Cl(A) = X.

Definition: 1.8

Let A and B be the subsets of X. Then

1.Int(X) = X and Int(∅) = ∅.
2.Int(A)⊂A.
3.Int(Int(A)) = A.
4.A⊂B ⇒ Int(A)⊂Int(B).
5.Int(A∩B) = Int(A)∩Int(B) and Int(A)∪Int(B) ⊂ Int(A∪B).

Definition: 1.9

Let X and Y be topological spaces. A map f : X → Y is said to be an open

map if for every open set U of X , the set f(U) is open in Y.

Example: 1.6

Let X = {x,y,z} with topology τ(X) = {∅,X,{y},{x,y},{y,z}} and

let Y = {1,2,3} with topology τ(Y)={∅,Y,{1}}.
Then, f:X→Y is defined by f(x) = 2, f(y) = 1, f(z) = 3 is continuous but not
open, because A = {x,y} is open in X but f(A) = {1,2} is not open in Y.

Definition: 1.10
A function f : X → Y is said to be continuous at a point x ∈ X if for every
neighbourhood V of f(x) , there exists a neighbourhood U of x such that f(U) ⊂ V.
Equivalently, a function f : X → Y is said to be continuous if every open set V of
Y, the set f−1(V) is open set of X .

Definition: 1.11

A topological space X is said to be satisfies T1 axiom or T1 space if every

finite point sets are closed in X.

4
Definition: 1.12

A topological space X is said to be satisfies Hausdorff or T2 space if every

pair of distinct points in X, there exist neighbourhoods U and V of x and y,
respectively such that U ∩ V = ∅.

Example: 1.7

Let X = {1,2,3} be a non-empty set with topology τ = P(X).

Hence:
 For 1,2 ⇒ 1∈{1}, 2∉{1}.
 For 2,3 ⇒ 2∈{2}, 3∉{2}
 For 3,1 ⇒ 3∈{3}, 1∉{3} and (X,τ) is a T2 space.
 For 1,2 ⇒ 1∈{1}, 2∈{2} ⇒{1}∩{2}=∅.
 For 2,3 ⇒ 2∈{2}, 3∈{3} ⇒{2}∩{3}=∅.
 For 3,1 ⇒ 3∈{3}, 1∈{1} ⇒{3}∩{1}=∅.

Definition: 1.13

A space X has a countable basis at each of its points is said to satisfy first
countability axiom or to be first countable.

Definition: 1.14

Let X be a topological space. A separation of X is a pair U, V of disjoint

non-empty open subsets of X whose union is X. The space X is said to be
connected if there does not exists a separation of X.

Definition: 1.15

A space X is said to be locally connected at x if for every neighbourhood U

of x, there is a connected neighbourhood V of x contained in U. If X is locally
connected at each of its points, then X is said to be locally connected.

Example: 1.8

Each interval and each ray in the real line is both connected and locally
connected. The subspace [−1, 0) ∪ (0, 1] of R is not connected, but it is locally
connected.

5
 The rationals Q are neither connected nor locally connected.

Definition: 1.16

A space X is said to be locally compact at x if there is some compact

subspace C of X that contains a neighbourhood of x. If X is locally compact at each
of its points, then X is said to be locally compact.

Definition: 1.17

A space X is said to be compact if every open covering A of X contains a

finite subcollection that also covers X.

Definition: 1.18

Let X be a topological space. Suppose that one point sets are closed in X.
Then X is said to be regular if for each pair of a point x and a closed set B disjoint
from x, there exists disjoint open sets containing x and B, respectively.

Definition: 1.19

Let X be a topological space and let A ⊂ X. Then A is said to be regularly

open if Int Cl(A)=A.

Definition: 1.20

A space is called a Urysohn space if every pair of distinct points x and y,

there exist sets U and V such that x ∈ U, y ∈ V and U̅ ∩ V̅ = ∅.

6
CHAPTER – II
 CHAPTER − II

HUSAIN’S ALMOST CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

Definition: 2.1

Let X and Y be the topological spaces. A function f : X → Y is almost

continuous at a point x0 ∈ X if and only if for every open set V in Y containing
f (x0), the set Cl(f −1(V)) is a neighbourhood of x0 .
If f is almost continuous at each point of X, then f is called almost
continuous.

Definition: 2.2

Let X and Y be the topological spaces and let F denote the set of all functions
on X to Y. Let C denote the subset of F containing all the continuous functions. For
f ∈ F, the graph of f denoted by G(f ) is the set {(x, f (x))|x ∈ X} ⊂ X × Y.
Let X × Y be a product topology. A Function f ∈ F is said to be almost
continuous if and only if for each open set U in X × Y containing the graph of f, there
exists a g ∈ C such that G(g) ⊂ U.

Theorem: 2.1

Every continuous function is almost continuous.

Proof:

Let f : X → Y be continuous function and let x ∈ X.

−1
Then for every open set V of Y containing f(x), the set f (V) is an open set of X
containing x.
Since f −1(V) ⊂ Cl(f −1(V)). Since f −1(V) is open set, so that Cl(f −1(V)) is a
neighbourhood of x.
Hence f is an almost continuous function.
Hence proved.

7
The following Examples are gives a function which is almost continuous but these are
not continuous.

Example: 2.1

Let R represent the reals with standard topology. Let f : R→ R be defined by,

x if x is rational;
f(x)= {
-x if x is irrational;

Then f is almost continuous but not continuous function.

Proof:

For if 0< ∈ <1, then {x:|f(x)|< ∈ } is not dense in a neighbourhood of O. On

the other hand, some wildly discontinuous function may turn out to be almost
continuous.

For example,
f(x) = 0 or 1 according to whether x is rational or irrational is not cotinuous
anywhere but is almost continuous.

Example: 2.2

Let R represent the reals with standard topology. Let f : R→ R be defined

by
sin(1/x) if x≠0;
(x)= {
0 if x=0;

Then f is almost continuous but not continuous function.

Definition: 2.3

Let X and Y be the topological spaces. A function f : X → Y is almost

continuous at a point x0 ∈ X if and only if for every open set V ⊂ Y containing f(x0)
there exists an open set U ⊂ X containing x0 such that f −1(V) is dense in U.

It is the necessary and sufficient condition for a function be almost

continuous.

8
Lemma: 2.1

Let f : X → Y be almost continuous at x0 ∈ X , where X is T1 space and

x0 ∈ X is a limit point of X. Then for every pair of open set U ⊂ X and V ⊂ Y
containing x0 and f(x0) respectively, there exists an x ∈ U∖{x0} such that f (x) ∈ V.

Proof:

Let f : X → Y be a almost continuous at x0 ∈ X and x0 ∈ X is a limit point of

X. Assume that conclusion is not true.
Then there exist open sets U1 and V1 containing x0 and f (x0) respectively, such
that U1 ∩ f −1(V1) = {x0}.
Thus no point of U1 is a limit point of f−1(V1) in the T1 space X and therefore
U1 ∩ Cl(f −1(V)) = {x0}.
Hence x0 is a not a limit point, which is contradiction to the hypothesis that f
is almost continuous at x0.
This proves the lemma.

Theorem: 2.2

Let f : X → Y be almost continuous at x0 ∈ X , where X is T1 space and both

X and Y are first countable. If x0 is a limit point of X, there exists a sequence {xn} of
distinct points in X converging to x0 such that {f (xn)} converges to f(x0).

Proof:

Let X be T1 space and first countable. Also let Y be first countable. Let
f : X → Y be almost continuous at x0 ∈ X.
Let {Un} and {Vn} be countable descending bases at the point x0 and f (x0),
respectively.
By using previous Lemma, for the two open sets U1 and V1, there is a point
x1 ∈ U1∖{x0} such that f (x1) ∈ V1.
Now considering the open sets U2 and V2, U2∖{x1} is an open set containing
x0 in the T1 space X.
Again by lemma, there exists a point x2 ∈ U2∖{x0, x1}such that f (x2) ∈ V2.

9
 Proceeding like this, we have for the open sets Uk and Vk, Uk∖{x1,x2, · · ·,xk−1}
is open set containing x0 and hence there exists a point xk ∈ Uk∖{x1,x2, · · ·, xk−1} such
that f(xk) ∈ Vk.
Since x0 is a limit point of X, so every neighbourhood of x0 contains infinitely
many points of X.
Now we have constructed a sequence {xn} of distinct points of X converging
to x0 such that f(xn) ∈ Vn for each positive integer n.
That is {f (xn)} converges to f (x0).
Hence proved.

Corollary: 2.1

Let f : X → Y be almost continuous at x0 ∈ X where X and Y are T2 space,

then the point x0 is not a removable discontinuity of f

Theorem: 2.3

Let f : X → Y be any function and let D be a dense subset of X . If f | D is

continuous, then f is almost continuous at each point of D.

Proof:

Given D be a dense subset of X, that is D̅ = X. Assume that f | D is continuous.

We claim that f is almost continuous at each point of D. Let x0 ∈ D and V be
any open set containing f (x0).
Since f | D is continuous, there exists an open set U in X containing x0 such
that (D ∩ U) = (f | D)−1 (V) = D ∩ f −1(V).
Therefore D ∩ U ⊂ D ∩ f −1(V) ⇒ D ∩ U ⊂ f −1(V). Since D is dense, so that
U ⊂ Cl(D ∩ U ) ⊂ Cl(f −1(V)) ⇒ U ⊂ Cl(f −1(V)).
Therefore f is almost continuous at x0.
Hence proved.

