Topology

Master of Science (Mathematics) (DDE)
Semester – III
Paper Code – 21MAT23C2
ELEMENTARY
TOPOLOGY
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

MAHARSHI DAYANAND UNIVERSITY, ROHTAK
(A State University established under Haryana Act No. XXV of 1975)
NAAC 'A+’ Grade Accredited University
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Publication Year: 2022
INDEX
Chapter Title Page No.
1. Topological Spaces 5-46
2. Related Topology, Base and Subbase 47-55
3. Continuity and Homeomorphism 56-63
4. Connectedness 64-83
5. Compactness 84-93
6. Countability and Separation Axioms 94-110
࿏࿏
Syllabus
Elementary Topology (21MAT23C2)
Note: The question paper of each course will consist of five Sections. Each of the sections I to IV will
contain two questions and the students shall be asked to attempt one question from each. Section-V shall
be compulsory and will contain eight short answer type questions without any internal choice covering
the entire syllabus.
Section – I
Definition and Examples of topological spaces, Comparison of topologies on a set, Intersection and
union of topologies on a set, Neighbourhoods, Interior point and interior of a set , Closed set as a
complement of an open set , Adherent point and limit point of a set, Closure of a set, Derived set,
Properties of Closure operator, Boundary of a set , Dense subsets, Interior, Exterior and boundary
operators, Alternative methods of defining a topology in terms of neighbourhood system and
Kuratowski closure operator.
Section - II
Relative (Induced) topology, Base and subbase for a topology, Base for Neighbourhood system.
Continuous functions, Open and closed functions, Homeomorphism. Connectedness and its
characterization, Connected subsets and their properties, Continuity and connectedness, Components,
Locally connected spaces.
Section – III
Compact spaces and subsets, Compactness in terms of finite intersection property, Continuity and
compact sets, Basic properties of compactness, Closeness of compact subset and a continuous map from
a compact space into a Hausdorff and its consequence. Sequentially and countably compact sets, Local
compactness and one point compatification.
Section – IV
First countable, Second countable and separable spaces, Hereditary and topological property,
Countability of a collection of disjoint open sets in separable and second countable spaces, Lindelof
Theorem. T0, T1, T2 (Hausdorff) separation axioms, their characterization and basic properties.
Books Recommended:
 C.W.Patty, Foundation of Topology, Jones & Bertlett, 2009.
 Fred H. Croom, Principles of Topology, Cengage Learning, 2009.
 George F. Simmons, Introduction to Topology and Modern Analysis, McGrawHill Book
Company, 1963.
 J. L. Kelly, General Topology, Springer Verlag, New York, 2000.
 J. R. Munkres, Toplogy, Pearson Education Asia, 2002.
 K. Chandrasekhara Rao, Topology, Narosa Publishing House Delhi,2009.
 K.D. Joshi, Introduction to General Topology, Wiley Eastern Ltd, 2006.
Chapter– 1 | Topological Spaces
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Definition and Examples of topological spaces
1.3 Comparison of Topologies
1.4 Open Set
1.5 Limit Point
1.6 Derived Set
1.7 Closed Set
1.8 Closure of Set
1.9 Kurotowaski - Closure Operator
1.10 Adherent Point
1.11 Dense Subset
1.12 Interior of set
1.13 Interior Operator
1.14 Interior Point of a Set
1.15 Exterior of a set
1.16 Exterior operator
1.17 Neighbourhood
1.18 Neighbourhood operator
1.19 Boundary of set
1.20 Key words
1.21 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The word topology is derived from two Greek words, tops and logs, tops meaning surface and logs
meaning study, Thus topology means study of surfaces. Maurice Frechet (1878-1973) was the first to
extend topological space beyond Euclidean spaces. Topology is one of the most active areas in all of
mathematics. In this chapter we will study topological space and its elementary concepts.
1.1 Objectives: After going through this chapter you will be able to
 Learn what a topological space is.
 Construct a topology on a set so as to make it into a topological space.
 Understand the elementary concepts associated with topological spaces
 Associate with the concept of open and closed sets, limit points, closure, interior, exterior
and boundary of a set.
6 Topological Spaces
1.2 Definition and Examples of topological spaces.
Definition 1.2.1. Let X a non-empty set and  by any family of subsets of X satisfying the following
axioms
[O1] Arbitrary union of members of  is in 
[O2] Finite intersection of members of  is in 
[O3] 
[O3] X
Then, we say that  defines a topology on X and the pair (X, ) is called the topological space.
Sometimes we denote a topological spaces (X, ) by X only without referring .
Example 1.2.2. Let X = {x, y, z}. Which of the following sets is not a topology on X?
(i) {, {x}, X} (ii) {, {x}, {y}, {x, y}, X} (iii) {, {x}, {y}, {z}, X}
Solution. (i) Yes
(ii) Yes
(iii) This collection is not a topology, since {x}, {y} belong to the collection but {x}  {y} = {x, y}
does not belong to the collection, so [O1] is not satisfied.
Example 1.2.3. Let X = {s, t, u, v, w}. Determine whether or not each of the following classes of
subsets of X is a topology on X.
(i) 1 = {, X, {s}, {s, t}, {s, u}}
(ii) 2 = {, X, {s, t, u}, {s, t, v}, {s, t, u, v}}
(iii) 3 = {, X, {s}, {s, t}, {s, u, v}, {s, t, u, v}}
Solution: (i) 1 is not a topology on X, since {s, t}, {s, u}  1 but
{s, t}  {s, u} = {s, t, u}  1.
(ii) 2 is not a topology on X, since {s, t, u}, {s, t, v } 2 but
{s, t, u}  {s, t, v } = {s, t}  2
(iii) Yes, 3 is a topology on X.
Remark 1.2.4. We can always define two topologies on every set, namely, the indiscrete topology and
discrete topology.
Indiscrete topology 1.2.5. Let X be any set, then the collection  = {, X} consisting of the empty set
and the whole space is always a topology and is called the indiscrete topology (or trivial topology). The
pair (X, ) is called an indiscrete topological space. For Example, if X = {x, y, z}, then indiscrete
topology on X is {, {x, y, z}}.
Elementary Topology 7
Discrete topology 1.2.6. Let X be any set and  be family of all subsets of X. Then  satisfies all the
for axioms of a topological space. Since arbitrary union of subsets of X is a subset of X and hence
belongs to  so [O1] is satisfied. Also finite intersection of subset of X is a subset of X and thus a
member of  so that [O2] is satisfied. Further   X, X  X ; so that , X   and so [O3] and [O4] are
satisfied. Thus  defines a topology on X and this topology is called discrete topology.
For Example, if X = {x, y, z}, then discrete is given by
 = {, X, {x}, {y}, {z}, {x, y}, {x, z}, {y, z}}
Example 1.2.7. Write down all the topologies on the set of two elements {a, b}.
Solution: Let X = {a, b }, then the possible topologies on X are
1  {, X } Indiscrete topology
2  {,{a}, X }
3  {,{b}, X }
1  {,{a}, (b), X } Discrete topology
Example 1.2.8. Let X = N, the set of natural numbers and let  consists of , X and all subsets of X of
the form {1, 2, …, n}, n  N. Show that  is a topology on X.
Solution: Since , X  , so axioms [O3] and [O4] are satisfied. For axiom [O1], let {A} be an
arbitrary family of members of , then each A is of the type A = {1, 2,…, n}. If members of this
family are finite and if m is maximum of all natural numbers n,   , then clearly, A  {1, 2,…, m}
for all   
 A  {1, 2,..., m}  

If members of this family are infinite, then A  X  


For axiom [O2], let Aik1 be a finite family of members of , then each Ai is of the type Ai = {1, 2, …,
ni}. If m is the minimum of natural numbers ni’s {i = 1, 2, …, k}, then clearly,
k
Ai  {1, 2,..., m}  
i 1
Hence  is a topology on X.
Example 1.2.9. Let X = N and let  be the family consisting of , X and all subsets of the form Gn =
{n, n + 1, n + 2, …}. Show that  is a topology on X.
Solution: Since , X  , so axioms [O3] and [O4] are satisfied.
For axiom [O1], let {G} , be an arbitrary family of members of , where  is some subset of N. If m
is the smallest positive integer of , then {G:   } = {m, m + 1, m + 2, …} = Gm  . For axiom
[O2], let Gm, Gn   where n  N, then
G n  m
Gm  Gn   m  Gm  Gn  
 Gn m  n
This process can be extended to conclude that intersection of finite members of  is again in . Hence 
is a topology on X.
Example 1.2.10. (Excluded point topology): Let X be a nonempty set of  consists of X and all those
subsets of X which do not contain a particular point x0 of X. Show that  is a topology on X.
Solution: Since x0  , we have   . Also X   (given), so axioms [O3] and [O4] are satisfied. For
axiom [O1], let {G} be an arbitrary family members of , then
x0  G or G = X for each   
 x0  G or G  X
 
In either case, G  

For axiom [O2], let G1, G2  , then we discuss the following cases:
(i) If G1 = G2 = X, then G1  G2 = X  
(ii) If G1  X and G2 = X, then G1  G2 = G1  X = G1  
(iii) If G1 = X and G2  X, then G1  G2 = X  G2 = G2  
(iv) If G1  X and G2  X, then x0  G1, x0  G2
 x0  G1  G2
 G1  G2  
Hence  is a topology on X.
Example 1.2.11. (Included Point Topology): Let X be a set containing at least two points and  be the
collection of all those subsets of X which contains a fixed point x0 of X together with the empty set.
Show that  is a topology on X.
Solution: It is given that   . Also x0  X, so X  , so that axioms [O3] and [O4] are satisfied.
From axiom [O1], Let {G} be an arbitrary family of members of , then
x0  G or G1 =  for each   
x0  G or G  
 
In either case, G  

From axiom [O2], let G1, G2  . If any of these two sets is , then their intersection is also , which is
clearly a member of .
If G1   and G2  , then x0  G1, x0  G2
 x0  G1  G2
 G1  G2  .
Example 1.2.11. (Cofinite topology) (i) Let X be an infinite set and  be the family of subsets of X
consisting of , X and complements of all finite subsets of X, then show that  is a topology on X.
(ii) What happens if X is finite ?
Solution: For axiom [O1], let {G} be an arbitrary family of members of , then
G =  or X or complements of a finite subset of X for each   .

 X  G = X or  or finite subset of X for each   
 X  G  X or  or finite subset of X, since intersection of arbitrary family of finite


sets is finite.
 X G  X or  or finite subset of X.

 G   or X or complement of finite subset of X.


 G  

For axiom [O2], let {Gi }in1 be finite family of members of , then
Gi =  or X or complements of a finite subset of X for each i.

 X  Gi = x or  or a finite subset of X for each i.
n
 X  Gi  X or  or a finite subset of X, since finite union of finite sets is finite.
i 1
n
 X Gi  X or  or a finite subset of X.
i 1
n
 Gi   or X or complement of a finite subset of X.
i 1
n
 Gi  
i 1
(ii) If X is finite, then all subsets of X are also finite and hence  contains complements of all
subsets of X, so  contains all subsets of X and therefore  is discrete topology on X.
Example 1.2.12. (Cocountable topology) (i) Let X be an uncountable set and  be the family of
subsets of X consisting of , X and complements of all countable subsets of X, then show that  is a
topology on X.
(ii) What happens if X is countable ?
Solution: For axiom [O1], let {G} be an arbitrary family of members of , then
G =  or X or complements of a countable subset of X for each   

 X  G = X or  or countable subset of X for each   
 X  G  X or  or countable subset of X, since intersection of arbitrary family of countable


sets is countable
 X G  X or  or countable subset of X.

 G   or X or complement of countable subset of X.


 G  

For axiom [O2], let {Gi }in1 be a finite family of members of , then
Gi =  or X or complements of a countable subset of X for each i.

 X  Gi = X or  or a countable subset of X for each i.
n
 X  Gi  X or  or a countable subset of X, since finite union of countable sets is countable
i 1
n
 x Gi  X or  or a countable subset of X.
i 1
n
 Gi   or X or complement of a countable subset of X.
i 1
n
 Gi  
i 1
(ii) If X is countable, then all subsets of X are also countable and hence  contains complements of
all subsets of X, so  contains all subsets of X and therefore  is discrete topology on X.
Example 1.2.13. (i) The intersection 1  2 of two topologies 1 and 2 on X is also a topology on X.
(ii) Let {i: i  I} be any collection of topologies on a set X. Then the intersection i is also a
i1
topology on X.
(iii) Is the union of two topologies on a set always a topology ? Justify your answer.
Solution: (i) Let {G :   } be any arbitrary family of members of 1  2.
 {G :   }  1 and {G :   }  2
But 1 and 2 are topologies on X, so we have
G  1 and G  2
 
 G  1  2

Thus arbitrary union of members of 1  2 is in 1  2 which satisfies [O1].

Again let G1, G2  1  2  G1, G2 ∈ T1, G1, G2 ∈ T2
But 1 and 2 are topologies on X, so we have
G1  G2  1, G1  G2  2
 G1  G2  1  2
Thus finite intersection of members of 1  2 is in 1  2 which satisfies [O1].
Also, , X  1, , X  2
 , X  1  2
Hence [O3] and [O4] are satisfied and so, 1  2 is a topology on X.
(ii) Let X be any set and {I: i  I} be any collection of topologies on X i.e., for each i  I, i is a
topology on X. Let  = i . We have to show that  is a topology on X.
iI
For axiom [O1], let {G :   } be any arbitrary family of members of . Then {G :   } is a
subfamily of I for all i  I. But each I defines a topology on X and must satisfy axiom [O1] so that
G  i for all i  I  G  i  
  iI
For axiom [O2], let {G :   1, 2,..., n} be a finite family of members of . Then {G :   1, 2,..., n} is a
subfamily of I for all i  I. Since each I defines a topology on X, so must satisfy axiom [O2], so that
n n
G  i  i  I  G  i  
1 1 iI
Also, , X  , since , X  I for all i  I. Hence [O3] and [O4] are satisfied and so,  is a topology of
X.
(iii) Consider X = {x, y, z} and let 1 = {, {x}, {y}, {x, y}, X}
2 = {, {x}, {z}, {x, z}, X}
then both 1 and 2 are topologies on X.
But 1  2 = {, {x}, {y},{z}, {x, y}, {x, z}, X} does not define topology on X, since {y}, {z}  1
 2, but {y}  {z}={y, z}  1  2.
Hence union of two topologies need not be a topology on the set.
Example 1.2.13.(Usual topology on R): Let R be set of real numbers and  be the collection of subsets
of R defined as:
 = {O: O  R and  x  O,  some  > 0 such that (x, x + )  O}
Then  defines a topology on R and is called usual topology on R.
Proof: We prove the axiom [O1] to [O4] for topology.
For [O1], let {O } be arbitrary family of members of . Then, we shall show that O  .

Let x O .

Then  some ,   s.t. x  O.

Since    and x  Oso  some  > 0 such that (X, X+)  O0 .
But O0  O .

So (x, x+)  O .

This implies O  .

Hence [O1] is satisfied.

For [O2], Let O1 , O2  . We will show that O1  O2  .
Let x  O1  O2
 x  O1 and x  O2 .
Since O1  O2   so  1,2 > 0 such that (x1,x+1)  O1 and (x2,x+2)  O2 . Let  =
min{1,2}. Then >0
 (x,x+)  O1 and (x, x+)  O2
 (x, x+)  O1  O2
 O1  O2  
 [O2] axiom is satisfied.

The axiom [O3] and [O4] are trivial. Hence  defines a topology on R.
Example 1.2.14.: Every metric space is a topological space.
Proof: Let (X, D) be a metric space. We shall define a topology on X.
Let us take  = {O: O  X and  x  O,  some r > 0 such that Sr(x)  O}.
Trivially    and X   so that axioms [O] and [O4] are satisfied.
For [O1]: Let {O } be any family of members of . We shall show that: O  

Let x  O , then  some 0 such that x  O0 .


Now O0   and x  O0 ,  some r > 0 such that
Sr(x)  O0  O

 O  

Hence [O1] is satisfied.
For [O2] axiom: Let {O0 }in1 be any finite family of members of .
n
We wants to show that Oi  .
i 1
n
Let x  Oi , then x  Oi for each i = 1 to n. Since Oi   for each i = 1 to n. So  real numbers ri >
i 1
0 such that S ri  Oi : i = 1, 2, 3, 4,…,n.
Let r = min ri , then Sr(x)  Oi for each i = 1 to n.