Example: 2.3

Consider the almost continuous function f : R → R defined by

10
 1 if x is rational;
f(x)= {
-1 if x is irrational;

Let M be the set consisting of all non-negative rationals together with all negative
irrationals. Then f | M is not almost continuous at x = 0.
Thus it describes a function which is connected and almost continuous but not
continuous.

Theorem: 2.4

If f : X → Y is almost continuous and U is open subset of X , then f | D is

almost continuous.

Proof:

Assume that f is almost continuous. Let U be open subset of X.

−1 −1
For any regular open subset V of Y such that (f | U) (V) = U ∩ f (V) , since f is
−1
almost continuous, so that f (V) is open. Since finite intersection of open sets is
open.
−1 −1
Therefore U ∩ f (V) is open subset of U. That is (f | U) (V) is an open
subset of U.
Therefore f | U is almost continuous.
Hence proved.

Example :2.4

Let I = [0, 1] and any function f : I → I is defined by

f(x) = lim sup(a1 + a2 + · · · + an)/n for each x ∈ I where the ai are given by the unique
non terminating binary expansion of the number x = (0. a1a2 · · ·). Then the function
f is connected and almost continuous but not continuous.

It describes a function which is connected and almost continuous but not

continuous.

Definition: 2.4

The function f : X → Y is called finitely closed at x0 ∈ X if and only if for

11
each open set V ⊂ Y containing f (x0), there exist an open set V1 containing f(x0)
where V1 ⊂ V such that X∖Cl(f −1(V1)) consists of finitely many components.

Definition: 2.5

Any function f : X → Y is said to be a connected if f preserves connected

subsets of X , that is there exists a subset U of X such that f (U) is connected.

Our next theorem gives condition when a connected function is also almost
continuous.

Theorem:2.5

Let f : X → Y be connected where Y is regular. If f is finitely closed at

x0 ∈ X, then f is almost continuous at x0.

Proof:

Let f be connected. Assume that f is finitely closed at x0 ∈ X.

We claim that f is almost continuous at x0.
Suppose that f is not almost continuous at x0 ∈ X. There exists an open set
V ⊂ Y containing f (x0) such that x0 is not interior to Cl(f−1(V)).
Then x0 is a limit point of X∖Cl(f −1(V)).Since f is finitely closed at x0, there
exists an open set V1 containing f (x0), whereV1 ⊂ V, such that X∖Cl(f −1(V1))
consists of finitely many components C1, C2, C3,· · · , Cn .
Since V1 ⊂ V ⇒ f −1(V1) ⊂ f −1(V) ⇒ Cl(f −1(V1)) ⊂ Cl(f −1(V)) .
Since x0 is not interior to Cl(f −1(V1)), so that x0 a limit point of X∖Cl(f −1(V1)).
Hence x0 is a limit point of some component Ck, 1 ≤ k ≤ n. Therefore
Ck ∪ {x0} is connected.
But f(Ck ∪ {x0}) = f (Ck) ∪ {f (x0)} is not connected in the regular space Y.
Because f (x0) ∈ V1, while f (Ck) ⊂ Y∖V1, which is a contradiction to the connected
hypothesis of f.
Therefore f is almost continuous at x0.
Hence proved.

12
Definition: 2.6

Let X, Y be the topological spaces and let f : X → Y be any function. The set
G(f) is a closed subset of X × Y if and only if for every x0 ∈ X and y ∈ Y but
y ≠ f (x0), then there exist open sets U and V containing x0 and y respectively, such
that f(U) ∩ V = ∅.
Let X, Y are arbitrary spaces and M ⊂ Y is compact. If any function
f : X → Y having closed graph, then f −1(M) is a closed subset of X.
If any function f : X → Y , where Y is compact, having closed graphs, then f
is continuous.

Theorem: 2.6

Let f : X → Y be any function, where Y is locally compact and either a regular

T1 space or a Hausdorff space. If for each compact V ⊂ Y, f −1(V) is closed, then
G(f ) is closed.

Proof:

Let f : X → Y be any function, where Y is locally compact and either regular

T1 or T2 space.
−1
Assume that for each compact set V ⊂ Y, the set f (V) is closed in X. We
claim that G(f) is closed.
Let x0 ∈ X and y ∈ Y but y ≠ f(x0). Since Y is either T1 or T2 space, then there
exists a neighbourhood V ⊂ Y containing y such that f(x0) ∉ V.
The collection of closed compact neighbourhoods of y is a base for its
neighbourhood system.
Let V1 ⊂ V be a neighbourhood containing y. That is V1 be closed compact
neighbourhood y.
−1
By the assumption, f (V) is closed in X. Then X∖f −1(V) = U is open and f
(U) ∩ V1 = ∅.
Therefore G(f ) is closed.
Hence proved.

13
Theorem: 2.7

Let f : X → Y be almost continuous, where f is injective and has closed graph.

Then X is T2.

Proof:

Let x, w ∈ X be the distinct points. Since f is injective, so that f(x) ≠ f(w).

Since G(f) is closed, there exist open sets U and V containing x and f(w) respectively,
such that f−1(V) ⊂ X∖U.
Since f be almost continuous, then Cl(f −1(V)) is a neighbourhood of w. Since
U is open, so that X∖U is closed.
Therefore Cl(f −1(V)) ⊂ X∖U. There exist disjoint open sets in X containing x
and w respectively. That is the pair of distinct points have distinct neighbourhoods.
Therefore the space X is T2 (or) Hausdorff space.
Hence proved.

Theorem: 2.8

Let Y is locally connected and T2. Let f : X → Y be almost continuous. If f

and f −1 preserve connected sets, then G(f ) is closed.

Proof:

Let x0 ∈ X and y ≠ f (x0) ∈ Y. Since Y is T2, so that there exists disjoint open
sets U and V containing y and f (x0) respectively.
Since Y is locally connected, then there exists a connected neighbourhood
W ⊂ V containing f (x0). So that U and W are disjoint.
That is, U ∩ W = ∅ ⇒ f −1(U) ∩ f −1(W) = ∅. Since f −1
preserves connected
sets. If any x ∈ f −1(U) is a limit point of the connected set f −1(W), then {x} ∪ f −1(W)
is a connected set.
But f ({x} ∪ f −1(W)) = {f (x)} ∪ W. Since U contains f (x) and U and W are
disjoint neighbourhoods.
Therefore f ({x} ∪ f −1(W)) is not connected, which is a contradiction to f
preserves connected set.

14
 Since f−1(U) ∩ f−1(W) = ∅ ⇒ Cl(f −1(U)) ∩ Cl(f −1(W)) = ∅.
Since f is almost continuous, there is an open set T ⊂ Cl(f−1(W)) containing x0.
This implies T ⊂ f −1(W) ⇒ f (T) ⊂ W ⇒ f (T) ∩ U = ∅.
Therefore G(f) is closed.
Hence proved.

Theorem: 2.9

Let f : X → Y be almost continuous, where Y is locally compact. If Y is either

regular or Hausdorff and G(f) is closed, then f is continuous.

Proof:

Let f : X → Y be almost continuous, where Y is locally compact. Assume that

Y is either regular or T2 and G(f ) is closed. We claim that f is continuous.
Let x0 ∈ X and V be a neighbourhood of f (x). Since Y is locally compact, then
there exists a compact neighbourhood W of f (x0) such that W ⊂ V.
Since G(f) is closed, f −1(W) is closed so that Cl(f −1(W)) = f−1(W). Since f is
almost continuous, so that Cl(f −1(W)) is a neighbourhood of x0.
Since W ⊂ V ⇒ f −1(W) ⊂ f −1(V) ⇒ Cl(f −1(W)) ⊂ f −1(V) . Therefore f −1(V)
is a neighbourhood of x0.
Therefore f is continuous at x0.
Hence proved.

Corollary: 2.2

Let f : R → R be almost continuous. If G(f) is closed, then f is continuous.

Theorem: 2.10

Let f : X → Y be almost continuous, where Y is regular, locally connected

space. If f has the property that Cl(f −1(C)) ⊂ f −1(Cl(C)) for every connected subset
C ⊂ Y, then f is continuous.

Proof:

Given f : X → Y be almost continuous, where Y is regular and locally

connected space.

15
 −1
Assume that f has the property Cl(f (C)) ⊂ f −1(Cl(C)) for every connected
subset C ⊂ Y. We claim that f is continuous.
Let x0 ∈ X and V be a neighbourhood of f (x0). Since Y is regular, there exist
a closed set W.
Also Y is locally connected, there exist a connected neighbourhood W ⊂ V
containing f (x0) such that Cl(W) ⊂ V.
Then f −1(Cl(W)) ⊂ f −1(V). By our assumption, f has the property that
Cl(f −1(W)) ⊂ f −1(Cl(W)) , where W is connected.
Therefore Cl(f −1(W)) ⊂ f −1(Cl(W)) ⊂ f −1(V) ⇒ Cl(f −1(W)) ⊂ f −1(V). Since
f is almost continuous, then Cl(f −1(W)) is a neighbourhood of x0.That is f −1(V) is a
neighbourhood of x0.
Therefore f is continuous at x0.
Hence proved.

Theorem: 2.11

Let f : X → Y be almost continuous, where X is T2 and Y is a regular, locally

−1
connected T2 space. If f is connected and f (C) is connected for every connected
subset C ⊂ Y, then f is continuous.

Proof:

Let f : X → Y be almost continuous, where X is T2 and Y is a regular, locally

connected T2 space.
Assume that f is connected and f −1(C) is connected for every connected subset
C ⊂ Y. We claim that f is continuous.
Let C be any connected subset of Y. Since f −1 preserves connected sets, that
is f −1(C) is connected and let K = f −1(C).
Since K is connected, so that f preserves connected sets further more
f (Cl(K)) ⊂ Cl(f (K)).
Then f (Cl(K)) ⊂ Cl(f (f −1(C))) = Cl(C) that is,
f (Cl(K)) ⊂ Cl(C) ⇒ f (f −1(Cl(K))) ⊂ f −1(Cl(C)) ⇒ Cl(K) ⊂ f −1(Cl(C))
⇒ Cl(f −1(C)) ⊂ Cl(f −1(C)) .

16
 Hence f is continuous.
Hence proved.

Definition: 2.7

A map f : X → Y is said to be a semi connected if f −1 preserves closed

connected subsets of Y.

The following theorem states conditions under which a function that is both
semi connected and almost continuous is continuous.

Theorem: 2.12

Let f : X → Y be almost continuous, where Y is locally connected and regular.

If f is semi-connected then f is continuous.

Proof:

Let f : X → Y be almost continuous, where Y is locally connected and regular.

Assume that f is semi-connected.
We claim that f is continuous. Let x0 ∈ X and V be any neighbourhood of f
(x0). Since Y is locally connected and regular, there is connected neighbourhood W
containing f (x0) such that Cl(W) ⊂ V.
Since f is semiconnected. Therefore f −1(W) ⊂ f 1 (Cl(W)) ⊂ f −1(V) and since
f −1(Cl(W)) is closed.
This implies Cl(f −1(W)) ⊂ f 1 (Cl(W)) ⊂ f −1(V). Since f is almost continuous,
there is a neighbourhood U ⊂ Cl(f −1(W)) containing x0.
Since Cl(f −1(W)) ⊂ f −1(V) ⇒ U ⊂ f −1(V) ⇒ f (U) ⊂ V. Therefore f is
continuous at x0.
Hence proved.

Theorem: 2.13

Let f : R → Y be almost continuous, where Y is locally connected.

If f −1(C) is connected for every connected subset C of Y, then f is continuous.

Proof:

Let f : R → Y be almost continuous, where Y is locally connected.

17
Assume that f −1 preserves connected sets. We claim that f is continuous.
Let x0 ∈ R and C be any open set containing f (x0). Since Y is locally
connected, there is a connected neighbourhood C be assumed.
Since f −1 preserves connected sets. Therefore f −1(C) is connected subset
of R.Therefore f −1(C) is must be an interval in R and f −1(C) is containing x0.
Since f is almost continuous, there exist a neighbourhood Cl(f −1(C)) of x0
containing x0.
Therefore x0 is an interior point of f −1(C). Therefore f −1(C) is a
neighbourhood of x0.
Hence f is continuous at x0.
Hence proved.

Theorem: 2.14

Let f : R → R be almost continuous. If f −1(C) is connected for every connected

subset C of R, then f is continuous.

Proof:

Let x0 and V be a neighbourhood containing f (x0) in R. Therefore V is must

be an interval in R and also it is connected.
−1 −1
Since f preserves connected sets, so that f (V) is connected subset of R.
Therefore f −1(V) is an interval in R.
This implies Cl(f −1(V)) is also an interval in R . Since f is almost
continuous, there exists a neighbourhood Cl(f −1(V)) containing x0 .
Therefore x0 is an interior point of f −1(V). Therefore f −1(V) is a
neighbourhood of x0.
Hence f is continuous.
Hence proved.

18
CHAPTER – III
 CHAPTER-III

SINGAL-SINGAL’S ALMOST CONTINUOUS MAPPINGS

Definition: 3.1

A set A is called regularly open if it is the interior of its own closure or

equivalently, if it is the interior of some closed set.
A is called regularly closed if it is the closure of its own interior or
equivalently, if it is the closure of some open set.

Definition: 3.2

The function f : X ⊂ Y is called almost continuous at x ∈ X if for every

neighbourhood M of f(x), there exists a neighbourhood U of x such that
f(U) ⊂ Int(Cl(V))V. It is easy to see that the neighbourhoods M and N can be
replaced by open neighbourhoods.
It is clear that if f : X → Y is continuous at a point x ∈ X, then it is almost
continuous at x. But the converse of this statement may not be true, as the following
example shows.

Example: 3.1

Let R be the set of real numbers and let τ consist of ∅, R and the complements
of all countable subsets of R.
Let X = {a, b} and let τ ∗ = {X, ∅, {a}}

Let f : (R : τ ) → (R, τ ∗) be defined as follows:

x if x is rational;
f(x)= {
-x if x is irrational;

Then f is almost continuous at each of R, but f is not continuous at x ∈ R if x is

rational.

19
Theorem: 3.1

For a mapping f : X → Y, the following are equivalent:

(a) f is almost continuous at x ∈ X.
(b) For every regularly open neighbourhood M of f(x), there is a
neighbourhood N of x such that f(N) ⊂ M.
(c) For each net {xλ}λ∈D converging to x, the net {f (xλ)}λ∈D is
equivalently in every regularly open set containing f(x).

Proof:

(a) ⇒ (b). If f is almost continuous at x and M is a regularly open

neighbourhood of f (x), then there is a neighbourhood N of x such that
f (N) ⊂ Int(Cl(M )) = M.

(b) ⇒ (c). Let {xλ}λ∈D be a net converging to x and let U be any regularly open
set containing f(x). Since f is almost continuous, there is an open set M containing x
such that f (M) ⊂ U.
Now, since M is open set containing x and the net {xλ}λ∈D converges to x ,
therefore there is a λ0 ∈ D such that λ ≥ λ0 ⇒ x − λ ∈ M .The set D is directed by
‘≥’.Thus, for all λ ≥ λ0, f (xλ) ∈ f(M) ⊂ U.
Hence the net is eventually in U.

(c) ⇒ (a). Suppose that f is not almost continuous at x. Then there is an open
set V containing f(x) such that for every open set U containing x,
f (U) ∩ (Y−Int(Cl(V))) ≠ ∅ .
This implies that U ∩ f −1(Y−Int(Cl(V))) ≠ ∅ for every open set U containing
x. The family ‘u’ of all open sets ‘U’ containing x is directed by set inclusion. For
each U ∈ u choose a point xU belonging to U ∩ f −1(Y − Int(Cl(V))).
Then {xU}U∈u is a net in X which converges to x and is such that no
f (xU) is in Int(Cl(V)).

Thus {f(xU)}U∈u is not eventually in the regularly open set Int(Cl(V)), which is
a contradiction.

20
Definition: 3.3

A mapping f : X → Y is said to be almost continuous if it is almost continuous

at each point x of X.
An almost continuous mappings may fail to be continuous. The mapping f
previous example is an almost continuous mapping which is not continuous. The
following is another example of such a mapping.

Example: 3.2

Let (R, τ) be the space of previous example and let ‘u’ denote the usual
topology for R. Let i be the identity mapping of (R,u) onto (R, τ). Then i is almost
continuous but not continuous at any point.

Theorem: 3.2

For a mapping f : X → Y, the following are equivalent:

(a) f is almost continuous.
(b) Inverse image of every regularly open subset of Y is an open subset
of X.
(c) Inverse image of every regularly closed subset of Y is an closed
subset of X.
(d) For each point x of X and for each regularly open neighbourhood M
of f(x), there is a neighbourhood N of x such that f (N) ⊂ M.
(e) f −1(A) ⊂ Int(f −1(Int(Cl(A))) for every open subset A of Y.
(f) Cl(f −1(Int(Cl(B)))) ⊂ f −1(B) for every closed subset B of Y.
(g) For any point x ∈ X and for any net {xλ}λ∈D which converges to x,
the net {f(xλ)}λ∈D is eventually in each regularly open set containing
f (x).

Proof:

(a) ⇒ (b). Let U be any regularly-open subset of Y. Let x ∈ f −1(U), then

f(x) ∈ U. Therefore there exists an open set V in X such that x ∈ V and
f(V) ⊂ Int(Cl(U)) = U. Thus, x ∈ V ⊂ f −1(U) and therefore f −1(U) is a neighbourhood
of x.
Hence f −1(U) is open.

21
 (b) ⇒ (c). Let A be any regularly closed of Y. Then Y − A is regularly open
and therefore f −1(Y − A) is open, that is, X − f −1(A) is open.
Hence f −1(A) is closed.

(c) ⇒ (d). Since M is regularly open, therefore Y − M is regularly closed, and

consequently f −1(Y − M) is closed, i.e., f −1(M) is open. Also, x ∈ f −1(M) = N (say).
Then N is a neighbourhood of x such that f (N) ⊂ M.