1 i  n
n
 Sr ( x)  Oi
i 1
n
 Oi  .
i 1
Hence [O2] is satisfied, so X is a topological space.
1.3 Comparison of Topologies. Since there can be many topologies on a set, we can introduce a
notion, which helps us to compare various topologies on a set.
Definition 1.3.1. Let X be a set and 1 and 2 be two topologies on X. We say that 1 is coarsert (or
weaker or smaller), then 2 or we say that 2 is finer (or stronger or larger) than 1 if 1  2.
Further, if 1  2 or 2  1, we say that 1 and 2 are comparable.
If 1 2 or 2  1, Then we say that1 and 2 are not comparable. For Example,
Consider the set
X = {x, y, z}, then 1 = {, {x}, X} and 2 = {, {x}, {x, y}, X}
are both topologies on X.
Since 1  2 so 2, is finer topology than 1.
Also, 3 = {, {x}, X} and 4 = {, {y}, {y, z}, X} are both topologies on X but are noncomparable.
Remark1.3.2. For any set X, the indiscrete topology is the coarset topology and the discrete topology is
the finest topology.
Example 1.3.3. Find three mutually noncomparable topologies for the set X = {x, y, z}.
Solution: Let 1 = {, {x}, X}, 2 = {, {y}, X} and 3 = {, {z}, X}, then these three topologies are
mutually noncomparable.
1.4. Open set: Let X be any set and  be a topology on X. Then the members of  are defined to be
open sets of X with respect to. For Example, let X = {a, b, c}, then  = {, {a}, X} is a topology on
X. The members of  i.e. , {a}, X are open sets in X with respect to. Also the collection 1 = {,
{a}, {b}, {a, b}, X} is a topology on X. For this topology the open sets in X are , {a}, {b}, {a, b}, X.
1.5. Limit point: Let (X, ) be a topological space and E by any subset of X. A point x  X is said to be
limit point (or accumulation point) of E with respect to if
E  G  {x}    G   such that. x  G
i.e. if each open set containing x contains at least one point of E different from x.
For Example, Let X = {s, t, u, v, w} and  = {, X, {s}, {u, v}, {s, u, v}, {t, u, v, w}}, the  defines a
topology on X. Consider the subset A = {s, t, u} of X. We observe that t  X is a limit point of A, since
the open sets containing ‘t’ are { t, u, v, w } and X and both contain a point of A different from ‘t’ i.e.,
‘u’.
On the other hand, the point s  X is not a limit point of A since the open set {s} which contains
‘s’ does not contain a point of A different form ‘s’. Similarly the point ‘v’ and ‘w’ are limit point of A
and the point ‘u’ is not a limit point of A.
Example 1.5.1. Show that elements in singleton open sets are not limit point of any subset of X.
Solution: Let X be any topological space and let A be a singleton open set in X. Let x  A be the only
element of A, then we show that ‘x’ is not limit point of any subset of X.
Let E be any subset of X, then ‘x’ is not a limit point of E, since there exists an open set A which
contains no point of E different from ‘x’ i.e. E  A  {x} = . Since E is any arbitrary subset of X so
‘x’ cannot be limit point of any subset of X.
Example 1.5.2. If x is a limit point of a subset E of a topological space (X, ). What can you say about
x being a limit point of the set E in a topological space (X, *) if *  ?
Solution: It is given that  and * are two topologies on the same set X and *  . If * = , there is
nothing to prove.
If *   and x  X such that X is a limit point of E. Then for all G   such that. x  G, we have
E  G {x}  
Thus for all G  * such that. x  G, we have
E  G  {x}  , since G  *  G
Hence x is a limit point of E with respect to*.
1.6. Derived set: Let (X, ) be a topological space. The set of all limit points of E  X is defined as
derived set of E and is denoted by d(E).
Example 1.6.1. Let X = {s, t, u} and  = {, {s}, {t}, {s, t}, X}, show that d({s}) = {u}
Solution: (1) We find the limit points of A = {s}.
(i) ‘s’ is not a limit point of A, since there is an open set {s} which contains no point of A different
from ‘s’.
(ii) ‘t’ is not a limit point of A, since there is an open set {t} which contains no point of A different
from ‘t’.
(iii) ‘u’ is a limit point of A, since the only open set containing ‘u’ is X, which contains a point of A
other than ‘u’ namely ‘s’.
Example 1.6.2. Let (X, ) be a discrete topological space. Show that d(E) =  for all E  X.
Solution: Each singleton set {x} is an open set in a discrete topological space. For any E  X, we
have
E  {x}  {x} =   x  d(E)
This is true for every x  X. Hence d(E) = .
Example 1.6.3. In an indiscrete topological space, find the derived set of all subsets of X.
Solution. Let X be an indiscrete topological space so that  and X are the only open sets. We find the
derived set of all subsets of X in the following two cases:
Case I: The subset is empty, then we have: d() = 

Case II: Let A be any nonempty subset of X. We have to find d(A). We discuss two possibilities:
(i) A is singleton: Let A = {x}, then every point of X except x is a limit point of A, since if y  X such
that. y  x, then A  X  {y} = , so that y is a limit point of A and hence d(A) = X
(ii) A is nonsingleton: For any x  X, we have A  X  {x} = , since A contains more than one point
so d(A) = X.
Theorem 1.6.4. If A, B and E are subsets of a topological space (X, ), then the derived set of these sets
satisfy the following properties.
[D1] d() = 
[D2] AB  d(A)  d(B)
[D3] If x  d(A), then x  d(A  {x})
[D4] d (A  B) = d(A)  d(B)
[D5] d(A  B)  d(A)  d(B)
Proof. For [D1], we have   G  (x) =   G   such that x  G
Hence no point of X is a limit point of , so that d() = .
For [D2], Let A  B, then A  G  {x}  B  G  {x} (1)
Now, if x  d(A), then we have: A  G  {x}    G   such that x  G
 B  G  {x}    G   such that. x  G [By (1)]
 x is the limit point of B, so that x ∈ d(B).
Hence, d(A)  d(B)
For [D3], If x  d(A),
then A  G  {x}    G   such that x  G (2)
Now, since
[A {x}]  G  {x} = [A  (X  {x})  G  (X  {x})
= A  G  (X  {x})
= A  G  {x}
  G   such that x  G [By (2)]
 x is a limit point of A  {x}, so that x  d(A  {x})
For [D4], since
AAB
 d(A)  d(A  B) (3)

BAB
 d(B)  d(A  B) (4)
By (3) and (4), we have
d(A)  d(B)  d(A  B) (5)
Now, let x  d(A)  d(B)  x  d(A) and x  d(B)
 x is not a limit point of A and x is not a limit point of B.
 there exists some GA   such that x  GA and A  GA  {x} = 
and there exists some GB   such that x  GB and A  GB  {x} = 
Let G = GA  GB, which is an open set by [O2]. Then x  G but
A  G  {x} =  and B  G  {x} =  which implies that (A  B)  G  {x} = 
 x is not a limit point of A  B
 x  d(A  B)
Thus, we have d(A  B)  d(A)  d(B) (6)
From (5) and (6), we conclude that d(A  B) = d(A)  d(B)
For [D5], since ABA and A  B  B, so by [D2], we must have
d(A  B)  d(A) and d(AB)  d(B) and so
d(AB)  d(A)  d(B)
Example 1.6.5. Let X = N and let  be the family consisting of , X and all subsets of the form Gn = {n,
n + 1, n + 2, …}.
(i) Show that  is a topology on X.
(ii) What are open sets containing 4.
(iii) What is derive set of {2}
(iv) What is derived set of {4, 13, 28, 37}
(v) Determine those subsets E of N for which d(E) = N.
Solution: (i) It has been earlier proved that  is a topology on X.
(ii) The open sets containing 4 are:
G1 = {1, 2, 3, …}
G2 = {2, 3, 4, …}
G3 = {3, 4, 5, …}
G4 = {4, 5, 6, …}
(iii) We try to find the limits points of {2}. 2  N is not a limit point of {2}, since the only open set
containing 2 are G1 = {1, 2, 3, …} and G2 = {2, 3, 4, …} and
{2}  G2  {2} = 
Again 1  N is not a limit point of {2}, since there exists an open set containing 1 namely G1 =
{1, 2, 3, 4, …} such that. {2}  G1  {1} = . Similarly 3  N is not a limit point of {2}, since there
exists an open set containing 3 namely G3 = {3, 4, 5, …} such that. {2}  G3  {3} = . Continuing this
we conclude that d{2} = .
(iv) Let A = {4, 13, 28, 37}.
Consider any number ‘m’ such that. 1  m  36 and consider the open sets
Gm(m = 1, 2, 3, 4,…, 36) then every open set containing m also contain 37  A which is different from
m so m  36 is a limit point of A. Now consider 37. Clearly 37 is not a limit point of A, since there
exists an open set containing 37 namely G37 = {37, 38, 39,…} which contains no point of A different
from 37 i.e. A  G37  {37} = .
Similarly, 38 is not a limit point of A, since there exists an open set containing 38 namely G38
such that. A  G38  {38} = . Continuing like this we can check that 39, 40, 41… are not limit points
of A so d(A) = {1, 2, 3, …, 36}
(v) Let E by any infinite subset of N, then E is not bounded above. So every open set containing any
point n  N will contain points of E other than n. Hence d(E) = N. On the other hand if E is finite, than
E is bounded, say by m  N, then the open set Gm+1 contains no points of E. Hence m + 1  N is not a
limit point of E and so d(E)  N.
Example 1.6.6. Let A, B be subsets of a topological space (X, ), prove or disprove that:
(i) d(A  B) = d(A)  d(B) (ii) d(A  B) = d(A)  d(B)
Solution: (i) We have earlier prove that d(A  B) = d(A)  d(B)
(ii) By means of an Example we show that d(A  B)  d(A)  d(B)
Let X = {s, t, u} and let  = {, {s}, {t}, {s, t}, X}, then it can be easily that  forms a topology on X.
Now, we check that d({t}) = {u} and d({s, u}) = {u}. Also {t}  {s, u} =  and d() = .
Thus, we conclude that d({t}  {s, u})  d({t})  d({s, u})
1.7. Closed Set: In a topological space (X, ), a subset F is called closed if it contains all its limit point
i.e., d(F)  F
Theorem 1.7.1. If x  F where F is closed subset of a topological space {X, }, then there exists an
open set G such that x  G  X  F.
Proof: Since x  F, so x  X  F. Let if possible, suppose there exists no open set G such that. x  G 
X  F, Then for all open sets G such that. x  G, we must have G  X  F
 G  F   for all G   such that. x  G.

Since x  F, so F  G  {x}   for all G   such that. x  G.
So x is a limit point of F i.e., x  d(F). But F is closed, so d(F)  F  x  F, which is contradiction.
Hence there exists an open set G such that. x  G  X  F.
Corollary 1.7.2. If F is closed, then X  F is open.
Proof: Let x  X  F  x  F, so there exists an pen set Gx such that. x  Gx  X  F.
Thus for all x  X  F, there exists Gx   such that. x  Gx  X  F
Thus, we have: {x}  Gx  X  F

xX  F xX  F
 XF Gx  X  F
xX  F
 XF= Gx
xX  F
 X  F is open because it is union of open sets Gx.

Corollary 1.7.3. If X  F is open, then F is closed.
Proof: We will show that d(F)  F.
Let, if possible, d(F)  F, so there exists at least one element x  d(F) such that. x  F. Then
x  X  F. Now X  F is open set containing x which does not intersect F, so
F  X  F  {x} = 
 x is not a limit point of F i.e., x  d(F), a contradiction. Thus d(F)  F and so F is closed.
Corollary 1.7.4. In a topological space (X, ), a subset F is closed if and only if X  F is open.
Proof: The result follows by corollary (1.7.2) and corollary (1.7.3)
Example 1.7.5. Let X = {s, t, v} and let  = {, {s}, X}, then find:
(i) all open sets
(ii) all closed sets
(iii) all sets which are neither open nor closed
Solution: (i) , {s}, X
(ii) X, {t, v}, 
(iii) {t}, {v}, {s, t}, {s, v}
Example 1.7.6. If (X, ) and (X, *) are topological spaces. What can be said about the corresponding
families F and Ƒ* of closed sets with respect to and * respectively when   *.
Solution: Let F  Ƒ  F is closed set in 
 X  F is open set in 
 XF
 X  F  * [  *]
 X  F is open set in *
 F is closed set in *
 F  Ƒ*
 Ƒ  Ƒ*
Example 1.7.7. If E is a subset of a topological space (X, ) and d(F)  E  F for some subset F of X,
then show that E is closed.
Solution: We need to show that d(E)  E. Let x  d(E), then x is a limit point of E.
 E  G  {x}   for all G   such that x  G
 F  G  {x}   for all G   such that x  G [E  F]
 x  d(F)
 xE [d(F)  E]
Hence, d(E)  E and thus E is closed.
Theorem 1.7.8. Let {X, } be a topological space. Then the family Ƒ of closed sets satisfies the
following axioms:
[C1] Arbitrary intersection of members of Ƒ is in Ƒ.
[C2] Finite union of members of Ƒ is in Ƒ.
Proof: For [C1], let {F} be any family of members in Ƒ, then F is closed for each .
 X  F is open set for each 
 X  F   for each 
 ( X  F )   since  satisfies [O1] axiom.


 X – ∩Fλ  
 ∩Fλ  Ƒ
For [C2], let {Fi }in1 be any finite family of members of Ƒ, then X  F, is open for each
i = 1 to n,
 X  Fi   for each i = 1 to n
n
 ( X  Fi )   [By [O2] axiom]
i 1
n
 X Fi  
i 1
n
 Fi  Ƒ
i 1
Theorem 1.7.9. Let Ƒ be any family of subsets of X such that the family {F: F  Ƒ} satisfies the closed
axioms [C1] and [C2]. Then there exists one and only one topology  on X such that. the members of Ƒ
are precisely the closed sets with respect to.
Proof: Let  = {X  Fi: Fi  Ƒ }, we show that  satisfies open axioms [O1] to [O4].
Let {O} be any arbitrary family of members of . Then {X  O} is a family of members of Ƒ. Now
since Ƒ satisfies [C1] axiom, so
( X  O )  Ƒ  X O  Ƒ
 
 O  

By definition of , we have O  , So  satisfy [O1] axiom


Let {Oi }in1 be any finite family of members of . Then { X  Oi }in1 is a finite family of members of Ƒ.
Now since Ƒ satisfies [C2] axiom, so
n n
( X  Oi )  Ƒ  X Oi  Ƒ  Oi  
i 1 i 1 i 1
  satisfy [O2] axiom.
We can denote X and  as: X =∩X and   

i
So by [O1] and [O2] axioms x   and   . Thus  defines a topology on X. The members of Ƒ are
precisely the closed sets with respect to .
Suppose there exists another topology * such that each member of Ƒ is closed with respect
to*. Then the complements of members of Ƒ are open in * i.e.   *. It is sufficient to show that
*  . Suppose O  *, then X  O is closed with respect to *.
 XOƑ
 X  (X  O)   i.e., O  
 *   and hence  = *
1.8. Closure of a set: Let (X, ) be a topological space. The closure of A  X with respect to is
defined to be the intersection of all closed sets containing A. It is denoted by A . Thus we have,
A =  {F: F  A and F is closed with respect to}

Remark 1.8.1. By definition of closure, two things are obvious:
(i) A A
(ii) A is a closed set, since A is arbitrary intersection of closed sets which must be closed by [C1]
Theorem 1.8.2: A is the smallest closed set containing A.
Proof: By definition of closure, we know that A is a closed set containing A. Suppose F is any closed
set such that AF A (1)
But, A =  {F: F is closed and F  A}
 A F (2)
By (1) and (2), A = F, so A is the smallest closed set containing A.
Theorem1.8.3: A set ‘A’ is closed if and only if A = A.
Proof: Suppose A is closed set, then A is closed set containing A. But A is the smallest closed set
containing A, So A  A. Also by definition A , A  A . So A = A .
Conversely, suppose that A = A. By definition, A is closed set. Hence A is closed.

Theorem 1.8.4: Let (X, ) be a topological space and A  X, then A = A  d(A).
Proof: Suppose x  A  d(A)
 x  A and x  d(A)
Since x  d(A)
 x is not a limit point of A
 there exist an open set Gx containing x such that.
A  Gx  {x} = 
But x  A, so A  Gx =   Gx  X  A
Now, let y  Gx be any arbitrary point then
A  Gx =  implies that A  Gx  {y} =  (1)
 y is not a limit point of A.
 y  d(A)
 y  X  d(A)
 Gx  X  d(A) (2)
By (1) and (2), we get
Gx  (X  A)  (X  d(A))
i.e., Gx  X  [A  d(A)]
Thus for all x  A  d(A), there exists an open set Gx, such that
x  Gx  X  [A  d(A)]
{x}  Gx  X [A  d(A)]
xAd ( A) xAd ( A)
 X  [A  d(A)]  Gx  X [A  d(A)]
xAd ( A)
 X  [A  d(A)] = Gx
xAd ( A)
 X  [A  d(A)] is open
[Gx is open and arbitrary union of open set is open]
 A  d(A) is closed set containing A. But A is the smallest closed set containing A.
So, since A  A  d(A) (3)
Conversely, suppose x  A  d(A) and let F be any closed set containing A.
If x  A, then x  F [ A  F]
and if x  d(A),
since AF
 d(A)  d(F)  F [F is closed]
which implies that x  F.
So in both cases, we have shown that x  F. But F was an arbitrary closed set containing A. So x
belongs to every closed set containing A and hence x  A .
 A  d(A)  A (4)
From (3) and (4), A = A  d(A)
Theorem 1.8.5. Let (X, ) be any topological space, then for A  X, the closure of A satisfies the
following properties in (X, ).
(i)   , X  X
(ii) A  ( A)
(iii) If A  B, then A  B
(iv) A  B  A  B
(v) A  B  A  B
Proof: (i) Since X is open with respect to  so X  X =  is closed and we know that a set ‘A’ is closed
if and only if A  A so that   
Again, since  is open so X   = X is closed and hence XX

(ii) We know that every set is contained in its closure, so
A  ( A)
Now A is a closed set containing A and ( A) is the smallest closed set containing A , so
( A)  A
Hence A  ( A)
(iii) Since AB B

 A B
Now B is a closed set containing A and we know that A is the smallest closed set containing A, so that
AB
(iv) Since AAB
 A  A B [By (iii)]
 BAB
 B  A B
 A B  A B (1)
A and B are closed sets so A  B is closed set and A  A , B  B

 A  B  A B
But A  B is the smallest closed set containing A  B, so
A B  A  B (2)
So by (1) and (2), we get A B  A  B

(v) Since ABA
 A B  A
And ABB
 A B  B [By (iii)]
 A B  AB
Example 1.8.6. Give an Example to show that A  B  A  B .

Solution: Let X = {s, t, u} and  = {, {s}, {t}, {s, t}, X}, then  is a topology on X.
Let A = {s} and B = {t}. We see that d(A) = {u}, d(B) = {u}.
Now, 𝐴̅ =A A  A  d ( A)  {a, c}
and B  B  d ( B)  {b, c}
 A  B  {c}
Now A  B = 
 A  B    , so A  B  A  B
1.9. KurotowaskiClosure operator:

Theorem 1.9.1. Let X a non-empty set. Let 2x denote the collection of all subsets of X.
Let c: 2x→2x be the operator which assigns each subset A in 2x a member Ac of 2x such that the
following Kurotowaski closure axioms are satisfied.
[K1] c = 
[K2] For each A  X, A  Ac
[K3] For each A  X, (Ac)c = Ac
[K4] For each A, B  X, (A  B)c = Ac  Bc
Let Ƒ be the family of all subsets of X such that Ac = A. Then the family  of all complements of
members of Ƒ defines a topology on X and Ac is closure of A for each subset A of X.
Proof: By [K1] c = 
 Ƒ
 X [ is the family of complements of members of Ƒ]
 X  . This proves [O4] in .
Again by [K2], X  Xc and also Xc  X
 X = Xc
 XƑ
 XX
   . This proves [O3] in .
Now to prove the open axioms [O1] and [O2] in , it is sufficient to prove closed axioms [C1] and [C2] in
Ƒ.
To prove [C1] in F, suppose that {F } be an arbitrary family of members of Ƒ and
let F = F .

We want you to show that F  Ƒ. Now,

F  Ƒ for each 
 Fc  F for each       
Since F  F for each , so we can write:

F = (F  F)  F for each 
 Fc  (( F  F )  F )c
 Fc  ( F  F )c  F c (By [K4])
 F  ( F  F )c  F c (By (1))
 F c  F for each 
  Fc  F 

 Fc  F
Also by [K2], F  Fc, so that we have F = Fc and hence F  Fr. This prove [C1].
To prove [C2], Let F1, F2  Fr, then F1c  F1 and F2c  F2 .
and ( F1  F2 )c  F1c  F2c (By [K4])
= F1  F2  F1  F2  Fr . Ƒ
This can be extended to show that finite union of members of Ƒ is again in Ƒ, which proves [C2].
Therefore  defines a topology on X.
It remains to prove that Ac is nothing but closure of A i.e. A  Ac .
First we prove that if A  B then Ac  Bc. If A  B, then A  B = B

 (A  B)c = Bc
 Ac  Bc = Bc  Ac  Bc
Now we know that, A A  Ac  ( A)c (As proved above)
 Ac  A (2)
[ 𝐴̅ is a closed set and so A  Fr  ( A)c  A ]
Next, by [K3], ( Ac )c  Ac  Ac  Fr
 Ac is a closed set.
Also by [K2], A  Ac, so Ac is a closed set containing A but we know that A is the smallest closed set
containing A, so that we must have: A  Ac (3)
By (2) and (3), we get A  Ac .
Example 1.9.2. Show that the Kuratowaski’s axioms may be replaced by a single condition:
A  Ac  ( Bc )c  ( A  B)c  c (1)
for all subsets A, B of X where Ac denotes of A.

Solution: Suppose that four Kuratowaski’s axioms [K1] to [K4] hold. We will show that (1) holds. We
have
L.H.S. of (1) = A  Ac  ( Bc )c
= Ac  ( Bc )c [By [K2], A  Ac]
= Ac  B c [ By [K3], ( Bc )c  Bc )
= ( A  B)c (By [K4])
= ( A  B)c  
= ( A  B)c  c (By [K1], c  )
= R.H.S. of (1)
Conversely, suppose that (1) holds. We will show that axioms [K1] to [K4] hold.
For [K1], Take A = , B =  in (1) so that we get:
  c  (c )c  c  c
   c  (c )c    c  
Also,   c
  = c.
Hence axiom [K1] holds.
For [K2], Take B =  in (1) so that we get:
A  Ac  (c )c  ( A  )c  c
 A  Ac    Ac   [ = c.  (c )c  c   ]
 A  Ac  Ac
 A  Ac.
For [K3], Take A =  in (1) so that we get:
  c  ( Bc )c  (  B)c  c
 ( B c )c  B c .

For [K4], A  Ac  ( Bc )c  ( A  B)c  c
Since A  Ac and ( B c )c  Bc and  = c,
Hence Ac  Bc  ( A  B)c
1.10. Adherent Point: Let (X, ) be a topological space and E be any subset of X. A point x  X is
said to be an adherent point of E if
E  G   for all G   such that x  G
i.e. if each open set containing x contains at each one point of E or if every open set containing x has
nonempty intersection with E.
Example 1.10.1. Show that limit point of a set is always an adherent point but converse may not be true.
Solution: Let x be a limit point of E, then
E  G  {x}   for all G   such that x  G
But E  G  {x}  E  G, so
E  G   for all G   such that x  G.
Hence, x is an adherent point of E.
For converse part, Let X = {s, t, u} and  = {, {s}, {t}, {s, t}, X}
Let E = {s, u }, then it can be easily checked that ‘s’ is an adherent point of E but not a limit point.
Example 1.10.2. Let E be a subset of topological space (X, ) and x  X. Then x  E if and only if
every open set containing x has a nonempty intersection with E. In other words, x  E if and only if x
is an adherent point of E.
Solution: Let x  E . Now E = E  d(E), so either x  E or x  d(E)
If x  E, then for all open sets G containing x, we have E  G  
If x  dE, then for all open sets G containing x, we have E  G  {x}  
 E  G   which proves direct part.
Conversely, Suppose that every open set containing x has a non empty intersection with E
i.e. E  G    for all G   such that x  G
There are two possibilities: (i) E  G = {x} or (ii) E  G  {x}
If E  G = {x}, then x E  x  E [ E  E  d ( E )]
If E  G  {x}, then there is at least one point ‘y’ differentfrom ‘x’ such that y  E  G, then
EG for all G   such that x  G
 x is a limit point of G
 x  d(E)
 x E
Remark 1.10.3. By above Example, it is clear that E is the set of all adherent points of E.
1.11. Dense Subset: Let (X, ) be a topological space. A subset ‘A’ of X is said to be dense in B 
X if B is contained in the closure of A i.e. B  A . In particular, A is dense in X or is a dense subset of
X if A  X .
Example 1.11.1. Determine the dense subset of X when
(i) X is a discrete topological space
(ii) X is a indiscrete topological space
Solution: (i) Let X be discrete topological space, then all subsets of X are open and consequently all
subsets of X are closed so for each subset A of X, we have A  A . Also A is dense in X if A  X , so X
is the only dense subset of X.
(ii) Let X be an indiscrete topological space, then the only open subsets are  and X and hence the only
closed subsets are  and X. Let A be any subset of X, then if A =  then A =  and if A  , then X is
the smallest closed set containing A
[Since X is the only closed set containing A] so we have A  X
 if A  
i.e. A
 X if A  
Thus, it follows that every non empty subset of X is dense in X.
Theorem 1.11.2. (i) Any set C containing a dense set D is a dense set
(ii) If A is dense set in X and B is dense in A, then B is also dense in X.
Proof: (i) Let D be a dense subset of X, so D  X .
Now DC  DC

 X C
But C  X so C = X and hence C is dense in X.

(ii) Since A is dense in X, So A  X . Also B is dense in A, so
A B  A  (B) = B
 X B
But B X  BX .
Hence B is dense in X.
1.12. Interior of a Set: Let (X, ) be a topological space and A  X, then the interior of A is defined as
the union if all open sets of X contained in A. It is denoted by A or i(A) int A. Thus
A = {O: O  A and O  }
Remark1.12.1: By definition of interior, two things are obvious:
(i) A  A
(ii) A is an open set, since A is arbitrary union of open sets which must be open by [O1] axiom.
Proof: By definition of interior we know that A is an open set contained in A. Let B be a set such that
B   and A  B  A. By definition
A = {O: O  A and O  }  B  A
 B = A
Thus Ais the largest open set contained in A.
Theorem 1.12.2. A set A is open if and only if A = A.
Proof: Suppose A is open. Then A  A implies that A is an open set contained in A. But A is the
largest open set contained in A, so A  A. Also by definition, A  A.
Thus A = A.
Conversely, suppose that A = A, since A is open so A is open.
Theorem 1.12.3. (i) A = {x: x  A and x  d(X  A)}.
(ii) A = X  X  A or X  A = X  A
Proof: (i) Let B = {x: x  A and x  d(X  A)}. We will show that B = A.
Suppose x  B  x  d(X  A) and x  A.
 x is not a limit point of X A
 there exist an open set Gx such that x  Gx and (X  A)  Gx  {x} = .
 Gx  {x}  A  Gx  A since x  A.
So Gx is an open set contained in A but we know that A is largest open set contained in A, so Gx  A.
Thus, we have x  Gx  A for all x  B
{x}  Gx  A
xB xB
 B  A
It remains to prove that A  B
Let x  A = {G: G is an open set contained in A}, so there exist an open set, say G x contained in A
such that x  Gx  A
 (X  A)  Gx = 
 (X  A)  Gx  {x} = 
 x is not a limit point of X  A
 x  d(X  A). Also x  A
 x  B. Hence, A  B
(ii) By (i), A = {x: x  A and x  d(X  A)}.
X  A = {x: x  A and x  d(X  A)}
= {x: x  X  A and x  d(X  A)}
= X A
 X  A = X  A .
Now, taking complements, we obtain A = X  X  A .

Theorem 1.12.4. Let (X, ) be a topological spaces, then for every A  X, then interior of A satisfies
the following in (X, )
(i)  = , X = X (ii) (A) = A
(iii) If A  B, then A  B (iv) (A  B) = A  B
(v) A  B  (A  B)
Proof: (i) Since  and X are open sets so  =  and X = X

(ii) We know that interior of a set is contained in the set, so (A)  A. Now A is an open set
contained in A and (A) is the largest open set contained in A, so A  (A). Thus we have (A) = A
(iii) We have A  A  B  A  B
Now A is an open set contained in B and we know that B is the largest open set contained in B, so A
 B
(iv) We have A  B  A  (A  B)  A
and A  B    (A  B)  B
 (A  B)  A  (1)
Now A and B are open sets so A  B is an open set and A  A, B  B
 A  B  A  B
But (A  B) is largest open set contained in A, so A  B  (A  B) (2)
By (1) and (2), we have: (A  B) = A  B
(v) We have: A  A  B  A  (A  B)
BAB  B  (A  B)
 A  B  (A  B)
Example 1.12.5. Give an Example to show that (A  B)  A  B
Solution: Let X = {s, t, u} and  = {, {s}, {s, t}, X}.
If A = {s} and B = {t}, then A = A, since A is an open set and B = , since  is the largest open set
contained in B = {t}. So, A  B = A   = A = {s}.
Now A  B = {s, t} and {A  B} = A  B = {s, t} is an open set.
Hence (A  B)  A  B.
1.13. Interior Operator:
Theorem1.13.1. If i is an operator which carries subsets of X into subsets of X such that A  i(A) for
all A  X, then the family of subsets A of X satisfying i(A) = A defines a topology  in X provided:
[I1] i(X) = X
[I2] i(A)  A for all A  X
[I3] i(i(A)) = i(A) for all A  X
[I4] i(A  B) = i(A)  i(B) for all A, B  X
Then the family  is the family of open sets and i(A) is nothing but interior of A.
Proof: Let  = {A: A  X and i(A) = A}. We will show that  satisfies open axioms.
By [I1], i(X) = X
 X  , which is [O4].
By [I2], i()  
But   i()
 i() = 
   , which is [O3]
Now, let A, B  
 i(A) = A and B  i ( B )
By [I4], we have:
i ( A  B)  i( A)  i( B)  A  B
 A  B  .
 n  n
This can be extended to prove that: i  Ai   Ai for all n  N and Ai  
 i 1  i 1
n
 Ai  , so [O2] is satisfied.
i 1
Let { A } be any family of members of 
 i( A )   for all    (1)
Let B = {A :  } . We will show that i(B) = B. Before proving this, first we prove that if A  B,
then i(A)  i(B)
If A  B, then A  B = A  i ( A  B)  i ( A)
 i ( A)  i ( B)  i ( A)
 i ( A)  i ( B )
Now, A  A for each   i( A )  i ( A ) for each 

 
 A  i ( A ) for each  [By (1)]


 A  i ( A )
 
 B  i(B)
Also, by [I2], i(B)  B, so i(B) = B  B
 A   which proves [O1].


Thus,  satisfies all the four open axioms and hence defines a topology on X.
Now, it remains to prove that i(A) = A, where A represents interior of A with respect to above
constructed topology . Since i (i ( A))  i ( A) , so i(A)    i(A) is an open set.
Also i(A)  A, but A is the largest open set contained in A, so i(A)  A (2)
Again, since A is open, so A    i(A) = A
Now, A  A  i(A)  i(A)  A  i(A) (3)
By (2) and (3), i(A) = A.
1.14. Interior Point of a Set: Let (X, ) be a topological space and A be any subset of X. A point x 
X is called an interior point of A if x  A.
Remark 1.14.1. If x is an interior point of A, then there exists an open set G such that x  G  A.
Proof: Given that x is an interior point of A, so x  A. But we have:
A = {G : G is an open set of G  A}
 there exists at least one open set G such that x  G  A.