(d) ⇒ (e). Let x ∈ f −1(A). Then Int(Cl(A)) is a regularly open neighbourhood

of f(x), since A is open. Then, there exist an open neighbourhood N of x such that f
(N) ⊂ Int(Cl(A)). Thus, x ∈ N ⊂ f −1(Int(Cl(A))).
This means that x ∈ Int(f −1(Int(Cl(A)))) .
Hence f −1(A) ⊂ Int(f −1(Int(Cl(A)))) .

(e) ⇒ (f). Since Y−B is open, therefore f −1(Y−B) ⊂ (Int(f −1(Int(Cl(A))))).

This implies that X − f −1(Int(Int(Cl(Y − B)))) ⊂ f −1(B).
That is, Cl(f −1(Cl(Int(B)))) ⊂ f −1(B).

(f) ⇒ (g). Let N be any regularly open set containing f (x). Then, Y − N being
−1 −1
closed, Cl(X − f (Cl(Int(Y−N)))) ⊂ f (Y−N). Since Y−N is regularly closed,
therefore Cl(f −1(Y−N)) ⊂ X − f −1(N) .
Since the net {xλ}λ∈D converges to x , therefore there exists λ0 ∈ D such that
for all λ ≥ λ0 ( D is directed by’≥’) xλ ∈ f −1(N). This means that f(xλ) ∈ N for all
λ ≥ λ0. That is, the net {f (xλ)}λ∈D is eventually in N.

(g) ⇒ (a). By using (c) of previous theorem, it is clear that f is almost

continuous. This completes the proof of the theorem.

Definition: 3.4

A mapping f : X → Y is said to be weakly continuous if for each point x ∈ X

and each neighbourhood V of f(x), there exists a neighbourhood U of x such that
f (U) ⊂ Cl(V).

22
 It is easy to see that the neighbourhoods in the definition can be replaced by
open neighbourhoods. Obviously, every almost continuous mapping is weakly
continuous. But a weakly continuous mapping may fail to be almost continuous.

Theorem: 3.3

Let R be the set of real numbers and let τ = {∅, R} ∪ {U ⊂ X : X − U is

countable or all of X}. Let X = {a, b, c} and let τ ∗ = {∅,{a},{c},{a, c},X}.
A map f : (R, τ) → (X, τ ∗) defined by

a if x is rational;
f(x)= {
b if x is irrational;

Then f is a weakly continuous open mapping which is not almost continuous at Q.

Proof:

Let x ∈ Q. Given f (x) ={a}∈ Q. Then f (x) ∈ U, where U is a neighbourhood

of f (x) and it mist contain {a,b}.
Therefore there exists a neighbourhood V of x such that f (V) = {a, b}.
That is f (V) ⊆ CL(U). Therefore f is weakly continuous.
Let x ∈ Q. Given f (x) = {a},{a} is an open set. Then
Cl({a}) = {a, b}. That is Int(Cl({a})) = {a}. That is x ⊆ U, U must contain Q and Qc.
Therefore f (U) = {a, b} ⊈ Int(Cl({a})) = {a}.
Therefore f is not almost continuous.
Hence proved.

Theorem: 3.4

If f : X → Y is a weakly continuous open mapping, then f is almost continuous.

Proof:

Let x ∈ X and let M be an neighbourhood of x. Since f is a weakly continuous,

there is an open neighbourhood N of x such that f (N ) ⊂ Cl(M).
Since f is open, therefore f (N) is open. Then f (N) ⊂ Int(Cl(M)) and
consequently f is almost continuous.
Hence proved.

23
Corollary: 3.1

An open mapping is almost continuous if and only if it is weakly continuous.

Definition: 3.5

A space is said to be semi regular if for each point x of the space and each
open set U containing x, there is an open set V such that x ∈ V ⊂ Int(Cl(V)) ⊂ U.

Theorem: 3.5

If f is an almost continuous mapping of a space X into a semi-regular space Y,

then f is continuous.

Proof:

Let x ∈ X and let A be an open set containing f(x). Since Y is semi regular,
there is an open subset M of Y such that, f(x) ∈ M ⊂ Int(Cl(M)) ⊂ A.
Now, since f is almost continuous, therefore there is an open subset U of X
containing x such that f (x) ∈ f (U) ⊂ Int(Cl(M)).
Thus U is an open set containing x such that f(U) ⊂ A. Thus f is continuous at
x. Since x is arbitrary, it follows that f is continuous.
Hence proved.

Theorem: 3.6

If f is an open continuous mapping of X onto Y and if g is an mapping of Y

into Z, then g∘f is almost continuous if and only if g is almost continuous.

Proof:

First, let g∘f be almost continuous. Let A be a regularly open subset of Z.

Since g ◦ f is almost continuous, therefore (g∘f)−1(A) is open, that is, f −1
(g−1(A)) is
open. Also, f is open.
Therefore f(f−1(g−1(A))) is open, that is g−1(A) is open and consequently g is
almost continuous.
Now, let g be almost continuous and let S be any regularly open subset of Z.
Then g−1(A) is an open subset of Y.

24
 −1
Since f is continuous, therefore f (g−1(A)) is an open subset of X. That is,
(g∘f)−1(A) is an open of X.
Hence g∘f is almost continuous.
Hence proved.

Theorem: 3.7

Every restriction of an almost continuous mapping is almost continuous.

Proof:

Let f be an almost continuous mapping of X into Y and let A be any subset of

X. For any regularly open subset S of Y, (f | A)−1(S) = A ∩ f −1(S).
−1 −1
But, f being almost continuous, f (S) is open and hence A ∩ f (S) is a
relatively open subset of A. That is, (f | A)−1(S) is an open subset of A.
Hence f | A is almost continuous.
Hence proved.

Theorem: 3.8

Let f map X into Y and let x be a point of X. If there exists a neighbourhood

N of x such that the restriction of f to N is almost continuous at x, then f is almost
continuous at x.

Proof:

Let U be any regularly open set containing f(x), since f | N is almost continuous
at x. Therefore, there is an open set V1 such that x ∈ N ∩ V1 and f(N ∩ V1) ⊂ U. The
result now follows from the fact that N ∩ V1 is a neighbourhood of x.
Hence proved.

Corollary: 3.2

Let f map X into Y and let {Gλ : λ ∈ A} be an open cover of X. If for each
λ ∈ A, f |Gλ is almost continuous at each point of Gλ, then f is almost continuous.

25
Theorem: 3.9

If f is a mapping of X into Y and X = X1 ∪ X2, where X1 and X2 are closed and

f | X1 and f | X2 are almost continuous, then f is almost continuous.

Proof:

Let A be a regularly closed subset of Y. Then, since f | X1 and f | X2 are both

almost continuous, therefore (f | X1)−1(A) and (f | X2)−1(A) are both closed in X1 and
X2 respectively.
Since X1 and X2 are closed subsets of X , therefore (f | X1)−1(A) and
(f | X2 )−1(A) are also closed subsets of X .
Also, f −1(A) = (f | X1)−1(A) ∪ (f | X2)−1(A) . Thus f −1(A) is the union of two
closed sets and is therefore closed.
Hence f is almost continuous.
Hence proved.

Theorem: 3.10

If f is a mapping of X into Y and X = X1 ∪ X2, and if f | X1 and f | X2 are both

almost continuous at a point x belonging to X1 ∩ X2, then f is almost continuous at x.

Proof:

Let U be any regularly open set containing f(x).

Since x ∈ X1 ∩ X2 and f | X1, f | X2 are both almost continuous at x, therefore there
exist open sets V1 and V2 such that x ∈ X1 ∩ V1 and f (X1 ∩ V1) ⊂ U and
x ∈ X1 ∩ V2 and f(X2 ∩ V2) ⊂ U .
Now, since X = X1 ∪ X2
Therefore,

f (V1 ∩ V2) = f (X1 ∩ V1 ∩ V2) ∪ f (X2 ∩ V1 ∩ V2) ⊂ f (X1 ∩ V1) ∪ f (X2 ∩ V2) ⊂ U.

Thus, V1 ∩ V2(=V) is and open set containing x such that f (V) ⊂ U and hence
f is almost continuous at x.
Hence proved.

26
Theorem: 3.11

Let fα : Xα → Xα* be almost continuous for each α ∈ I and let

f : 𝜋α∈I Xα→ 𝜋α∈I Xα* be defined be setting f((xα)) = (fα(xα)) for each point
(xα) ∈ 𝜋 α∈I Xα. Then f is almost continuous.

Proof:

Let (xα) ∈ 𝜋α∈I Xα and let O* be a regularly open subset 𝜋Xα* of containing
f((xα)).
Then there is a member 𝜋α∈I O*α of the defining base of the product topology
on 𝜋α∈I Xα* such that f((xα)) ∈ 𝜋α∈I O*α and O*α = Xα* for all α ∈ I except for a finite
number of indices αi , i = 1,2,…,n(say) and O*α is and open subset of Xα*,, i = 1,2,…,n.
Now, since O* is regularly open, therefore Int(cl( 𝜋α∈I O*α)) ⊂ O*.
Thus, each αi , f αi (xαi) ∈ O*αi ⊂ Int(cl(O*αi)) and f αi being almost continuous, there is
an open subset Uαi of Xαi* such that xαi ∈ Uαi and
fαi(xαi) ∈ fαi(Uαi) ⊂ Int(cl(O*αi)).
Thus, 𝜋α∈I Uα where Uα = Xα when α ≠ αi, i = 1,2,…,n, is an open set containing
xα such that f(𝜋α∈I Uα) ⊂ O*.
Hence f is almost continuous.
Hence Proved.

Theorem: 3.12

Let h : X→ 𝜋α∈I Xα be almost continuous. For each α ∈ I define fα : X → Xα

by setting fα(x) = (h(x))α. Then fα is almost continuous for all α ∈ I.

Proof:

Let Pα denote the projection of X into Xα. Then Pα∘h = fα for each α.
Now Pα is open and continuous for each α and h is almost continuous.
Therefore, Pα∘h is almost continuous. That is, fα is continuous for each α.
Hence Proved.

27
Definition: 3.6

A point x of a subset A of a space is called a boundary point of A if it is not an

interior point of A.

Theorem: 3.13

The set of all points of X at which is not almost continuous is identical with
the union of the boundaries of the inverse images of regularly open subsets of Y.

Proof:

Suppose f is not almost continuous at a point x ∈ X. Then there exists a

regularly open set V such that f (x) ∈ V and for every open set U containing x, we
have f (U) ∩ (Y − V) ≠ ∅.
Thus, for every open set U containing x, we must have U ∩ (X − f −1(V)) ≠ ∅.
Therefore x cannot be an interior point of f −1(V). But x belongs to f −1(V). Hence x is
a point of the boundary of f −1(V).
Now, let x belong to the boundary of f −1(G) for some regularly open subset G
of Y. Then f (x) belongs to G. If f is almost continuous at x, then there is an open set
U such that x belongs to U and f (U) ⊂ G.
Thus x ∈ U ⊂ f −1(f (U)) ⊂ f −1(G).
Therefore x is an interior point of f −1(G), which is a contradiction.
Hence f is not almost continuous at x.

Definition: 3.7

A space is called a Urysohn space if for every pair of distinct points x and y,
there exist open sets U and V such that x ∈ U, y ∈ V and Cl(U) ∩ Cl(V) = ∅.

Theorem: 3.14

If f is a weakly continuous, one-to-one mapping of X into Y and if X is

compact and Y is Uryshon, then f is open.

Proof:

Let A be an open subset of X. Then X−A, being a closed subset of the compact
space X, is compact.

28
 Since every weakly continuous image of a compact space is almost compact,
therefore f (X−A), is almost compact.
Since f is one-to-one, therefore, f(X−A) = Y−f(A), whence Y−f (A) is almost
compact. Since Y is a Urysohn space, therefore Y− f(A) is closed and hence f(A) is
open.
Hence Proved.

Corollary: 3.3

If f is an almost continuous, one-to-one mapping of X onto Y and if X is

compact and Y is Urysohn, then f is open.

Proof:

Let f : X → Y be an almost continuous mapping. We claim that f is weakly

continuous. Let x ∈ X, then f (x) ∈ Y and M is a neighbourhood of f (x).
Since f is almost continuous mapping, there exists a neighbourhood N of x
such that f(N) ⊆ Int(Cl(U)). But M is a regularly open neighbourhood of f (x).
Therefore f(N) ⊆ Int(Cl(U)) = Cl(M), where M is a open neighbourhood.
Therefore f (N) ⊆ Cl(M).
Hence f is weakly continuous.
Hence Proved.

Definition: 3.8

A space X is said to be almost regular if for each regularly closed set A and
each point x ∉ A, there are disjoint open sets U and V such that x ∈ U, A ⊂ V.

Theorem: 3.15

If f is an almost-continuous, closed mapping of a regular space X onto a space

Y such that f −1(y) is compact for each point y ∈ Y, then Y is almost regular.

Proof:

Let A be a regularly closed subset of Y and suppose that y ∉ A.

Then, f −1(y) ∩ f −1(A) = ∅, f −1(A) is closed by the almost continuity of f and f −1(y)
compact.

29
 Since X is regular, there exist disjoint open sets G and H such that
f −1(A) ⊂ G, f −1(y) ⊂ H.
Now, let P = {z : f −1(z) ⊂ G} and Q = {z : f −1(z) ⊂ H}. Then y ∈ P, A ⊂ Q,
P ∩ Q = ∅. Also since f is closed, therefore P and Q are open.
Hence Y is almost regular.
Hence Proved.

Theorem: 3.16

If f is an almost continuous, closed mapping of a normal space X onto a space

Y, then any two disjoint regularly closed subsets of Y can be strongly separated.

Proof:

Let A and B be two disjoint regularly closed subsets of Y. Then f −1(A) and
f −1(B) are disjoint, closed subsets of the normal space X and therefore there exist open
sets G and H such that G ∩ H = ∅, f −1(A) ⊂ G, f −1(B) ⊂ H.
Let P = {y : f −1(y) ⊂ G} and Q = {y : f −1(y) ⊂ H}. Then, since f is closed,
therefore P and Q are open sets. Also, A ⊂ P, B ⊂ Q and P ∩ Q = ∅.
Hence the result.

30
CHAPTER – IV
 CHAPTER − IV

COMPARING ALMOST CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

In this paper, Husain introduced the concept of almost continuous mappings and
investigated some of their properties. On the other hand, Singal and Singal have also
introduced the concept, similarly called almost continuous mappings, which is in fact
different from that in the sense of Husain.

In this paper, we use the abbreviations “a.c.H.” means almost continuous in the
sense of Husain and “a.c.S.” means almost continuous in the sense of Singal and Singal.

Definition: 4.1

The function f : X → Y is said to be almost continuous in the sense of Stallings

if given any open set W ⊂ X × Y containing the graph of f , there exist a continuous
function g : X → Y such that the graph of g is a subset of W.

Definition: 4.2

The function f : X → Y is almost continuous at x ∈ X in the sense of Husain if

for each open set V ⊂ Y containing f(x), the closure of f −1(V) is a neighbourhood of x.
If f is almost continuous at each point of X, then f is called almost continuous.

Definition: 4.3

The function f : X ⊂ Y is called almost continuous at x ∈ X in the sense of

Singal and Singal if for each open set V ⊂ Y containing f (x) , there exists an open set
U ⊂ X containing x such that f (U) is a subset of the interior of the closure of V. If f is
almost continuous at each point of X, then f is called almost continuous.

Theorem: 4.1

Let f : X → Y be a function and let g : X → X × Y , given by g(x) = (x, f (x)),

be its graph map. Then g : X → X × Y is a.c.S. if and only if f : X → Y is a.c.S.

31
Proof:

Assume that f is a.c.S. Let x ∈ X be a arbitrary point. We claim that g is a.c.S.

at a point x ∈ X.
Let W ⊂ X × Y be an open set containing the point g(x) = (x,f(x)). Then there
exist open sets R ⊂ X, V ⊂ Y containing x and f(x) respectively, such that R × V ⊂ W.
Since f is a.c.S., there exists an open set U ⊂ R ⊂ X containing x such that
f (U) ⊂ Int(Cl(V)).
We know that U ⊂ Cl(U) and Int(Cl(V)) ⊂ Cl(V), now
U × Int(Cl(V)) ⊂ Cl(U) × Cl(V) = Cl(U×V) ⇒ Int(U × Int(Cl(V))) ⊂ Int(Cl(U ×V)).
Therefore, U × Int(Cl(V)) ⊂ Int(Cl(U × V)). Since f (U) ⊂ Int(Cl(V)), so that
g(U) ⊂ U × Int(Cl(V)) ⊂ Int(Cl(U × V)). Hence g is a.c.S. at x ∈ X.

Conversely,

Assume that g is a.c.S. We claim that f is a.c.S. at a point x ∈ X. Let x ∈ X and

for any open set V ⊂ Y containing f(x). Then X × V is an open set X × Y containing
(x, f(x)).
Since g is a.c.S., there exists an open set U ⊂ X containing x such that
g(U) ⊂ Int(Cl(X × V)) = Int(X × Cl(V)) = X × Int(Cl(V)) .
Suppose z ∈ U, then g(z) = (z, f (z)) ∈ X × Int(Cl(V)) so that f(z) ∈ Int(Cl(V)).
Since f (z) ∈ f (U), therefore f (U) ⊂ Int(Cl(V)).
Hence f is a.c.S. at the point x.
Hence proved.

Theorem: 4.2

Let f : X → Y be a function and let g : X → X × Y , given by g(x) = (x, f(x)),

be its graph map. Then g : X → X × Y is a.c.H. if and only if f : X → Y is a.c.H.