1.15. Exterior of a set: Let (X, ) be a topological space and A  X, then exterior of A is defined as
ext. (A) = int. (X  A) = (X  A)
i.e. exterior of A is interior of complement of A. Also by using the definition of interior, we can write:
ext. (A) = (X  A) = {G : G is an open set and G is contained in X  A}
Also it is obvious that, ext. (X  A) = A

Remark 1.15.1. (i) Clearly, ext. (A) is an open set.
(ii) By definition, ext. (A) is contained in complement of A.
(iii) ext. (A)  A = .
Proof: By definition ext. (A) = (X  A) (1)
We know that (X  A) is the largest open set contained in X  A, so using (1), we get ext. (A) is largest
open set contained in complement of A.
Example 1.15.2. A is closed if and only if ext. (A) = X  A
Proof: Suppose that A is closed so that X  A is open and hence,
(X  A) = X  A
Now by def. ext. (A) = (X  A) = X  A

Conversely, suppose that ext. (A) = X  A  (X  A) = X  A
 X  A is open
 A is closed
Example 1.15.3. ext. (A) = X  A .
Proof: Let x  ext. (A)  x  (X  A)
 x  X  A [By the result A = X  X  A ]

 ext. (A)  X  A (1)
Again, let x  X  A  x A
 x is not an adherent point of A
There exists an open set containing x, say Gx such that
Gx  A = .  x  Gx  X  A
 x is an interior point of X  A
 x  (X  A) = ext. (A)
 x  ext. (A)
 X  A  ext. (A) (2)
By (1) and (2), we obtain: ext. (A) = X  A .
Theorem1.15.4 : Let (X, ) be a topological space and let A, B be any two subsets of X, then exterior
satisfies following properties:
(i) ext. (X) = , ext. () = X
(ii) ext. (A) = ext. [X  ext. (A)]
(iii) If A  B, then ext. (B)  ext. (A)
(iv) ext. (A  B) = ext. (A)  ext. (B)
(v) ext. (A  B)  ext. (A)  ext. (B)
Proof: (i) ext. (X) = (X  X) =  = 
ext. () = (X  ) = X = X
(ii) We have: ext. [X  ext. (A)] = ext. [X  (X  A)] = [X  (X  (X  A))] = ((X  A)) = (X 
A) = ext. (A)
(iii) We have A  B  XBXA
 (X  B)  (X  A)
 ext. (B)  ext. (A)
(iv) We have ext. (A  B) = [X  (A  B)] = [(X  A)  (X  B)]
= (X  A)  (X  B) = ext. (A)  ext. (B)
(v) We have ext. (A  B) = [X  (A  B)] = [(X  A)  (X  B)]
 (X  A)  (X  B) = ext. (A)  ext. (B)
Example 1.15.5. Give an Example to show that: ext. (A  B)  ext. (A)  ext. (B).
Solution: Let X = {s, t, u} and  = {, {s}, {t}, {s, t}, X}
Take A = {s}, B = {t}, then A  B =   ext. (A  B) = X
Now, ext. (A) = (X  A) = {t, u} = {t} and ext. (B) = {a, c} = {s}
 ext. (A)  ext. (B) = {s}  {t} = {s, t}
Thus, we get ext. (A  B)  ext. (A)  ext. (B)
1.16. Exterior operator: Let X be any set and ‘e’ an operator which assigns each subset A of X to a
subset ‘A’ of X and satisfies the following properties:
[E1] e() = X
[E2] e(A)  X  A
[E3] e(A) = e[X  e(A)]
[E4] e(A  B) = e(A)  e(B)
Let  be the family of all subsets of X such that e(X  A) = A, then prove that  defines a topology on
X on e(A) is nothing but the exterior of A with respect to
Proof: By [E1], e() = X  e(X  X) = X
 X   which is [O4]
Again, we have: e(X)  X  X (By E2)
 e(X)  , But   e(X)
 e(X) = 
 e(X  ) = 
   , which is [O3]
To prove [O2], let G1 and G2 any two members of , then
e(X  G1) = G1 and e( X  G2 )  G2
Now, e( X  (G1  G2 ))  e[( X  G1 )  ( X  G2 )]
= e( X  G1 )  e( X  G2 ) (By [E4])
= G1  G2
 G1  G2  
n n
This can be extended to prove that: e( X  Gi )  Gi for all n  N and Gi  
i 1 i 1
n
 Gi   so [O2] is satisfied.
i 1
To prove [O1], first we prove that

if A  B, then e(B)  e(A) …(*)
We have A  B  AB=B
 e( A  B )  e( B )
 e( A)  e( B)  e( B) (By [E1])
 e(B)  e(A)
Now, let {G } be any arbitrary family of members of , then
e( X  G )  G for each    …(1)
Let G  G , we shall prove that (X  G) = G. Now G  G for each .


 X  G  X  G for each .
 e( X  G )  e(X  G) for each . [By (*)]
 G  e(X  G) for each .
 G  e(X  G)  G  e(X  G) …(2)


By [ E2 ], e( X  G)  X  ( X  G )  e(X  G)  G …(3)
By, (2) and (3), we have: e(X  G) = G

 G   which proves (1)
Now, it remains to prove that e(A) = ext. (A). By [E3], we have:
e(A) = e(X  e(A))  e(A)   (By def of )
 e(A) is an open set. Also e(A)  X  A (By [E2])
Thus, e(A) is an open set contained in X  A.

But we know that ext (A) is the largest open set contained in X  A, so
e(A)  ext (A) …(4)
Again we know that ext (A) is open set, so ext (A)  
 e(X  ext(A)) = ext (A) …(5)
Now we know that ext (A)  X  A
 A  X  ext (A)
 e( X  ext ( A))  e(A)
 ext (A)  e(A) (By (5)) …(6)

By (4) and (6), we obtain: ext (A) = e(A).
1.17. Neighbourhood: Let (X, ) be a topological space. A set A is called a neighbourhood
(neighbourhood) of a point x  X, if there exists an open set G such that. x  G  A.
Remark 1.17.1. (i) By definition of interior point and neighbourhood, it is clear that x is an interior
point of A if and only if A is a neighbourhood of x.
(ii) In case of indiscrete space, every point has one and only neighbourhood, namely the whole space. In
case of discrete space, each subset that contains a point is a neighbourhood of that point. In particular, a
singleton set is a neighbourhood of x.
Theorem 1.17.2. In a topological space, a set A is open if and only if it is a neighbourhood of each of
each points.
Proof: Suppose A is open with respect totopology  on X and x  A. Since A  , so x  A  A.
 A is neighbourhood of x. Since x was arbitrarily chosen from A, so A is neighbourhood of each
of its points.
Conversely, Suppose that A is neighbourhood of each of its points. Then for each x  A, there exist an
open set Gx such that x  Gx  A.
So {x}  Gx  A
xA xA
 Gx  A
xA
 A= Gx  
xA
 A is open set.
Theorem 1.17.3: Let (X, ) be a topological space and let N(x) be the collection of neighbourhoods of
x for x  X, then
[N1] Every point of X is contained in at least one neighbourhood and is contained in each of its
neighbourhood i.e. N(x) =   x  X and N  N(x)
 xN
[N2] The intersection of any two neighbourhood of a point is a neighbourhood that point i.e. N, M 
N(x)
 N  M  N(x).
[N3] Any set which contains neighbourhood of a point is itself a neighbourhood of that point i.e. N 
N(x) and N  M
 M  N(x).
[N4] If N is a neighbourhood of x, then there exist a neighbourhood M of x which is a subset of N
such that. M is a neighbourhood of each of its points i.e. N  N(x)
  M  N(x) such that. M  N and M  N(y)  y  M.
Proof: [N1] We know that X is an open set and so it is neighbourhood of each x  X, hence we can say
that there exist at least one neighbourhood (namely X) for each x  X. So we have N(x)    x  X.
Also, if x  N(x), then by definition, there exists an open set G such that.
xGN
 xN
[N2] Let N, M  N(x), then by definition of neighbourhood,  open set G and H such that.
xGN and x  H  M
 xGHNM …(1)
G  H being intersection of two open sets, is an open set and so by definition(1) implies that
N  M  N(x)
[N3] If N  N(x), then by definitionof neighbourhood,  an open set G such that. x  G  N. But we
are given that N  M
so xGM
 M is neighbourhood x
 M  N(x)
[N4] If N  N(x), then by definition of neighbourhood,  an open set M such that x  M  N.
Since M is an open set it is neighbourhood of each of its points, so M  N(y)  y  M. This completes
the proof.
1.18. Neighbourhood Operator: Let there be associated with each point x of a set X, a collection
N*(x) of subsets, called nbds, satisfying the following conditions:
[N1] Every point of X is contained in at least one neighbourhood and is contained in each of its
neighbourhood i.e. N*(x)    x  X and N  N*(x)  x  N.
[N2] The intersection of any two neighbourhoods of a point is a neighbourhood that point i.e. N, M 
N*(x)  N  M  N*(x)
[N3] Any set which contains a neighbourhood of a point is itself a neighbourhood of that point i.e. N
 N*(x) and N  M  M  N*(x)
[N4] If N is a neighbourhood of x, then there exist a neighbourhood M of x which is a subset of N
such that. M is a neighbourhood of each of its points i.e., N  N*(x)   M  N*(x) such that. M  N
and M  N*(y)  y  M.
Let  be the family of all subsets of X which are neighbourhood of each of their points i.e. G
N (x)  x  G. Then  defines a topology on X and if N(x) is the collection of all neighbourhood of x
*
defined by the topology , then N(x) = N*(x) for all x  X.

Proof: We have defined  as: G   if and only if G  N*(x)  x  G. We shall prove all open axioms
for .
[O1] Let {G } by any arbitrary family of members of . We shall show that G  . So let x 

G be any point  x  G0 for some 0. But G0  , so G0  N*(x).

Since, G0  G by [N3], we have: G  N*(x). But x was an arbitrary point, so G  N*(x) 
  
x G  G  [By definition of ], which proves [O1].

 
[O2] Let G1, G2  , we shall prove that G1  G2  .

Now, G1, G2    G1  N*(x)  x  G and G2  N*(x)  x  G2
 G1  G2  N*(x)  x  G1  G2 So by definition of , G1  G2   This proves [O2]
[O3]   , since it is trivially a neighbourhood of each of its points (as  contains no point)
[O4] We now show that X  . But [N1], N*(x)    x  X. So there exist some open set Gx  N*(x)
 x  X. But Gx  X, it follows from [N3] that X  N*(x)  x  X. Hence x  .
All the open axioms are satisfied, hence  defines a topology on X.
Now N(x) is the collection of all neighbourhoods of x defined by the topology , we shall prove
that
N(x) = N*(x). Let N  N(x) be any arbitrary set.  N is a  neighbourhood of x, so by
definition  an open set G such that. x  G  N. Now G is an open set  G    G  N*(x)  x  G
(By definition of )
But G  N it follows from [N3], that N  N*(x). Hence we have
N(x)  N*(x) (1)

Conversely, Let N  N*(x) be any arbitrary member of N*(x). We shall show that N  N(x). By [N4],
there exist M  N*(x) such that M  N and M  N*(y)  y  M
Now, M  N*(x), so by [N1], we have x  M.
Also M  N*(y)  y  M
 M [By definition of ].
Thus M is a  open set such that.
xMN
 N is a neighbourhood of x
 N  N(x)
Hence N*(x)  N(x) (2)
By (1) and (2), N(x) = N*(x)
1.19. Boundary of a set: Let (X, ) be a topological space and A  X. The set of points of X which are
neither the interior point of A nor of (X  A) is defined to the boundary of A in
(X, ) and is denoted by b(A) = {x: x  A and x  (X  A)}
Theorem 1.19.1. Let (X, ) be a topological space. Let b(A) be the boundary of A, then
(i) b(A) = A  ( X  A)
(ii) b(A) = A  A
(iii) X  b(A) = A  (X  A)
(iv) A = A  b(A)
(v) A = A  b(A)
(vi) A is closed if and only if b(A)  A.
(vii) A is open if and only if b(A)  A = 
(viii) A is both open and closed if and only if b(A) = 
(ix) b(A  B)  b(A)  b(B)
(x) b(A  B)  b(A)  b(B)
(xi) b(A) = b(X  A)
(xii) If A is an open set, then b(A) = A  A.
Proof: (i) Let x  b(A)
Since x  b(A) if and only if x  A and x  (X  A)
if and only if x  X  A and x  X  (X  A)
if and only if x  ( X  A) and x  X  ( X  A)

if and only if x  ( X  A) and x  A
if and only if x  A  ( X  A)
Hence, b(A) = A  ( X  A)
(ii) By (i), we have, b(A) = A  ( X  A)
 b(A)  A
By definition of b(A)
b(A)  A = 
 b(A)  A  A (1)
Conversely, let x  A  A
 x  A and x  A
 x  A and x  X  A*
 x  A and x  ( X  A)
 x  A  ( X  A) = b(A)
 A  A  b(A) (2)
By (1) and (2), b(A) = A  A*
(iii) Let x  X  b(A) if and only if x  X and x  b(A)
if and only if x  A or x  (X  A)\
if and only if x  A  (X  A)
So X  b(A) = A  (X  A)
(iv) By (i): b(A) = A  ( X  A)
So A  b(A) = A  [ A  ( X  A)]
= [ A  A]  [ A  ( X  A)] (3)
Now, A  ( X  A)  A  ( X  A)  X
But A  ( X  A)  X
So, A  ( X  A) = X
Using in (3), we get A  b( A)  A  X  A
(v) We have A  A and A  b(A) = 

Thus, A  A  b(A) (4)

Conversely, let x  A  b(A)
 x  A and x  b(A)
Now, x  b(A)
 x  A or x  (X  A)
If x  (X  A), then x  X  A [(X  A)  X  A]
 x  A, which is a contradiction
So x  (X  A)
 x  A, so A  b(A)  A (5)
By (4) and (5), A = A  b(A)
(vi) Let A be a closed, Now by (i), b(A) = A  ( X  A)
But A is closed so A = A,
So b(A) = A  ( X  A)
 b(A)  A
Conversely, suppose that b(A)  A
 A  A  A [By (ii)]
 ( A  A   
     A A
But A A ,
So A = A i.e. A is closed.
(vii) If A is open, then A = A.
Also b(A) = A  A.
So b(A)  A = ( A  A
Conversely, suppose hat b(A)  A =  i.e. ( A  A
 A  ( X  A)  A   [AB = A  (XB)]
 A  A  ( X  A)  
 A  ( X  A)   [A  A ]
 AA = 
 A = A
 A is open
(vii) Let A be both open and closed, then A  A and A = A.
Since b(A) = A  A  A  A  
 b(A) = .
Conversely, let b(A) = .
by (iv), A = A  b(A) = A   = A. So A is closed.
Also by (v), A = A  b(A) = A   = A.
So A is open.
(ix) We know that b(A) = A  ( X  A)
 b(A  B)= ( A  B)  ( X  ( A  B))
= [ A  B ]  (( X  A)  ( X  B)) [By De Morgan’s law]
 [ A  B ]  [( X  A)  ( X  B)]
= [ A  ( X  A)  ( X  B)]  [ B  ( X  A)  ( X  B)]
= [b( A)  ( X  B)]  [b( B)  ( X  A)] [ b( A)  A  ( X  A) ]
 b(A)  b(B)
 b(A  B) b(A)  b(B)
(x) Since b(A) = A  ( X  A)
 b(A  B)= A  B  ( X  ( A  B))
= A  B  (( X  A)  ( X  B )) [By De Morgan’s law]
= A  B  [( X  A)  ( X  B)]
 [ A  B ]  [( X  A)  ( X  B)]
= [ A  B  ( X  A)]  [ A  B  ( X  B )]
= [b( A)  B ]  [b( B)  A]
 b(A)  b(B)
b(A  B) b(A)  b(B)
(xi) Since b(XA) = ( X  A)  ( X  ( X  A)) [By property (i)]
= ( X  A)  A  A  ( X  A)  b( A) .
(xii)
Let A be an open set so that A = A.
Since b(A) = A  A  A  A (A = A).
This completes the proof.
Example 1.19.2. Show that in a discrete topological space, every set has empty boundary.
Solution: Let (X, ) be a discrete topological space and let A be any subset of X.
Since b(A) = A  ( X  A) .
Since in a discrete topological space each set is closed, so A  A and ( X  A) = XA.
Thus b(A) =A∩(X – A ) = ϕ