Proof:

Assume that f is a.c.H. Let x ∈ X be a arbitrary point. We claim that g is a.c.H.

at a point x ∈ X. Let W ⊂ X × Y be an open set containing the point g(x) = (x, f(x)).
Then there exist open sets U ⊂ X, V ⊂ Y such that x ∈ U, f(x) ∈ V and

32
U × V ⊂ W. Now note that g−1(U × V) = U ∩ f −1(V). Since f is a.c.H., there exists an
open set S containing x such that S ⊂ U and f −1(V) is dense in S.
Then g−1(U × V) = U ∩ f −1(V) ⊃ S ∩ f −1(V) so that
Cl(g−1(U × V)) ⊃ Cl(S ∩ f −1(V)) ⊃ S. We get S ⊂ Cl(f −1(V)) and since S is open. Then
Cl(g−1(W)) ⊃ Cl(g−1(U × V)) ⊃ S. Therefore Cl(g−1(W)) is a neighbourhood of x.
Hence g is a.c.H. at the point x.
Conversely,

Assume that g be a.c.H. Let x ∈ X and for any open set V ⊂ Y containing f (x).
Then X × Y is an open set in X × Y containing (x, f (x)).
Since g is a.c.H., Cl(g−1(X × Y )) = Cl(X ∩ f −1(V)) = Cl(f −1(V)) contains a
neighbourhood of x.
Hence f is a.c.H. at the point x.
Hence proved.

Definition: 4.4

Let an a.c.S. function f : X → A where A ⊂ X and f (a) = a for every a ∈ A.

Then A is called an a.c.S. retract of X or an a.c.S. retraction of X.

Theorem: 4.3

Let A ⊂ X and let f : X → A be an a.c.S. retraction of X onto A. If X is

Hausdorff, then A is a closed subset of X.

Proof:

Let A ⊂ X and let f : X → A be an a.c.S. retraction of X onto A.

Assume that X is Hausdorff space. We claim that A is closed subset of Y. Suppose that
A is not closed. Then there exists a point x ∈ X such that x ∈ Cl(A) but x ∉ A.
Then f(x) ≠ x since f is an a.c.S. retraction of X onto A. Since X is Hausdorff
space, there exist open sets U and V in X such that x ∈ U, f(x) ∈ V and U ∩ V = ∅. So
that U ∩ Int(Cl(V)) = ∅.
Now let W be any open set in X containing x. Then U ∩ W ≠ ∅ is open and
containing x.

33
Consequently,

(U ∩ W) ∩ A ≠ ∅ and contains infinitely many points of A.

Let z ∈ (U ∩ W) ∩ A. Then f (z) = z and since U ∩ Int(Cl(V)) = ∅ so that z ∉ Int(Cl(V)).
It follows that f (W) ⊈ Int(Cl(V)) which implies that f is not a.c.S. at the point
x , which is a contradiction, since f is a.c.S.
Hence A must be closed.
Hence proved.

Example: 4.1

Let I be the closed unit interval with the standard subspace topology from the
reals. Let Q represent the rationals belonging to I. Let f : I → Q be defined by,

x if x ∈ Q ;
f(x)= {
0 if x ∈ I-Q ;

Then f is an a.c.H. retraction of I onto Q, I is Hausdorff, but Q is not closed in I.

Definition: 4.5

Let X be a topological space and let A ⊂ X. Then A is said to be regularly open

if Int(Cl(A)) = A.

Theorem: 4.4

Let f : X → Y be an a.c.S. surjection. If X is connected, then f(X) = Y is

connected.
Proof:

Given f is an a.c.S. surjection. Assume that X is connected. We claim that

f(X) = Y is connected. Suppose that f(X) = Y = A ∪ B where A and B are separated.
Then both A and B are both open and closed sets, hence are regularly open
subsets of Y. Since f is a.c.S., then f −1(A) and f −1(B) are open in X.
Since A∩B = ∅ and Y = A∪B so that f −1(A)∩f −1(B) = ∅ and
f −1(A) ∪ f −1(B) = X.

34
 That is f −1(A) and f −1(B) give a separation of X and which is a contradiction to
that X is connected.
Therefore f(X) = Y must be connected.
Hence proved.

Example: 4.2

Let X = Y = {a, b, c}. Let the topology on X be indiscrete and topology on Y

with {∅, Y, {a, c}, {b, c}, {c}}. Let the function f : X → Y is given by f(a) = a,
f (b) = f (c) = b. Then f is a.c.S. and the subspace f(X) = {a,b} of Y has the discrete
topology.
Thus both {a} and {b} are open in the subspace topology giving immediately
that f : X → f (X) is not a.c.S.

Example: 4.3

Let X = Y = {0, 1} where X has the indiscrete topology and Y has the discrete
topology. Then the identity function i : X → Y is a.c.H., X is connected, but i(X) = Y
is not connected.

Lemma: 4.1

Let f : X → Y be an open function. Then for every subset B ⊂ Y,

f −1(Cl(B)) ⊂ Cl(f −1(B)).

Proof:

Suppose there exists a point x ∈ Cl(f −1(V) − f −1(Cl(V)). Then f (x) ∉ C1(V).
Hence there exists an open set W containing f (x) such that W ∩ V = ∅. Since V is
open, we have V ∩ Cl(W ) = ∅ .
Since f is open function, there exists an open set U ⊂ X containing x such that
f (U) ⊂ C1(W). Then we have f(U) ⊂ V = ∅.
On the other hand, since x ∈ Cl(f −1(V)) ,we have U ∩ f −1(V ) ≠ ∅ and hence
f(U) ∩ V ≠ ∅, we have a contradiction.
Hence Cl(f −1(V)) ⊂ f −1(Cl(V)) .

35
Theorem: 4.5

Let f : X → Y be an open a.c.S. function. Then f is a.c.H.

Proof:

Let x ∈ X and let V ⊂ Y be an open set containing f(x). Since f be an open

a.c.S. function, by the previous Lemma, f −1(Cl(V)) ⊂ Cl(f −1(V)) .
Now we have Int(Cl(V)) is a regularly open set and that
V ⊂ Int(Cl(V)) ⊂ Cl(V).
Since f is a.c.S., then f −1(Int(Cl(V))) is open in X.
Then f −1(Int(Cl(V))) ⊂ f −1(Cl(V)) ⊂ Cl(f −1(V)) and then Cl(f −1(V)) is a
neighbourhood of x.
Hence f is a.c.H.
Hence proved.

Corollary: 4.1

If f : X → Y is an a.c.S. bijection, X compact and Y Urysohn, then f is a.c.H.

Example: 4.4

An a.c.S. open function need not be continuous. Let X = {a, b, c} with topology
{∅, X, {b, c}} and let Y be the Sierpinski space. Then f : X → Y is given by
f (a) = f(b) = 0 and f (c) = 1 is a.c.S. but not continuous.

Theorem: 4.6

Let f : X → Y be a.c.S. and let V ⊂ Y be open. If x ∉ f −1(V) but x ∈ Cl(f −1(V)),

then f(x) ∈ Cl(V).

Proof:

Let x ∈ X be such that x ∉ f −1(V) but x ∈ Cl(f −1(V)). Suppose f(x) ∉ Cl(V).
Then there exists an open set W such that f(x) ∈ W and W ∩ V = ∅.
Then Cl(W) ∩ V = ∅ and Int(Cl(W)) ∩ V = ∅. Since f is a.c.S., there exists a
open set U ⊂ X such that x ∈ U and f (U) ⊂ Int(Cl(W)).
Therefore f (U) ∩ V = ∅.

36
 However, since x ∈ Cl(f −1(V)), U ∩ f −1(V) ≠ ∅ so that f (U) ∩ V ≠ ∅, which
is a contradiction.
Hence f (x) ∈ Cl(V).

Theorem: 4.7

Let f : X → Y be an open a.c.S. function. Then for each open V ⊂ Y,

Cl(f −1(V)) ⊂ f −1(Cl(V)).

Proof:

Let f : X → Y be an open a.c.S. function. Let V ⊂ Y be open.

Then Cl(f −1(V)) ⊂ f −1(Cl(V)) this implies f(Cl(f −1(V))) ⊂ Cl(V).
Since Cl(f −1(V)) ⊂ f −1(f (Cl(f −1(V)))) for any function, we have
Cl(f −1(V)) ⊂ f −1(f(Cl(f −f −1(Cl(V)).That is Cl(f −1(V)) ⊂ f −1(Cl(V)).
Hence proved.

Corollary: 4.12

Let f : X → Y be an open a.c.S. function. Then for each open V ⊂ Y,

Cl(f −1(V)) = f −1(Cl(V)).

Proof:

Let f : X → Y be an open a.c.S. function and let V ⊂ Y be open. By previous

theorem f(Cl(f −1(V))) ⊂ Cl(V).
Since Cl(f −1(V)) ⊂ f −1(f(Cl(f −1(V)))) for any function, we have
Cl(f −1(V)) ⊂ f −1(f(Cl(f − f −1(Cl(V)). For every subset V ⊂ Y, f −1(Cl(V)) ⊂ Cl(f −1(V)).
Hence we get Cl(f −1(V)) = f −1(Cl(V)).
Hence proved.

Theorem: 4.8

An open a.c.H. function f : X → Y is a.c.S. if and only if Cl(f −1(V)) = f −1(Cl(V))

for every open V ⊂ Y.