Thus, each subset of X has empty boundary.
1.20. Key words: Topology, Discrete Space , Indiscrete Space, Open set, Closed set, Limit Point,
Closure, Dense, Neighbourhood, Interior, , Exterior, Boundary.
1.21. Summary: In this chapter, we learn about topological spaces with the help of Examples and
related concepts.
 Let X a non-empty set and  by any family of subsets of X satisfying the following axioms
[O1] Arbitrary union of members of  is in 
[O2] Finite intersection of members of  is in 
[O3] 
[O3] X
Then, we say that  defines a topology on X and the pair (X, ) is called the topological space.
 Members of topology are the open sets and complement of open set is closed set.
 A point is said to be limit point of a set if every open set containing that point contains at least
one point different from that point.
 Also a set is closed if it contains all its limit points.
 Closure of a set is the intersection of all closed sets containing the set. Thus closure of set is the
smallest closed set containing the set. Also a set is closed if and only if closure of the set is equal
to the set.
 With the help of Kurotowaski closure axioms, we can define topology.
 A set is dense if closure of the set is equal to the whole space.
 Interior of set is the union of all open sets contained in the set. Thus interior of set is the largest
open set contained in the set.
 Also a set is open if and only if interior of the set is equal to the set.
 We can also define topology with the help of interior operator.
 Exterior of set is the interior of complement of the set.
 A set is a neighbourhood of a point if and only if the point is the interior point of the set.
 With the help of Neighbourhood axioms, we can define topology.
 Boundary of a set is the collection of all points which are neither the interior point of the set nor
the interior point of its complement.
Chapter– 2 | Related Topology, Base and Subbase
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Relative (Induced) topology
2.3 Base for a topology
2.4 Subbase for topology
2.5 Key words
2.6 Summary
2.0. Introduction: A subset of topological space can also be a topological space, if we will define a
topology on the subset with the help of given topology on the space. Then this new topological space is
subspace of the space. We will also discuss a very important concept of topology i.e. base for topology.
Many times it is enviable to describe all the open sets in the terms of simpler one. This is the basic idea
of the base. Base for a topology on a set which analogy to the basis for a vector space. A base for
topology is a collection of open sets which generates all the open sets by taking unions.
2.1 Objectives: After going through this chapter students will be able to
 Learn what a relative topological space is.
 Construct open set, closed set , closure of set, derived of set and neighbourhood with respect
to relative topology.
 Understand the elementary concepts of Base and Subbase for topology.
2.2. Relative (Induced) topology:
Definition 2.2.1: Let (X, ) be a topological space and X*  X. the relative topology or induced
topology for X* with respect to  is the collection * of all subsets of X* which intersection of X* with
members of . In other words * = {G* : G*  X *  G for some G  }.
Theorem 2.2.2: Let (X, ) be a topological space on X*  X, then * defined as

* = {G* : G*  X *  G for some G  } is a topology on X*.
Proof: [O1], let {G* } be any arbitrary family of members of *. Then for every   , there exist a
set G   such that G*  G  X * . So G*  *, which proves [O1] for *.

For [O2], let G1* , G2*  *, then there exist two sets G1 and G2   such that
G1*  G1  X * and G2*  G2  X *
 G1*  G2*  (G1  X * )  (G2  X * )
= (G1  G2 )  X *
48 Related Topology, Base and Subbase
Since G1  G2  *, so (G1  G2)  X*  *. That is G1*  G2*  *.
For [O3], [O4],  = X* and    so   *.

And X* =X X* and X   so X*  *.
Hence * defines a topology of X*.
Subspace 2.2.3: Let (X, ) be a topological space and X*  X . The topological space (X*, *) is called
a sub-space of (X, ) if and only if * is relative topology.
Example 2.2.4: Let X = {s, t, u, v, w} and  = {, X, {s}, {u, v}, {s, u, v}, {t, u, v, w}} be the
topology on X.
Let X* ={s, v, w}
*= {X* , X X*, {s}{s, v, w}, {u, v}{s, v, w}, {s, u, v}{s, v, w}, {t, u, v, w}{s, v, w}}
= {{X*, { s}, { v}, {s, v}, {v, w}}
So, (X*, *) is topological space and this is a subspace of (X, ).
Remark 2.2.5: If (X*, *) is a subspace of (X, ), then a subset of X* may be open or closed with
respect to (X*, *) but not with respect to (X, ). To avoid the confusion, sets which are open with
respect to the subspace (X*, *) will be referred as *open, X*open or open in X*. Similarly, open sets
with respect to the topological space (X,) will be called as open, Xopen or open in X.
In the above Example, we see that {s} is both open and * open ; {v} is open in X* but not
open in X ; {u ,v} is Xopen but not X*open and {t, u} is neither open nor *open. Same
conventions are used for closed sets.
Theorem 2.2.6: Let (X*, *) be a subspace of (X, ) then
(i) A subset G* of X* is open in X* if and only if G* = G  X* for some open set G in X.
(ii) a subset F* of X is closed in X* if and only if F* = F  X* for some closed set F in X.
Proof: (i) It is direct from the definition of subspace.
(ii) F* is closed in X* if and only if X*  F* is open in X*
if and only if X*  F* = G  X* for some G  
if and only if F* = X*  (G  X*) for some G  
if and only if F* = (X*  G)  (X*  X*) for some G  
if and only if F* = (X*  G)   for some G  
if and only if F* = X*  (X  G) for some G  
if and only if F* = X*  F where F = X  G and F is closed in X.
Remark 2.2.7: Clearly, (ii) shows that the family of closed sets of (X*, *) is the collection of sets
which are intersection of X* with closed sets in (X, ).
Theorem 2.2.8: If E is subset of a subspace (X*, *) of a topological space (X, ), then
(i) C*(E) = X*C(E) where C* denotes the closure with respect to * and C denotes the closure with
respect to 
(ii) D*(E) = X*  D(E) where D* denotes the derived set with respect to* and D denotes the derived
set with respect to .
(iii) A subset M of X* is a * neighbourhood of a point x  X* if and only if M = X*  N for some 
neighbourhood N of x.
Proof: (i) X*  C(E) = X*  [ {F: F is  closed and E  F}]
=  [X*  F: F is closed and E  F]
[A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C)]
=  [F*: F* is * closed and E  F]
[where X*  F = F* and E  F, E  X*  E  F*]
= C*(E)
(ii) Let x  d*(E)
if and only if x  X* and x is * limit point of E
if and only if x  X* and E  G* {x}    G*  * such that x  G
if and only if x  X* and E  (G*  X {x}    G  * such that x  G
if and only if x  X* and E  {x}    G  * such that x  G
[E  X* so E  G  {x} = E  (G  X*)  {x}]
if and only if x  X* and x is a limit point of E
if and only if x  X* and x  d(E)
if and only if x  X*  d(E).
Hence d*(E) = X*  d(E)
(iii) Let M is *neighbourhood of x, then there exist an *open set G* such that
x  G*  M, where G* is *open,
so G* = X*  G for some G  .
So x  X*  G  M (1)
Consider, N = M  G.
We shall prove that N is  neighbourhood of x and M = N  X*.

Let G is open set and x  G  N. This implies that N is a  neighbourhood of x.
Further, N  X* = (M  G)  X* = (M  X*)  (G  X*) = M  (G  X*) = M
[by (1), G  X*  M]
Conversely, let M = N  X* for some neighbourhood N of x. We shall prove that M is *
neighbourhood of x. Since N is neighbourhood of x, there exists an open set G such that x  G 
N
 x  G  X*  N  X*
 x  G*  M and G* is an * open set
 M is a * neighbourhood of x.
Theorem 2.2.9: If (X*, *) be a subspace of (X, ) then prove that:
(i) *   if and only if X*   i.e. every open set in X* is open in X if and only if X* is open in X.
(ii) *   if and only if X*   i.e. every closed set in X* is closed in X if and only if X* is closed in
X.
Proof: Suppose *  , then since X*  *, it follows that X*  .
Conversely, suppose X*   and let G*  * be any arbitrary member, then G* = G  X* for some G 
. Now G  , X*   implies that G  X*   (by O2)
 G  .
Hence *  .
(ii) Suppose *   then since X*  * it follows that X*  
Conversely, Suppose X*   and let F*  * be any arbitrary member, then F* = F  X* for some F 
. Now F   and X*   implies that F  X*   [by (C1)]
2.3. Base for a topology: Let (X, ) be a topological space. A family  of  is called base for  if and
only if each member of  can be written as union of member of .
Remark 2.3.1: It is not necessary to include the empty set in a base for a topology, since
= ( B :   ) i.e.  is the union of empty family of members of .
Examples 2.3.2: (1) Let X = {s, t, u, v} and  = {, {s}, {t}, {s, t}, {u, v}, {t, u, v}, X}. Then
subfamily,  = {{s}, {t}, {u, v}} is a base of .
(2) Let X = {s, t} and  = {,{s},{t},{s, t}, X}, then the subfamily  of , where  is a base .
(3) Let (X, ) be discrete topological space, then the subfamily  = {{x}: x  X} of  is for .
Theorem 2.3.3: Let (X, ) be a topological space, then a subfamily  of  is a base for G   and any x
 G, there exist a B   such that x  B  G.
Proof: Suppose  is a base for  and let G   and x  G. Then by definition of base, G can be written
as union of members of  i.e.
G= {B : B }

But x  G, so x  {B : B }


 There exist some B   such that x    G.

Conversely, Let G   be any arbitrary member. Now let x G, then by given condition, there exist a
set Bx   such that
x  Bx  G
 {x}  Bx  G
xG xG
 G Bx  G
xG
 G= Bx
xG
i.e. G is union of members of . Hence  is a base for .

Remark 2.3.4: (1) A topological space (X, ) can have more than one base but we are always interested
in a base which contains a few members as possible.
(2) A given family  of subsets of X can be a base for one and only one topology of X.
Proof: Let  and ' be topologies on X for which  is a base. We shall prove that  = '. Let G   be
an arbitrary member, then G is union of members of . But since  is base for ' so  is subfamily of '
and therefore G is the union of members of ', this shows that G  '.
Hence   '.
Similarly, '  .
Hence  = '.
Theorem 2.3.5: A family  of sets is a base for a topology for the set X = {B : B } if and only if
for any B1, B2   and every x  B1  B2, i.e. the intersection of any two members of  is a union
of members of .
Proof: Suppose  is a base for the topology  on X. Let B1, B2   as base is always a subfamily of .
Then by [O2], B1  B2   and so B1  B2 is the union of members of  as  is a base of .
Hence the intersection of any two members of  is a union of members of .

Conversely, Suppose  is a family of sets satisfying the conditions of Theorem. Let  be the collection
of all subsets of X which are union of member of  i.e.
 = {G: G is union of members of }
Since each member of  is a union of , then the union of any number of member of  is a union of
members of  and so belongs to . Thus [O1] is satisfied.
Let G1, G2   be any two members of . Let x  G1  G2, then x  G1 and x  G2.
Since G1 and G2 are members of  and so  B1 and B2 belonging to  such that x  B1  G1 and x  B2
 G2
 x  B1  B2  G1  G2.
By the given condition, there exist Bx  G1  G2
 {x}  {Bx }  G1  G2
xG1 G2 xG1 G2
 G1  G2  {Bx }  G1  G2
xG1 G2
 G1  G2 = Bx
xG1 G2
i.e. G1  G2 is the union of members of  and so G1  G2  . Thus [O2] is satisfied.
Now,  = {B :  } i.e.  is the union of empty family of members of  and   . Thus [O3] is

satisfied. Finely we note that the set X was defined to the union of all members of  and so is member of
 and axiom [O4] is satisfied.
Hence  defines a topology on X and clearly  is a for .
Theorem 2.3.6: Show that two bases  and * generate the same topology for the set X if and only if
(i) for every x  B  , there exist a B*  * such that x  B*  B and
(ii) for every x  B*  *, there exist a B  * such that x  B  B*.
Proof: Suppose that the base  and * generate the same topology, say  for a set X. We shall prove the
required conditions:
Let x  B  . Since  is base for , so B   and therefore B is the union of members of * as * is
also a base of . Hence  a set B*  * so that x  B*  B.
Hence (i) is proved.
Similarly (ii) can be proved.
Conversely, Suppose the base  and * satisfy the given conditions. Let  and * are the topologies
generated by  and * respectively. We shall prove that  = *.
Let G   and x  G. Since  is a base for , G is union of members of . Then there exist a B   such
that x  B  G.
Now by condition (i),  Bx*  * such that x  Bx*  B  G
 x  Bx*  G
 {x}  Bx*  G
xG xG
 G Bx*  G
xG
 G= Bx*
xG
Thus G is the union of members of *. But * is the base for * so G  *    *.
Similarly, we can show that *  . Hence  = *.
2.4. Subbase for topology: Let (X, ) be a topological space. A subfamily S of  is called a subbase for
 if and only if the family of all finite intersection of members of S is a base for .
Remark 2.4.1: It is not necessary to include X on a subbase for a topology, since X = {S :   } i.e.

X can be viewed as intersection of empty family of members.

Example 2.4.2: Let X = {s, t, u, v} and  = {, X, {s},{s, u},{s, v}, {s, u, v}} then the subfamily S =
{{s, u},{s, v}} of  is a subbase for  since the family  of finite intersection of S is given by
 = {{s}, {s, u}, {s, v}, X} form a base for .
Theorem 2.4.3: Let S be the family of sets, then the family  of finite intersection of members of S is a
base for a topology on a set X = {S : S  S} and prove that topology is the smallest topology
containing S.
Proof: Suppose S is the given family of sets and , the family of finite intersection of S members of S,
then if B1, B2   then
n
B1 = Si for some positive integer n where S  i  S  I = 1,2,3,…,n.
i 1
m
B2 = Si for some positive integer m where Si  S  I = 1,2,3,…,m.
i 1
n m
 B1  B2 = S i  Si which is nothing but finite intersection of members of S and so
i 1 i 1
B1  B2  . Therefore to each x  B1  B2, there exist B  B1  B2   such that x  B  B1  B2.