37
Proof:

Assume that an open a.c.H. function f : X → Y is a.c.S. We claim that for every
open V ⊂ Y, Cl(f −1(V)) = f −1(Cl(V)).
Since f : X → Y be an open a.c.S. function. Let V ⊂ Y be open.
f (Cl(f −1(V))) ⊂ Cl(V). Since Cl(f −1(V)) ⊂ f −1(f (Cl(f −1(V))))for any function, we have
Cl(f −1(V)) ⊂ f −1(f (Cl(f −f −1(Cl(V)) .
For every subset V ⊂ Y , f −1(Cl(V)) ⊂ Cl(f −1(V)). Hence we get
Cl(f −1(V)) = f −1(Cl(V)). Since f is a.c.H., there exists an open set U ⊂ X such that
x ∈ U ⊂ Cl(f −1(V)) .
Then f (U) ⊂ f (f −1(Cl(V))) ⊂ Cl(V). Therefore f is weakly continuous and since
f is open.
Hence f is a.c.S.
Hence proved.

38
CHAPTER – V
 CHAPTER − V

ALMOST Sg – CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

Definition: 5.1

A semi-open set A of a space X is said to be an all Sg-open set if for each

x ∈ A, there exists a g-closed set F such that x ∈ F ⊆ A. The family of Sg-open subsets
of X is denoted by Sg𝑂(X).

Definition: 5.2

A space X is said to be:

1. extremally disconnected if the closure of every open subset of X is open.

2. locally indiscrete if every open subset of X is closed.
3. hyperconnected if every non-empty open subset of X is dense.
4. s*- regular if for any semi-regular set A and x ∉ A, there exist disjoint
open sets U and V such that A ⊆ U and x ∈ V.
5. semi-regular, if for each semi-closed set A and each point x ∉ A, there
exist disjoint U, V ∈ S𝑂(X) such that x ∈ U and A ⊆ V.

The intersection of all Sg-closed sets of X containing A is called the Sg-closure of A

and is denoted by Sgcl(A). The union of all Sg-open sets of X contained in A is called
the Sg-interior of A and is denoted by Sg-int(A).

Corollary: 5.1

If A is any subset of a space X. Then X\Sgint(A)= Sgcl(X\A).

Definition:5.3

A function f : X → Y is called Sg-continuous at a point x ∈ X, if for each open

set U of Y containing f(x) there exists an Sg-open set G in X containing x such
that f(G) ⊆ U. If f is Sg-continuous at every point x of X, then it is called
Sg-continuous.

39
Definition: 5.4

A function f : X → Y is Sg -cotinuous if and only if for every open subset

U of Y, f-1 (U)is an Sg -open set in X.

Definition: 5.5

Let X be a space and let x ∈ X. Then a subset N of X is said to be

Sg -neighborhood of x if there exists an Sg-open set U in X such that x ∈ U ⊆ N.

Corollary: 5.2

Every regular closed subset of a space X is an Sg -open set.

Corollary: 5.3

If a space X is locally indiscrete, then Sg𝑂(X) = τ

Definition: 5.6

The following conditions are equivalent for a space (X, τ):

1. X is extremally disconnected.
2. R𝑂(X) = RC(X).
3. Every semi-open subset of X is 𝛼-open.

Corollary: 5.4

A subset A of a space X is 𝛽-open if and only if cl(A) is regular closed.

Definition: 5.7

For a function f: X → Y the following are equivalent:

1. f is almost 𝛼- continuous
2. For each x ∈ X and each V ∈ 𝜎 containing f(x), there exists U ∈ τ𝛼
containing x such that f(U)⊆ int(cl(V)).

Corollary: 5.5

Every almost Ps- continuous function is almost pre-continuous.

40
Definition: 5.8

For a function f: X → Y, the graph function g: X → X × Y of f is defined

by g(x) = (x, f(x)) for each x ∈ X.

Definition: 5.9

A function f : X → Y is called almost Sg-continuous if for each x ∈ X and

each open set H in Y containing f(x), there exists an Sg-open set G in X containing
x such that f(G) ⊆ intclH.

Lemma: 5.1

Every almost 𝜃s-continuous function is almost Sg-continuous.

Proof:

Let f : X → Y be almost 𝜃s-continuous, let x ∈ X and H any open subset

of Y containing f(x).
Then there exists a semi-open set U in X containing x such that
f(clU) ⊆ intclH. Since U is semi-open in X, then, clU = clintU.
This implies that clU ∈ RC(X), so by Corollary 5.2, we have
F = clU ∈ Sg 𝑂(X).
Therefore, f(F)⊆ intclH, and hence f is almost Sg-continuous function.
The converse is not true in general as it is shown in the following example:

Example: 5.1

X = {a,b,c,d} and τ = {∅, X, {a}, {b}, { a,b}, { a,b,c}},

S𝑂(X) = {∅, X , {a}, {b},{a,b}, {a,c}, {a,d}, {b,c}, {b,d}, {a,b,c}, {a,b,d}, {a,c,d}, {b,c,d}}
and Sg𝑂(X) = {∅, X, {b,d}, {a,d}, {a,c,d}, {a,b,d}, {b,c,d}}.

Then we define a function f : X → X by f(a) = f(d) = a , f(b) = b and

f(c) = c. Therefore, f is almost Sg-continuous, but not almost 𝜃s -continuous since
a ∈ X and for {a} ∈ τ there does not exists a semi-open set G in X containing a
such that f(clG) ⊆ intcl({a}).

41
Theorem: 5.1

Let f : X → Y be a function. If for each x ∈ X and each open set H in Y

containing f(x), there exists a semi-open set U in X containing x such that
f(clU) ⊆ intclH, then f is an almost Sg-continuous function.

Proof:

Let for each x ∈ X and each open set H in Y containing f(x), there exists a
semi-open set U in X containing x such that f(clU) ⊆ intclH.

Put G = clU, then G is regular closed set in X, thus by Corollary 5.2, G is

an Sg-open set containing x such that f (G) ⊆ intclH.
Thus, f is an almost Sg -continuous function. The converse is not true in
general as it is shown in Example 5.1, f is almost Sg-continuous, but for a ∈ X and
for {a} ∈ τ there is no semi-open set G in X containing a such that
f(clG) ⊆ intcl({a}).

Theorem: 5.2

For a function f : X → Y, the following statements are equivalent:

1. F is almost Sg-continuous.
2. For each x ∈ X and each regular open set V of Y containing f(x),
there exists an Sg-open set U in X containing x such that f(U) ⊆ V.
3. For each x ∈ X and each 𝛿-open set V of Y containing f(x), there
exists an Sg-open set U in X containing x such that
f(U) ⊆ V.

Proof:

(1)→(2) Let x ∈ X and V be any regular open subset of Y such that f(x) ∈ V.
Since every regular open set is open and since f is almost Sg-continuous, then there
exists an Sg -open set G such that x ∈ G and (G) ⊆ intclV, but since intclV =V, so
f(G) ⊆ V.

(2) → (3) Let x ∈ X and V be any 𝛿-open set of Y such that f(x) ∈ V. Then,

42
there exists an open set H containing f(x) such that H ⊆ intclV ⊆ V. Since intclH is a
regular open subset of Y containing f(x). So by (2), there exists an Sg-open set U in X
containing x such that f(U) ⊆ intclH. Thus, f(U) ⊆ V.

(3) → (1) Let x ∈ X and V be any open set of Y such that f(x) ∈ V. Then intclH
is a 𝛿 -open set, therefore, by (3) there exists an Sg-open set U in X containing x such
that (U) ⊆ intclG.

This implies that f is an almost Sg-continuous function.

Corollary: 5.6

A function f : X → Y is almost Sg -continuous if and only if the inverse image

of each regular closed set in Y is an Sg -closed set in X.

Corollary: 5.7

A function f : X → Y is almost Sg -continuous if and only if the inverse image

of each 𝛿-closed set in Y is an Sg -closed set in X.

Corollary: 5.8

Let f : X → Y be a function. If the inverse image of every

semi-open set in Y is 𝜃-semi-open set in X, then f is almost Sg-continuous.

Theorem: 5.3

A function f : X → Y is almost Sg-continuous if and only if for each open

set V of Y, f-1(V) ⊆ Sg int(f −1(int(clV)).

Proof:
Let f : X → Y be almost Sg-continuous and let V be any open subset of Y.
Let x ∈ f −1(V). Then f(x) ∈ V. Since f is almost Sg-continuous, there exists an
Sg-open set U in X containing x such that f(U) ⊆ intclV.
This implies that x ∈ U ⊆ f −1(intclV). Therefore, x ∈ Sg int(f −1(int(clV)).
Further, f −1(V) ⊆ Sgint(f −1(int(clV)).

43
Conversely,

Suppose for each open set V of Y, f-1(V) ⊆ Sgint(f −1(int(clV)). To show f is

almost Sg-continuous. Let x ∈ X and H be any open set Y in containing f(x).
So by hypothesis f-1(H) ⊆ Sgint(f-1(int(clH)). This implies that
x ∈ Sgint(f-1(int(clH)) ⊆ (f-1(int(clH)). Set U = Sgint(f-1(int(clH)) which is an
Sg -open set in X containing x such that f(U) ⊆ intclH.
Thus, f is almost Sg -continuous.
Hence proved.

Theorem: 5.4

If a function f : X → Y is 𝛿-continuous and X is an extremally disconnected

space, then f is almost Sg-continuous.