Hence  is a base for some topology  on the set
{B : B }  {S : S  S}  X
Now, it remains to prove that  is the smallest topology containing S. Now, since S   and   , so
let * be any other topology containing S and we shall show that   *.
We note that S  * and * is a topology. So all finite intersection of members of S and in * i.e.
  *. Again all union of members of  are in *, it follows that   *. Hence  is the smallest
topology containing S.
Remark 2.4.4: By above Theorem, it is clear that every non empty family of sets is a subbase for some
topology.
Theorem 2.4.5: Let (X*, *) be subspace of (X, ) and  be a base of .
Then * = {B  X*: B  } is a base for *.
Proof: Let G*  * and x  G* be any point. To prove that * is a base for *, it is sufficient that there
exist a member B*  * such that x  B*  G*
Now G*  *  G* = G  X* for some G   and x  G*  x  X* but  is given to be a base for ,
so  a member B   such that x  B  G
 x  B  X*  G  X* [ x  X*]
 x  B*  G* where B*  *
Hence * is a base for *.
2.5. Key words: Related Topology, sub space, base, subbase.
2.6. Summary: In this chapter, we have learned that:
 If (X, ) be a topological space on X*  X, then * defined as
* = {G* : G*  X *  G for some G  } is a topology on X* and this topology * is
called relative topology.
 The topological space (X*, *) is called a sub-space of (X, ) if and only if * is relative
topology.
 Let (X*, *) be a subspace of (X, ) then
(i) A subset G* of X* is open in X* if and only if G* = G  X* for some open set G in X.
(ii) A subset F* of X is closed in X* if and only if F* = F X* for some closed set F in X
 If (X*, *) be a subspace of (X, ) then *   if and only if X*   i.e. every open set in X* is
open in X if and only if X* is open in X.
 Base for a topology: A family  of  is called base for  if and only if each member of  can
be written as union of member of 
 Properties of base for a topology that are:
(i) Let (X, ) be a topological space, then a subfamily  of  is a base if G   and any x  G,
there exist a B   such that x  B  G.
(ii) A family  of sets is a base for a topology for the set X = {B : B } if and only if for any
B1, B2   and every x  B1  B2, i.e. the intersection of any two members of  is a union of
members of .
(iii) Two bases  and * generate the same topology for the set X if and only if
(a) for every x  B  , there exist a B*  * such that x  B*  B and
(b) for every x  B*  *, there exist a B  * such that x  B  B*
 Subbase for topology: Let (X, ) be a topological space. A subfamily S of  is called a subbase
for  if and only if the family of all finite intersection of members of S is a base for .
 If S be the family of sets, then the family  of finite intersection of members of S is a base for a
topology on a set X = {S : S  S} and this topology is the smallest topology containing S.
 If (X*, *) be subspace of (X, ) and  be a base of . The base for *is * = {B  X*: B  }.
Chapter– 3 | Continuity and Homeomorphism
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Continuous function
3.3 Open and closed mappings
3.4 Homeomorphism
3.5 Key words
3.6 Summary
3.0. Introduction
In this chapter, we will learn about the concept of continuous and homeomorphism functions.
We have learned about continuity in calculus. We shall formulate a definition of continuous function in
topology and study various properties of it. Many of these properties are direct generalizations of things
that we have leaned in calculus and analysis.
3.1. Objectives: After going through this chapter, we will be able to:
 Understand the concept of continuous function in topology.
 Analysis the properties of continuity.
 Know what the open and closed mapping is.
 Learn the definition of homeomorphism.
3.2. Continuous functions: Let (X, ) and (X*, *) be topological spaces. A mapping f: X  X* is said
to be continuous at point x  X if and only if for every open set G* containing f(x) there exist an open
set G in X containing x such that f(G)  G*.
Remark 3.2.1: By above definition, it is clear that f is discontinuous at x  X if there exist at least one
open set G* which contains f(x) and there is no pen set G in X such that x  G and f(G)  G*.
Theorem 3.2.3: Let (X, ) and (X*, *) be topological spaces and f: X  X* is continuous if and only
if inverse image of every open set in X* is a open set in X.
Proof: Suppose f is continuous on X and let G* be any open set in X*. If x  f1(G*)
 f(x)  G*. Since G* is open in X* containing f(x), so by continuity of f at x, there exists, an open set
Gx in X such that x  Gx with the property
f(x)  f(Gx)  G*
 x  Gx  f1(G*)
 f1(G*) is neighbourhood of each of its points
 f1(G*) is open in X.
Thus, inverse image of every open set in X* is a open set in X.
Conversely, suppose that the inverse image of an open set in X* is open set in X. Let x be an arbitrary
point of X and G* be any open set in X* such that f(x)  G*
 f(x)  f(f1(G*))  G*
 f is continuous at x since f1(G*) is open.
Theorem 3.2.4: Let (X, ) and (X*, *) be topological space and f: X  X* is continuous if and only if
inverse image of every closed set in X* is a closed set in X.
Proof: Suppose f is continuous on X and let E* is a closed subset in X*. Then X* = E* is open in X.
Thus by Theorem 3.2.3, f1(X*  E* ) is open in X.
f 1 ( X *  E* )  X  f 1 ( E* )
 X  f1(E*) is open in X.
 f1(E*) is closed in X.
Thus, inverse image of every closed set in X* is a closed set in X
Conversely, Suppose that, inverse image of every closed set in X* is a closed set in X. Let f1(F*) be
close in X for every closed set F* in X*. Now, show that f is continuous. Let G* be any open set in X*.
Then X*  G* is closed in X* and so by hypothesis f1(X*  G*) = X  f1(G*) is closed in X. Hence f is
continuous by Theorem 3.2.3.
Theorem 3.2.5: Let (X, ) and (X*, *) be topological spaces and f: X  X* is continuous if and only if
f(C(E))  C*(f(E)), where C(E) denote the closure of E in X. C*(f(E)) is closure of f(E) in X*  E  X.
Proof: Suppose f is continuous on X and E is a subset of X. Since E  f1(f(E)) for any function we
have E  f1(C*f(E)) [ f(E)  C*f(E)]
But f– 1(C*f(E)) is the inverse image of closed set C*f(E) under a continuous mapping f and hence f–
1
(C*f(E)) is closed set containing E. So C(E)  f– 1(C*f(E))
 f(C(E))  f(f– 1(C*f(E)) )  C*f(E)
Conversely, suppose f(CE)  C* (f(E)) for every subset E  X. Let F* be a closed subset of X*. We may
apply the condition with E = f1(F*)  X
Thus f(CE)  C* (f(E))
i.e. F[C(f1(F*))  C*f(f1(F*)  C*F* [ F* is closed in X*]
So CE = E. Therefore E i.e. f1(F*) is closed and hence by Theorem 3.2.4. f is continuous.
Theorem 3.2.6: Let (X, ) and (X*, *) be topological spaces. A mapping f: X  X* is continuous if
and only if inverse image of every member of a base of X* is an open set in X.
58 Continuity and Homeomorphism
Proof: Suppose f is continuous on X and let * be a base for X*. Since every member of * is an open
set and f is continuous, so inverse image of every member of * is open in X.
Conversely, Suppose that, inverse image of every member of a base of X * is an open set in X. We have
to prove that f is continuous, it is sufficient to prove that inverse image of every open set is open. So, let
E* be any open set in X* and we shall prove that f1(E*) is open. Now E* is an open set and * is a base,
so by definition of base,
E* = {B*: B*  *}
 f 1 ( E* )  f 1 ({B* : B* *})  { f 1 ( B* ) : B* *}
which is an open set since f1(B*) is open and arbitrary union of open sets in open. Hence by Theorem
3.2.3, f is continuous function.
Theorem 3.2.7: Let (X, ) and (X*, *) be topological spaces. A mapping f: X  X* is continuous if
and only if inverse image of every member of a subbase of X* is an open set in X.
Proof: Suppose f is continuous on X and let S be a base for X*. Since every member of S is an open set
and f is given to be continuous, so inverse image of every member of S is open in X.
Conversely, suppose that inverse image of every member of a subbase of X* is an open set in X. We
have to prove that f is continuous, it is sufficient to prove that inverse image of every open set is open.
So, let E* be any open set in X* and we shall prove that f1(E*) is open. Now E* is an open set and S is a
subbase. Let  be the family of all finite intersection of member S and then is a base for X *. Then for
any B  , there exist S1, S2, … Sn  S such that
B = S1  S2 Sn
 f1(B) = f1(S1)  f1(S2)  …  f1(Sn)
 f1(B) is an open set since every set on R.H.S. is open due to given hypothesis. Thus, we
have proved that inverse image of every member of  is open. Now E* is open set and  is a base, so
E* = {B: B  *}
 f 1 ( E* )  f 1 ({B : B })  { f 1 ( B) : B }
which is an open set since f1(B) is open and arbitrary union of open sets is open.
Theorem 3.2.8: Let (X, ) and (X*, *) be topological spaces and f: X  X* be a mapping. Then the
following conditions are equivalent to continuity of f in X.
(i) inverse image of every open set in X* is an open set in X.
(ii) inverse image of every closed set in X* is an closed set in X.
(iii) f(C(E))  C* (f(E), where C(E) denote the closure of E in X, C*(f(E)) is closure of f(E) in X*  E
 X.
(iv) inverse image of every member of base of X* is an open set in X.
(v) inverse image of every member of a subbase of X* is an open set in X.

Proof: The proof of the Theorem direct from Theorems 3.2.3, 3.2.4, 3.2.5, 3.2.6 and 3.2.7
Theorem 3.2.9: Let (X, ) and (X*, *) be topological spaces and f: X  X* be a mapping.
(i) If  is discrete, then f is continuous.
(ii) If * is indiscrete, then f is continuous.
Proof: (i) Let E* be any *open set, then f1(E*) is evidently an open set since every subset of X is an
open set. Hence image of every open set is open and so f is continuous.
(ii) Here,  and X* are only open sets in * and their inverse images f1() =  and f1(X*) = X are also
obviously open in . Thus inverse image of every open set is open and so f is continuous.
Example 3.2.10: Let X = {s, t, u}  = { , {s}, {t, u}, X } and X* = {1, 2, 3} and * = { , {1}, {2, 3}, X
}, then which of the following from X to X* are continuous
(i) f(s) = 1, f(t) = 2, f(u) = 3.
(ii) g(s) = 1, g(t) = 2, g(u) = 2.
(iii) h(s) = 3, h(t) = 1, h(u) = 2.
Solution: (i) All open sets in X* are , {1}, {2, 3} and X* and their inverse images f i.e.  {s}, {t, u}
and X are also open in X. Hence f is continuous.
(ii) All open sets in X* are , {1}, {2, 3} and X* and their inverse images under f i.e. , {s}, {t, u} and
X are also open in X. Hence g is continuous.
(iii) in this case, the inverse image of open set {1} under h is {t}, which is not open. So, h is not a
continuous mapping.
Definition 3.2.11: A suspect E of a topological space (X, ) is dense in itself if every point of E is a
limit point of E i.e. E  d(E).
Theorem 3.2.12: If f is onetoone continuous mapping of (X, ) into (X*, *), then f maps every
dense in itself subset of X into dense in itself subset of X*.
Proof: Suppose E is dense in itself subset of X and f: X  X* is one to one continuous mapping. We
show that f (E)  d*(f(E)). If x*  f(E) then we must show that x*  d*(f(E)). Finally, if G* is any open
set containing x*, we must show that
f(E)  G*  {x*}  
Now since x*  f(E),  some x  E such that f(x) = x*
 x  f1{x*}  f1(G*)
which is an open set since f is continuous.
But E is dense in itself so x  E  d(E).
Then x is a limit point of E which is contained in the open set f1(G*).

So by definition of limit point
E  f1(G*)  {x}  , so let us choose z  E  f1(G*)  {x}
 z  F and z  f1(G*)
 f (z)  f(E) and f(z)  f(f1(G*))  G*
Finally z  x and so f(z)  f(x*) (since f is one to one)
Thus it show that
f(z)  f(E)  G*  {x*}
 f(E)  G*  {x}  
 x*  d* ((f(E))
 f(E)  d*(f(E))
 f(E) is dense in itself subset of X*
3.3. Open and closed mappings
Remark 3.3.1: Open sets and closed sets may not be mapped to open sets and closed sets respectively
by a continuous function.

Example 3.3.2: Let (X, ) and (X, *) be two topological structures on the same set X and   .
 
Define I: X  X such that I(x) = x. Since   ,  an open set U   but U  . Thus I(U) = U is not
open in .
Open mapping 3.3.3: A mapping is called an open mapping if and only if the image of every open set is
an open set. Such maps are also called interior maps.
Closed mapping 3.3.4: A mapping is called closed if and only if image of every closed set is closed
set.
Remark 3.3.5: Since there is not a definite relationship between f(X  E) and X*  f(E) where f: X 
X*. Thus closed maps need not be open or viceversa.
Theorem 3.3.6: A mapping f: X  X* is open if and only if f(iE)  i*(f(E)) for every E  X where i
denotes interior in X and i* that in X*.
Proof: Suppose f is open and E  X. Since i(E) is an open set and f is an open function, so f(i(E)) is an
open set in X*.
Also since by definition of interior of a set
i(E)  E
 f(i(E))  f(E)
Thus f(i(E)) is an open set contained in f(E), and hence f(i(E))  i* (f(E)) [ interior is the largest open
set].
Conversely, suppose G is open set in X and f(iE)  i* f(E) for all E  X.
Then f(G) = f (iG)  i* f (G) (given)
 f(G)  i*f(G)
But i* f(G)  f(G)
Thus f(G) = i* f(G)
 f(G) is an open set in X*.
 f is open mapping.
Theorem 3.3.7: A mapping: X  X* is closed if and only if C*(f(E))  f(C(E)) for all E  X, where C
and C* stands for closure in X and X* respectively.
Proof: Let f be a closed map and E  X. Since C(E) is a closed set and f is a closed map, so f (C(E)) is
a closed set in X*.
Also since by definition of closure, we have
E  C(E)
 f(E)  f(c(E))
Thus f(C(E)) is a closed set containing f(E). But C* (f(E)) is the smallest closed set containing f(E)
 C*(f(E))  f(C(E))
Conversely, suppose C*(f(E))  f(C(E)) for all E  X. Let F be any closed subset of X. Then by given
condition, we have
C*(f(E))  f(C(E))
 C*(f(E))  f(F) [C(f) = F f is closed]
But since, f(F)  C*(f(F))
 f(F) = C*(f(F))
 f(F) is a closed set in X*
 f is a closed mapping.
Theorem 3.3.8: Let (X, ) and (X*, *) be two topological spaces and let the mapping f: X  X* be
open and onto. If  is a base for , then prove that {f(B);B  } is a base for *.
Proof: Let G* be any *open set and let y be any arbitrary point of G*. Since f is onto, so  x  X
such that f(x) = y. Since  is a base of , there exists a member of  containing x. Let B1 be the smallest
member of  containing x. In other words, B is the smallest open set containing x.
Now since f is open so f(B1) is a *open set. Also x  B1  f(x)  f(B1). Since B1 is the
smallest open set containing x, f(B1) is the smallest *open set containing f(x). Again since G* is
any *open set containing y = f(x), we have
y = f(x)  f(B1)  G*.
Hence the collection {f(B) ; B  } is a base for *.
3.4. Homeomorphism: A mapping f: X  X* is called a homeomorphism if and only if f is one to one,
onto, continuous and open.
Remark 3.4.1: If f is one to one and onto then f1 certainly exists. Also we know that f is continuous if
and only if f1 is open and f is open if and only if f1 is continuous. So above definition can also be
stated as:
A mapping f: X  X* is called a homeomorphism if and only if f is one to one, onto and
bicontinuous (i.e. both f and f1 are continuous).
Definition 3.4.2: A property of a space which is preserved under a homeomorphism is called a
topological property, e.g. the property of a space being open, closed, and denseinitself are topological
properties.
Isolated set 3.4.3: A subset E of a topological space (X, ) is called isolated if no point of E is a limit
point of E i.e. d(E)  E = 
Theorem 3.4.4: If f is a homeomorphism of a topological space (X, ) onto (X*, *), then f maps every
isolated subset of X onto an isolated subset of X*.
Proof: Let E be an isolated subset of X. we shall prove that f(E) is an isolated subset of X* i.e. f(E) 
d(f(E)) = .
Let, be any point of f(E). Then there must exist a point x  E such that f(x) = x*. ( f is oneone)
Now x  E and e is isolated so x  d(E). Thus there exist an open set G containing x such that
E  G  {x} = 
Now since f is a homeomorphism and G is an open subset of G so f(G) is an open subset of X *. Also x
G
 f(x) = x*  f (G).
From the fact that f is one to one and onto so it follows that
f() = 
 f[E  G  {x}] = 
 f(E)  f(G)  x* = 
 x* is not a limit point of a f(E). But x* is an arbitrary point of f(E). Thus no point of f(E) is limit
point of f(E).
 f (E)  d(f (E)) = 

Hence f (E) is an isolated subset of x*.
3.5. Key words: Continuous function, inverse image, open mapping, closed mapping, homeomorphism.
3.6. Summary: In this chapter, we have learnt that:
 If (X, ) and (X*, *) are topological spaces. A mapping f: X  X* is said to be continuous at
point x  X if and only if for every open set G* containing f(x) there exist an open set G in X
containing x such that f(G)  G*.
 Properties of continuous function as:
Let (X, ) and (X*, *) be topological spaces and f: X  X* be a mapping. Then the following
conditions are equivalent to continuity of f in X.
(i) inverse image of every open set in X* is an open set in X.
(ii) inverse image of every closed set in X* is an closed set in X.
(iii) f(C(E))  C* (f(E), where C(E) denote the closure of E in X, C*(f(E)) is closure of f(E) in
X*  E  X.
(iv) inverse image of every member of base of X* is an open set in X.
(v) inverse image of every member of a subbase of X* is an open set in X.
 A mapping is an open mapping if and only if the image of every open set is an open set. Such
maps are also called interior maps.
 A mapping is closed if and only if image of every closed set is closed set.
 Properties of open and closed mappings as:
(i) A mapping f: X  X* is open if and only if f(iE)  i*(f(E)) for every E  X where i denotes
interior in X and i* that in X*.
(ii) A mapping: X  X* is closed if and only if C*(f(E))  f(C(E)) for all E  X, where C and C*
stands for closure in X and X* respectively.
(iii) Let (X, ) and (X*, *) be two topological spaces and let the mapping f: X  X* be open
and onto. If  is a base for , then prove that {f(B);B  } is a base for *.
 A mapping f: X  X* is called a homeomorphism if and only if f is one to one, onto, continuous
and open. Or a mapping f: X  X* is called a homeomorphism if and only if f is one to one, onto
and bicontinuous (i.e. both f and f1 are continuous).
Chapter– 4 | Connectedness
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Separated set
4.3 Connected set
4.4. Component
4.5 Connectedness on the real line
4.6 Locally connected space
4.7 Key words
4.8 Summary
4.0. Introduction: The concept of connectedness was developed by Lennes in 1911 and Hausdroff in
1914. The definition of connected for a topological space is a quite natural one. One says that a space
can be “separated” if it can be broken up into “globs”- disjoint open sets. Otherwise, one says that it is
connected. Connectedness is a useful property for a space to posses. But for some purposes, it is
important that the space satisfy a connectedness condition locally. In this chapter, we will study the
topics connectedness, components and local connectedness.
 Understand the concept of separation and connectedness in topology.
 Analysis the properties of connectedness .
 Know what connectedness of real line is.
 Learn about components and local connectedness.
4.2. Separated set
Definition 4.2.1. Two subsets A and B are said to be form a separation of a set E in a topological space
(X, ) if and only if
E=AB; A  , B   , A  B =  , A  B  
In other words, we say that E is separated and write A | B.

4.3. Connected set
Definition 4.3.1: A set E in a topological space (X, ) is said to be connected or E is connected if
and only if E is not separated in X. Clearly an equivalent formulation of this definition is that a set is
connected if and only if whenever
E = A  B ; A  , B   then either A  B  , A  B  
Remark 4.3.2: The two requirements A  B   and A  B   in the definition of a separated set are
sometimes replaced by a single condition
( A  B )  ( A  B)   .
This condition known as Hausdorff -Lennes separation condition.

Also, a set E is connected if whenever E = A  B ; A  , B   then ( A  B )  ( A  B)  .
Examples 4.3.3: (i)  is connected in every topological space

(ii) Singleton set {x} is connected.
(iii) In case of discrete topological space, the set consisting of at least two points are not connected. For,
if
E = {x, y}, then E = {x}  {y} where {x}  , {y}  .
Also, {x}  { y}  {x}  { y}  
{x }  { y}  {x}  { y}  
Hence E is separated i.e. E is not connected.

Theorem 4.3.4: Let E be a subset of a subspace of (X*, *) of a topological space (X, ), then E is
*connected if and only if E is connected.
Proof: Suppose that E = A  B where A  , B  , then A, B  X*  X
Now ( A  B* )  ( A*  B)  [ A  ( X *  B )  [( A  X * )  B]
= [( A  X * )  B ]  [ A  ( X *  B)]
= ( A  B )  ( A  B) [ A, B  X*]
where A* and A are closure of A with respect to * and  respectively.
Now E is *connected if and only if ( A  B* )  ( A*  B)   .
if and only if ( A  B )  ( A  B)  
if and only if E is connected.

Definition 4.3.5: A topological space (X, ) is connected if X is connected as a subset of X.
Theorem 4.3.6: If C is connected subset of a topological space (X, ), which has a separate X = A | B,
then either C  A or C  B.
Proof: Since X = A | B so,
X = A  B: A   ; A  B = , A  B = 
Now C=CX
66 Connectedness
= C  (A  B)
= (C  A)  (C  B)
and (C  A)  (C  B )  A  B = 
(C  A)  (C  B)  A  B = 
If C  A   and C  B  , then C  A and C  B form a separation of C but since C is connected so

it cannot be separated. Therefore either C  A =  or C  B = 
 CXA or CXB
 CB or CA
Corollary 4.3.7: If C is connected in a topological space (X, ) and C  E  C , then E is connected. In
particular, C is connected.
Proof: Let, if possible, E is not connected, then it must have a separation E = A | B i.e.
E = A  B ; A  , B   ; A  B = , A  B   .
Now C  E and E has separation A | B, so by Theorem 4.3.6,

CA or CB
 CA or CB
 E A or E B [ E C ]
If E  A, then EB A B=
 EB=
 (A  B)  B = 
 B = , which is a contradiction.
Similarly if E  B , then we get A = .
Thus we get a contradiction in both cases.
Hence E must be connected. In particular, if E = C , then C is connected.
Corollary 4.3.8: If every two points of a set E are contained in some connected subset of E, then E must
be connected.
Proof: Let, if possible, E is not connected, then it must have a separation E = A | B i.e.
E = A  B ; A  , B   ; A  B = , A  B = 
Choose a  A and b  B, then by hypothesis {a, b} is contained in some connected subset say C of E.
Since C is connected subset of E and E = A | B, so by Theorem 4.3.6.
either CA or CB

i.e. either {a, b}  A or {a, b}  B
which is not possible since A  B  A  B = . Thus E has to be connected.
Corollary 4.3.9: The union E of any family {C} of connected sets having a nonempty intersection is a
connected set.
Proof: Suppose E = C and let, if possible, E is not connected, then it must have a separation E = A |

B i.e. E = A  B ; A  , B   ; A  B = , A  B = .
Since C  , there exists a point x  C

 
 x  A or x  B.
Without loss of generality, suppose x  A. Since x  A. Since x  C for each , so
C  A   for each .
Now a connected set C is contained in a separated set E = A | B, so by Theorem 4.3.6,
C  A or C  B.
But since A and B are disjoint sets, we must have C  A for each .
 C  A

 EA
 ABA
 B=
This is a contradiction. Hence E is connected.
Corollary 4.3.10: If {C} is a family of connected subsets of a topological space such that no two are
mutually disjoint, then C is connected.

Proof: Suppose C is not connected, then it must be separated.


Let C = A  B where A  , B   ; A  B = , A  B = 

By corollary 4.3.9, the union of any family of connected sets having a nonempty intersection is a
connected set. Now let C1 and C2 be any two members of the given family, then by hypothesis C1 
C2   and by above mentioned result C1  C2 is connected
68 Connectedness
C1  C2  C = A  B

But C1  C2 is connected and A | B forms a separation of C so,


C1  C2  A or C1  C2  B.
This holds for every pair of indices 1 and 2. Thus C is contained in A or B. This implies that

either B =  or A = ,
which is a contradiction.
Hence C is connected.

Theorem 4.3.11: Show that any separation of a topological space must be into two nonempty disjoint
sets which are both open and closed.
Proof: Let X = A | B be any separation i.e.
X = A  B ; A  , B   ; A  B = , A  B  
We shall show that A and B are both open and closed.
Now we know that A A
 AB A B=
 AB=
and X = A  B, A  B = 
implies that B=XA (1)
Again, A A
 A  B  A B
 X A B
But A B  X
 A B=X
and X = A  B, A B=
implies that B=X A (2)
By (1) and (2):
XA=X A
 A= A
 A is closed.
and then (1) shows that B is open. Similarly, we can show that A is open and B is closed.
Theorem 4.3.12: A topological space (X, ) is connected if and only if there exists no nonempty
proper subsets of X which are both open and closed.
Proof: Suppose (X, ) is connected, then we want to show that there exist no nonempty proper subsets
of X which are both open and closed.
On the contrary, suppose that A  X, A  , A  X such that A is both open and closed.
Put B = X  A. Then B is also both open and closed.
Thus, X = A  B ; A  , B   ; A  B = A  B = 
[ A and B are closed, so A  A and B  B ]
and A  B  A B   .
This implies that X is separated which is a contradiction. Hence there exist no nonempty proper subsets
of X which are both open and closed.
Conversely, suppose that there is no nonempty proper subset of X which is both open and closed. We
shall prove that X is connected. Let, if possible, X is not connected, then it must be separated and let
X = A  B ; A  , B   ; A  B = , A  B = 
Now we know that A A
 AB A B=
 AB=
and X = A  B, A  B = 
Again, A A
 AB A B
 X  AB
But AB  X
 AB  X
and X  AB , A B  

By (1) and (2), we have
XA= X A
 A A
70 Connectedness
 A is closed.
and then (1) shows that B is open. By the same arguments, we can show that A is open and B is closed.
So we obtain nonempty proper subsets A and B of X which are both open and closed which is
contradiction to the hypothesis. Hence X is connected.
Corollary 4.3.13: A topological space X is connected if and only if X is not the union of two
nonempty disjoint open sets.
Proof: Suppose X is connected. Let if possible,
X = A  B where A  , B   and A and B are both disjoint open sets.
So B = X  A.
Since A is open, B is closed. But B is given to be open, so we have a nonempty proper subset B of X
which is both open and closed. By Theorem 4.3.12, X must be separated, a contradiction. So X is not
the union of two nonempty disjoint open sets.
Conversely, Suppose that X is not the union of two nonempty disjoint open sets. We want to show that
X is connected. Let, if possible, X is separated and let
X = A  B ; A  , B   ; A  B = , A  B = 
Now, since A A
 AB A B
 X  A  B.
But A BX
 A B=X
and X = A  B, A  B = 
which implies that B=X A
So, B is open since A is closed. Similarly, we can show that A is open. Also
AB A B=
 AB=
Thus X is the union of two nonempty disjoint open sets which is a contradiction to the hypothesis.
Hence X must be connected.
Corollary 4.3.14: A topological space X is connected if and only if X is not the union of two
nonempty disjoint closed sets.
Proof: Suppose X is connected. Let, if possible, X = A  B where A  , B   and A and B are both
disjoint open sets.
So B = X  A. Since A is closed, B is open. But B is given to be closed, so we have a nonempty proper

subset B of X which is both open and closed. By Theorem 4.3.12, X must be separated, a contradiction.
So X is not the union of two nonempty disjoint closed sets.
Conversely, suppose that X is not the union of two nonempty disjoint closed sets. We want to show
that X is connected. Let, if possible, X is separated and let
X = A  B ; A  , B   ; A  B = , A  B  
Now since, A A
 AB A B=
 AB=
and X = A  B, A  B = 
which implies that B=XA (1)
Again, A A
 AB A B
 X  A  B.
But A BX
 A B=X
And X = A  B, A  B = 
Which implies that B=X A (2)
By (1) and (2):
XA=X A
 A= A
 A is closed.
Similarly, we can show that B is closed. Thus X is the union of two nonempty disjoint closed sets
which is a contradiction to the hypothesis. Hence X must be connected.
Example 4.3.15: Show that the space X is connected, where X = {s, t, u}
And topology is  = {, {s}, {t}, {s, t}, X}
Solution: A topological space is connected if and only if there exist no nonempty proper subsets of X
which are both open and closed.
Open sets in X are: , {s}, {t}, {s, t}, X
Closed sets in X are:  X, {t, u}, {s, u}, {u}, 
72 Connectedness
Therefore, there is no nonempty proper subsets of X which is both open and closed.
Hence X is connected.
Theorem 4.3.16: If (X, ) is a topological space and * is any other topology on X such that *  ,
then
(i) If (X, ) is connected, then (X, *) is connected.
(ii) If (X, *) is separated, then, then (X, ) is separated.
Proof: (i) If (X, ) is connected, then there is no nonempty proper subset of X which is both open and
closed. But open subsets of (X, *) are also open subsets in (X, ). Hence we can say that there is no
open subset of (X, *) which is both open and closed. Hence (X, *) is connected.
(ii) (X, *) is separated. Let if possible (X, ) be connected then by part (i), (X, *) should be
connected. This is a contradiction and hence (X, ) is separated.
Theorem 4.3.17: If a connected set C has a nonempty intersection with both a set E and the
complement of E in a topological space (X, ), then C has a nonempty intersection with the boundary
of E
Or
If C is connected subset of a topological space (X, ) such that C  E   and C  (X  E)   where E
 X, then C  b(E)  
Proof: Suppose C  b(E) = ,
then
C  C  X  C  [ E  ( X  E )]  (C  E )  (C  ( X  E )] and
given that C  E   and C  (X  E)  
Now, (C  E )  C  ( X  E )  (C  E )  X  E  C  ( E  X  E )  C  b( E )  
And [C  ( X  E )]  C  E  C  X  E  E  C  ( X  E  E )  C  b( E )  
Hence we have C  C  E | C  ( X  E)
 C is separated, which is a contradiction.

Hence C  b(E)  .
Theorem 4.3.18: If f is continuous mapping (X, ) into (X*, *) then f maps every connected subset of
X into a connected subset of X*.
Proof: Suppose E is a connected subset of X. We shall show that f (E) is a connected subset of X*.
Suppose f(E) is not connected in X*. Put f(E) = E* so E* must have a separation say
A*
E = * where A*  , B*  , A*  B* =  and both of them open as well as closed.
*
B
Let A = f1(A*)  E  
and B = f1(B*)  E   [Since A*   and B*  ]
A  B  ( f 1 ( A* )  E )  ( f 1 ( B* )  E )  f 1 ( A* )  f 1 ( B* )  E
= f 1 ( A*  B* )  E   [ A*  B*   ]
But A and B are both open and closed sets in E since f1(A*) and f1(B*) are both open and closed in X
and
A  B  ( f 1 ( A* )  E )  ( f 1 ( B* )  E )  [ f 1 ( A* )  f 1 ( B* )]  E
= f 1 ( A*  B* )  E  f 1 (E * )  E  E
A
Thus E has a separation E = , which is a contradiction since E is connected. Thus our supposition is
B
wrong. Hence f(E) is connected.
4.4. Component: A maximal connected subset of a topological space is called a component of the
topological space. Maximal connected subset means connected subset which is not properly contained in
any other connected set.
Example 4.4.1: Let X = { s, t, u } and  = {, { s }, { t }, { s, t }, { s, u }, X}.
Find all the components of (X, ).
Solution: Let us first find all connected sets of X. Since empty set and singleton sets are always
connected, thus  {s}, {t}, {u} are connected.
Now { s, t } = { s }  { t }
i.e. { s, t } is the union of two nonempty disjoint open sets, hence { s, t } is not connected. Again
{ t, u } = { t }  { u }
where {t} and { u } are both nonempty disjoint closed sets, so { t, u } is not connected.
But, { s, u } cannot be written as union of two nonempty open sets, so { s, u } is connected.
So the connected sets are:
, { s }, { t }, { u }, { s, u }
Here, , { s }, { u } are contained in the connected set { s, u }. But { t } and { s, u } are not contained in
any other connected set. Hence component are { t } and { s, u }.
Example 4.4.2. In a discrete space, every singleton set is a component.
Remark 4.4.3: A connected topological space has only one component namely the space itself.
74 Connectedness
Theorem 4.4.4: Every component of a topological space is closed.
Proof: Let C be any component, then C is connected so C is also connected. But C is component so
C C
 C= C [ C C]
Hence component C is closed.
Theorem 4.4.5: Every element of X is contained in exactly one component.
Proof: Let x be any arbitrary point of X and let {C } be the collection of all the connected subsets of X
which contain x. Let C = C and we shall prove that C is the only component which contain x. Since

x  C for all , so
C  

and so C = C is a connected set because union of a family of


connected sets having nonempty intersection is connected.