Proof:

Let x ∈ X and V be any open set in Y containing f(x). Since f is

𝛿-continuous, there exists an open set U of X containing x such that
f(intcl(U))) ⊆ int(cl(V)).
Since int(cl(U)) is regular open and X is extremally disconnected, then
int(cl(U)) is regular closed and by Corollary 5.2, int(cl(U)) is Sg -open.
Hence it is an Sg -open set in X containing x.
Therefore, f is almost Sg-continuous.
Hence proved.

Theorem: 5.5

If Y is a hyperconnected space, then every function f : X → Y is almost

Sg - continuous.

Proof:
Let Y be hyperconnected space and H be any open subset of Y containing
f(x). Then intclH= Y. This implies that intclH = Y and for every Sg -open set G
in X containing x, f(x) ⊆ Y=intclH.

44
 Thus, f is almost Sg - continuous.
Hence proved.

Theorem: 5.6

If the graph function g of a function f : X → Y is almost Sg -continuous,

then f is almost Sg -continuous.

Proof:

Let g be almost Sg -continuous and x ∈ X and U is any open subset of Y

containing f(x).

Then X × U is an open set containing g(x), so there exists an Sg -open set V

in X such that g(V) ⊆ intcl(X × U) = X × intclU.

This implies that f(V) ⊆ intclU. Hence f is almost Sg - continuous.

Hence proved.

Theorem: 5.7

For a function f : X → Y, the following statements are equivalents :

1. f is almost Sg -continuous.
2. f(Sg cl(A)) ⊆ clδ f (A)), for each subset A of X.
3. Sg cl (f −1(B)) ⊆ f−1(clδ B), for each subset B of Y.
4. f −1(intδ B) ⊆ Sg int(f−1 (B)), for each subset B of Y.
5. Sg cl(f−1 (B)) ⊆ f−1 (clB), for each semi-open set B in Y.

Proof:
(1) ⟶ (2) Let A be any subset of X. Then clδ f(A)) is 𝛿-closed in Y. Since f
is almost Sg - continuous, then by Corollary 5.7, f−1(clδ f (A)) is Sg - closed in X.
So Sg clf−1(clδ f(A)) = f−1(clδ f(A)). Now, since f (A) ⊆ clδ f (A), this implies
that A ⊆ f−1(clδ f(A)). Thus Sg cl(A)⊆ Sg cl(f−1(clδ f(A)), so we have
Sg cl(A) ⊆ f−1(clδ f(A)).
Hence f(Sg cl(A)) ⊆ (clδ f(A)).

45
 (2) ⟶ (3) Let B be any subset of Y. Then f−1(B) ⊆ X. Therefore, by (2)
we have f(Sg cl(f−1(B))) ⊆ clδ f(f−1(B))) ⊆ clδ B.
Then f−1(f(Sg cl(f −1(B)))) ⊆ f−1(clδ B).
Hence Sg cl(f−1(B)) ⊆ f−1(clδ B).

(3) ⟶ (4) Let B be any subset of Y. Then Y\B is a subset of Y, so by (3), we

have Sg cl(f−1(Y\B)) ⊆ f−1(clδ (𝑌\B)). Thus Sg cl(X\f−1(B)) ⊆ f−1(Y\intδ B), by
Corollary 5 . 1 , X\Sg int(f−1(B)) ⊆ (X \ f−1intδ B). Hence f−1(intδ B) ⊆ Sg int(f−1(B)

(4) ⟶ (5) Let B be any semi-open subset of Y. Then, clB is regular closed in
Y. Therefore, Y\clB is regular open in Y. Thus, Y\clB is 𝛿 -open in Y, then by (4)
we have f−1(Y\clB) ⊆ Sg int(f−1(Y\clB)).
So f−1(Y\clB) is an Sg -open set, this implies that X\ f−1(clB) is an Sg -open set
in X, that is f−1(clB) is Sg -closed. But f−1(B) ⊆ f−1(clB).
Hence Sg clf−1(B) ⊆ f−1(clB)

(5) ⟶ (1) Let B be any regular open subset of Y. Then Y\B is a regular closed
set in Y. This implies that cl(Y\B) = clint(Y\B), then, Y\B is semi-open subset of Y.
Hence by (5) Sg cl f−1(Y\B) ⊆ f−1(cl(Y\B)) = f−1(Y\B), therefore f−1(Y\B) is
Sg -closed in X, that is X\f−1(𝐵) is Sg -closed. Then f−1(B) is an Sg -open set.
Thus, f is almost Sg - continuous.
Hence proved.

Theorem: 5.8

A bijective function f : X → Y is almost Sg - continuous if and only if

intδ (f(A)) ⊆ f(Sg intA), for each subset A of X.

Proof:

Let A be any subset of X. Then f(A)is a subset of Y. Since f is almost

Sg -continuous, then by Theorem 2.17, f −1(intδ f(A)) ⊆ Sg int(f−1(f(A)).

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 This implies that intδ f(A)) ⊆ f(Sg int(A)).

Conversely,

Let x ∈ X and V be any regular open subset of Y containing f(x). Then

x ∈ f−1 (V) and f−1(V) is a subset of X.
By hypothesis, we have intδ f(f−1(V)) ⊆ f(Sg intf−1(V)), then
intδ (V) ⊆ f (Sg int f−1(V)). Since V is a regular open set, then V is 𝛿-open.
Hence V ⊆ f(Sg int f−1(V)), so f−1(V) ⊆ (Sg int f−1(V)). Thus, f−1(V) is an
Sg -open set in X which containing x.
Hence by Theorem 5.3, f is almost Sg - continuous.
Hence proved.

Theorem: 5.9

For a function f : X → Y, the following statements are equivalent:

1. f is almost Sg - continuous.
2. Sg clf−1(V) ⊆ f−1(clV), for each 𝛽-open set V of Y.
3. f−1 (int F) ⊆ (Sg int f−1(F)), for each 𝛽-closed set F of Y.
4. f−1 (int F) ⊆ (Sg int f−1(F)), for each semi-closed set F of Y.
5. Sg clf−1(V) ⊆ f−1(clV), for each semi-open set V of Y.
Proof:

(1) ⟶ (2) Let V be any 𝛽-open subset of Y. It follows from Corollary 5.4, that
clV is a regular closed set in Y. Since f is almost Sg -continuous, by Corollary 5.6,
f−1(clV) is Sg -closed set in X. Therefore, we obtain Sg clf −1(V) ⊆ f −1(clV).

(2) ⟶ (3) Let F be any 𝛽-closed set of Y. Then Y\F is a 𝛽-open set in Y
and by (2), we have Sg cl f −1(Y\F) ⊆ f −1(cl(Y\F)) and
Sg cl (X\f −1(F)) ⊆ (f −1(Y\int F)), then by Corollary 5.1,
X\Sg int (f −1(F)) ⊆ X\f −1(int F).
Therefore, f −1(int F) ⊆ Sg int(f −1(F)).

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 (3) ⟶ (4) Obvious since every semi-closed set is 𝛽-closed.

(4) ⟶ (5) Let V be any semi-open set in Y. Then Y\V is a semi-closed set
in Y and by (4), we have f −1(int Y\V) ⊆ (𝑆gint f −1(Y\V)) and
f −1(Y\clV) ⊆ Sg int(Y\ f −1(V)). Hence X\ f −1(clV) ⊆ X\Sg cl (f −1(V)).
Therefore, Sg cl(f −1(V)) ⊆ f −1(clV).

(5) ⟶ (1) Let F be any regular closed set in Y. Then F is a semi-open set of
Y. By (5), we have Sg cl(f −1 F) ⊆ f −1(clF) = f −1(F). This shows that f −1(F) is an
Sg -closed set in X. Therefore, by Corollary 5.6, f is almost Sg -continuous.
Hence proved.

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CONCLUSION
 CONCLUSION

In this topic, we introduced the concept of an almost continuous mappings. We

defined some basics definitions for the almost continuous functions. We dicussed
some characterizations of almost continuous mappings by showing restriction of
continuous mappings. We also given some characterizations of almost continuous
mappings by showing every continuous mapping is almost continuous but the
converse need not be true. Also we proved every almost continuous mapping is
weakly continuous but the converse need not be true. But we prove an open mapping
is almost continuous mapping is if and only if it is weakly continuous. We also given
three definitions as to when a function from one topological space to another is called
almost continuous. Similarities and dissimilarities of two of these definitions are
discussed. And we introduced the almost Sg -continuity in topological spaces, and then
we discussed its characterizations.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. James R. Munkres, Topology (2nd Edition) Pearson Education Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi-2002 (Third Indian Reprint).
2. R. V. Fuller, Relations among continuous and various non-continuous
functions, Pacific J. Math. 25 (1968), 495-509.
3. T. Husain, Almost continuous mappings, Prace. Mat. 10 (1966), 1-7.
4. J. Stallings, Fixed point theorems for connectivity maps, Fund. Math. 47
(1959), 249-263.
5. Singal M.K. and Asha Rani Singal (1968), Almost Continuous Mappings,
Yokohama Math. J., 16, 63-73.
6. Abd-El-Monsef M. E., El-Deeb S. N. and Mahmoud R. A. (1983), β-open sets
and β-continuous mappings, Bull. Fac. Assint, Vol. 12, 77-90.

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