Also x  C clearly.
We claim that C is maximal. Let A be any connected set such that C  A.
Then xA
and so A is one of the member of the family {C }
and therefore A  C,
which implies that A = C.
Hence C is a component.
Now to prove that C is the only component containing x.
Let D be the any other component containing x.
Then since D is a connected set containing x,
so D  C.
since D is a component and this is contained in a connected set.
So, D = C,
Theorem 4.4.6: Every connected subset of X is contained in a component of X.
Proof: Let A be a connected subset of X. If A = , then it is contained in every component. If A  , let
C be the union of all connected subsets of X containing A i.e.
C =  {C: C is connected and A  C}
Then clearly A  C and also C being the union of connected sets having nonempty intersection is
connected.
Now we claim that C is a maximal connected set i.e. component.
Let D be any connected set such that C  D.
Then A  D, so D is a connected set containing A.
But C was union of all such sets so D  C.
Hence C = D and so C is a component.
Theorem 4.4.7: The components of topological space (X, ) forms a partition of X.
Proof: To prove that components form a partition of X, we have to prove two things:
(i) Any two components are either disjoint or identical.
(ii) Union of all the components is X.
Suppose A and B be two non empty components. If A and B are disjoint, then there is nothing to prove.
If A and B are not disjoint, then we shall prove that A = B. Now A and B are connected sets and A  B
 , therefore A  B is also connected, since we know that union of connected sets having nonempty
intersection is connected. Now we have:
A  A  B , B  A  B.
But A and B are components and A  B is connected, so we get:
A = A  B, B = A  B
 A = B.
Now it remains to prove that union of all components is equal to X.
Let us consider C =  {C: C is connected and A  C}
Then clearly C  X.
Now let x be any arbitrary point. We know that every point of X is contained in exactly one component
of X, therefore,  a component, say C, such that x  C0 .
Then x  C0  C  C

 xC
 XC
So we obtain, X = C i.e., X is union of all components of X.
Hence components of topological space (X, ) forms a partition of X.
76 Connectedness
Theorem 4.4.8: Each non empty connected subset of topological space (X, ) which is both open and
closed is a component of X.
Proof: Let A( ) be a connected subset of X which is both open and closed. Since, every connected
subset of a topological space is contained in some component, therefore there exist a component C of X
such that A  C.
We claim that A = C.
Let if possible, A  C, then A is a proper subset of C.
Then, (X  A)  C   and
we write:
C = [A  C]  [(XA)  C]
where A  C   and (XA)  C  .
Further, we note that A is both open and closed, so XA is also both open and closed. Also, we know
that a component is always a closed set.
So C is closed and then A  C and (XA)  C are also closed sets because arbitrary intersection of
closed sets is a closed set.
Now ( A  C )  [( X  A)  C ]  A  C  ( X  A)  C [ A  C is closed]
= A  ( X  A)  C    C  
and ( A  C )  ( X  A)  C  A  C  ( X  A)  C [ (XA)  C is closed]
= A  ( X  A)  C    C  
Hence C is a separated set which is a contradiction.

Therefore we must have A = C which implies that A is a component since C is a component.
Theorem 4.4.9: A topological space is connected if and only if every non empty proper subset has a non
empty boundary.
Proof: Suppose that every non empty proper subset has a non empty boundary. We shall prove that X is
connected. Let, if possible X is not connected, then  a non empty proper subset A of X which is both
open and closed and open, then A  A = A.
Further, b(A) = A  A = AA = , which is a contradiction to hypothesis.
Hence, X is connected.
Conversely, Suppose X is connected. Let A be any non empty proper subset of X.
We shall prove that b(A) = , then A  A  b( A)  A    A
 A is closed
and A=Ab(A) = A= A

 A is open.
Thus we obtain a non empty proper subset A of X is not connected, which is a contradiction, so
b(A)  .
4.5. Connectedness on the real line: Before approaching towards the main Theorem, first we have
the definition of an interval and define a very important topology called usual topology on X.
Interval 4.5.1: A subset E of R is called an interval if it has a property that whenever x,y  E and x  z
 y, then z  E.
Remark 4.5.2: By above definition, it is clear that  and singleton subsets are intervals.
Theorem 4.5.3: A subset E of R is connected if and only if it has a property that if x  E, y  E and x <
z < y, then z  E.
or
A subset E or R is connected if and only if it is an interval.
Proof: Suppose E is connected subset of R. If E is a singleton or , there is nothing to prove.
So let E contains more than one point and suppose that if possible that E is not an interval i.e. E
does not satisfy the given property. Then  a real number x, y, z such that
x < z < y and x, y  E but z  E.
Then, E = [E  (,z)]  [E (z, )]
Now x < z < y, so x  E (, z) and y [E (z, )].
Therefore [E (,z)]   and [E (z, )  .
Also we have
( E  (, z ))[ E  (, z )]  [ E  ( z, )]  (, z )  ( z, )
 (, z )  ( z, )  
( E  (, z ))  ( E  (, z ))  (, z )  ( z, )  (, z )  ( z, )  
Thus E is separated, but E is given to be connected.

Hence E must be an interval.
Conversely, suppose E is an interval. We shall show that E is connected.
Let, if possible, E is not connected then
E = A/B
i.e. E = A  B, A  B, B  , A  B   , A  B   .
78 Connectedness
Choose x  A and y  B. Since A  B =  so x  y, without loss of generality, assume that x < y.

Let z = Sup( A [ x, y ] ).
Evidently x  z  y. Now by definition of supremum, for given  > 0,  an element z'  A  [ x, y ]
such that z < z'. Since z'  A  [ x, y ] and z is supremum of A  [x,y], we have z'  z. So, we
obtain z < z'  z.
This shows that every neighbourhood of z contains a point of A  [ x, y ] and hence a point of A and so
z become an adherent point of A i.e. z  A .
Then zB [ A  B   ].
So, we obtain x  z < y.

Now we distinguish two cases:
Case (i): If z  A, then x  z [ x  A] and so we have x < z < y. Also since x  A, z  B.
 zAB
 z  E which is a contradiction to the hypothesis.
Case (ii): If z  A, then z  B [ A  B = ]
 z is not an adherent point of B
  a neighbourhood of z, say (z, z+) which does not contain any point
of B.
Further we can choose this neighbourhood so small that z +y. Now z' be any point such that z < z' <
z+. Then z < z' < y.
Also x  z, so we have x < z < z' < y
 x < z' < y.
We note that z'  ( z, z +  ) and this neighbourhood do not contain any point of B, so z'  B.
Also z' > z = sup ( A [ x, y ] )
 z'  A.
This implies that z'(A  B) = E, which gives a contradiction to the hypothesis.
Hence we arrive at a contradiction in both cases. Therefore E must be connected.
Corollary 4.5.4: The real line R is connected.
Proof: If x, y  R and x < z < y, then clearly z  R. Hence R satisfies the property of being an interval.
Now reproduce the proof of converse part of Theorem 4.5.3. with E replaced by R.
Corollary 4.5.6: [ a, b ], [ a, b ), ( a, b ] are all connected.
Proof: As all of these are intervals so by Theorem 4.5.4, all these are connected.
4.6. Locally Connected Spaces: A topological space (X, ) is said to be locally connected at a point x
if and only if every open neighbourhood of x contains a connected open neighbourhood of x.
The topological space X is said to be locally connected if and only if it is locally connected at each of its
points.
A subset of a space is called locally connected if and only if it is a locally connected space in its induced
topology.
Example 4.6.1: Every discrete space is locally connected. Let x be an arbitrary point of a discrete space
X containing more than one point. Since every subset of a discrete space is open and every singleton set
is connected. Thus every open neighbourhood of x contains a connected open neighbourhood {x} of x.
Hence X is locally connected.
Example 4.6.2: Give two Examples of locally connected spaces which are not connected.
(1) Let X be a discrete space containing more than one point. Then X is not connected since there exists
nonempty proper subsets of X which are both open and closed. Also by above Example X is locally
connected.
(2) Let y be the union of two disjoint open intervals on the real line i.e.
Y = (a, b)  (c, d), a < b  c < d.
Then Y as a subspace of (R, U) is locally connected but not connected. Since (a, b) and (c, d) are open in
R, they are also open in Y. Thus Y is the union of two nonempty disjoint open set, therefore Y is not
connected.
To show that Y is locally connected, let x  Y. Then we can find an  > 0 such that (x,x+)  Gx.
But (x,x+) is connected in R and hence connected in Y. Thus every open neighbourhood of x in y
contains an open connected neighbourhood of x in y and therefore Y is locally connected.
Example 4.6.3: Give two Examples of spaces which are connected by not locally connected.
(1) Let Y = A  B
where A = {(x, 0)  R2 ; 0  x  1}} and

B = {(x, y)  R2 ; 0  y  1, x = 0 or x = or some n  N}
n
The set Y is pictured in figure. It consists of infinitely many vertical segments of unit length, including a
segment on the yaxis and a horizontal segment along the xaxis.
We define the relative topology on Y which is induced by the usual topology on the plane R 2. We call
this space Y as ‘Comb Space’.
Now it can be easily seen that Y is connected. We see that each of the vertical segment is connected and
meets the horizontal segment A which is also connected. So, we can say that Y is connected.
80 Connectedness
We shall show now that Y is not locally connected. It is sufficient to show that Y is not locally
 1 1
connected at a point of Y. Let us consider the point  0,  and radius in Y with usual metric. Then V
 2 4
 1
will consists of the portions of the vertical segments. Thus V is open neighbourhood of  0,  which
 2
 1
does not contain any connected open neighbourhood of  0,  because vertical portions of V are not
 2
 1
connected. Hence Y is not locally connected at the point  0,  .
 2
(2) Consider a subspace Y of the Eucliean space i.e. plane R2 defined by
Y = A  B, where A = {(0, y): y  (1, 1)]}
1
B = {(x, y): x  [0, 1], y = sin }. The figure of Y can be given as below:
x
 1
Consider a mapping f: [0, 1]  R2 defined by f(x) =  x,sin  . Evidently the function of is continuous
 x
and f([0, 1]) = B. Now, we know that the intervals are connected subsets of reals and continuous image
of a connected subsets is connected, so B must be connected. Now we prove that every point of A is a
limit point of B. Let x  A be any arbitrary point. We see that every open neighbourhood of x contains
an infinite number of points of B. (It can be easily seen from figure). Similarly every point of B is also a
limit point of B. Hence d(B) = A  B. Now we know that
B  B  d ( B)  B  ( A  B)  A  B  Y
But B is connected, so B is also connected. Thus Y is connected.
 1
However Y is not locally connected. Let us consider the point  0,  . Let V be the open ball centre at
 2
 1 1
 0,  and radius 4 in Y with usual metric. Then V will consist of portions of the sine curve and a line
 2
segment on yaxis. It is clear that these portions are not connected. Thus V is an open neighbourhood of
 1  1
 0,  which does not contain any connected open neighbourhood of  0,  . Hence Y is not locally
 2  2
 1
connected at  0,  .
 2
Thus we have shown that Y is a connected space but not locally connected.
Theorem 4.6.4: Every open subspace of a locally connected space is locally connected.
Proof: Let (X, ) be any locally connected space and (X*, *) be its open subspace i.e. X* is open in X
or X*   and * is induced topology. We shall prove that (X*, *) is a locally connected topological
space.
Let x  X* be any arbitrary point. Let G be any *open neighbourhood of x. We shall show that
there exist a *point and connected neighbourhood of x which is contained in G. We know that every
open subset of X*en in X if and only if X* is open in X. So, G is also open neighbourhood of x. But X
is locally connected so there exists a neighbourhood H which is connected and open such that x  H
 G.
Now we know that any set is connected if it is *connected. So, H is also *connected. Further H
 G  X* and H is *open, so H  X* = H is *open.
Hence H is a *-open connected neighbourhood of x which is contained in G. Therefore x * is locally,
connected at x which was a arbitrary point of X*. Hence X* is locally connected.
Theorem 4.6.5: Every component of a locally connected space is an open set.
Proof: Let (X, ) be any locally connected space and c be any component of X. We shall show that C is
an open set.
Let x  C be any point. Now x  C  X, so X is an open set containing X. But X is given to be locally
connected, so there must exist an open connected neighbourhood, say Gx, such that x  Gx  X
Now, Gx is a connected subset containing x and C is a component containing x, so we must have:
x  Gx  C
 {x}  Gx  C
xc xc
 C= Gx
xc
 C is open.
Theorem 4.6.6: A topological space X is locally connected if and only if the components of every open
subspace of X are open in x.
Proof: First suppose that components of every open subspace of X are open in x. We shall prove that X
is locally connected. Let x  X be any point and Y is a open neighbourhood of x. Now, we know that
every point a topological space is contained in some component, so if we consider Y as a subspace of X,
there must exists a component Cx in Y such that x  C. But C is component in Y which is a open
subspace of X, so by hypothesis, C is open in X. Also C is connected in X since it is connected in Y.
Hence C is an open connected neighbourhood of x such that x  C  Y. Hence X is a locally connected
at x which was arbitrarily chose, so X is locally connected.
Conversely, let X be locally connected space. Let Y be any open subspace of X and C a component of
Y. We shall prove that C is open in X. Let x  C be any point. Now, x  C  Y and Y is an open subset
82 Connectedness
of X. Y is an open neighbourhood of x and X is locally connected, so there exist a connected open
neighbourhood of x s.t.
x  Gx  Y
Now, Gx is connected in X implies that Gx is connected in Y. We see that Gx is a connected subset of Y
containing x and C is a component of Y containing x, we must have
x  Gx  C
 {x}  Gx  C
xc xc
 C= Gx
xc
An arbitrary union of open sets is open so C is open in X.

4.7. Key words: Separation, connected, component, interval, locally connected.
4.8. Summary: In this chapter, we have learned that
 Two subsets A and B are form a separation of a set E in a topological space (X, ) if and only if
E=AB; A  , B   , A  B =  , A  B  
 A set E in a topological space (X, ) is connected or E is connected if and only if E is not
separated in X.
 Properties of connectedness
(i) If E is a subset of a subspace of (X*, *) of a topological space (X, ), then E is
*connected if and only if E is connected.
(ii) If C is connected subset of a topological space (X, ), which has a separate X = A | B,
then either C  A or C  B.
(iii) If C is connected set in a topological space (X, ) and C  E  C , then E is connected.
In particular, C is connected.
(iv) If every two points of a set E are contained in some connected subset of E, then E must
be connected.
(v) The union E of any family {C} of connected sets having a nonempty intersection is a
connected set.
(vi) If {C} is a family of connected subsets of a topological space such that no two are
mutually disjoint, then C is connected.

(vii) Any separation of a topological space must be into two nonempty disjoint sets which
are both open and closed.
(viii) A topological space (X, ) is connected if and only if there exists no nonempty proper
subsets of X which are both open and closed.
(ix) A topological space X is connected if and only if X is not the union of two nonempty
disjoint open sets.
(x) A topological space X is connected if and only if X is not the union of two nonempty
disjoint closed sets.
(xi) (X, ) is a topological space and * is any other topology on X such that *  , then if
(X, ) is connected or separated, then (X, *) is connected or separated respectively.
(xii) If a connected set C has a nonempty intersection with both a set E and the complement
of E in a topological space (X, ), then C has a nonempty intersection with the
boundary of E.
(xiii) If f is continuous mapping (X, ) into (X*, *) then f maps every connected subset of X
into a connected subset of X*.
 Component: A maximal connected subset of a topological space is component of the topological
space. Maximal connected subset means connected subset which is not properly contained in any
other connected set.
 Properties of component:
(i) Every component of a topological space is closed.
(ii) Every element of X is contained in exactly one component.
(iii) Every connected subset of X is contained in a component of X.
(iv) The components of topological space (X, ) form a partition of X.
(v) Each non empty connected subset of topological space (X, ) which is both open and
closed is a component of X.
 A subset E or R is connected if and only if it is an interval.
 The real line R and [ a, b ], [ a, b ), ( a, b ] are all connected.
 Locally Connected Spaces: A topological space (X, ) is said to be locally connected at a point
x if and only if every open neighbourhood of x contains a connected open neighbourhood of x.
 The topological space X is said to be locally connected if and only if it is locally connected at
each of its points.
 Properties of locally connected space:
(i) A subset of a space is called locally connected if and only if it is a locally connected
space in its induced topology.
(ii) Every open subspace of a locally connected space is locally connected.
(iii) Every component of a locally connected space is an open set.
(iv) A topological space X is locally connected if and only if the components of every open
subspace of X are open in x.
(v) No direct relation between locally connectedness and connectedness.
Chapter– 5 | Compactness
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Compact space
5.3 Compactness in term of finite intersection property
5.4. Continuity and compact sets
5.5 Countably and sequentially compact space
5.6 Locally compact space
5.7 One point compactification
5.8 Key words
5.9 Summary
5.0. Introduction: The concept of compactness is not so natural as that of connectedness. In topology of
real number a compact set means closed and bounded. But for a long time, it was not clear how this
property should be formulated for an arbitrary topological space. Later, mathematician realized that this
formulation does in term of open coverings of the space. Paul Alexandroff and Heinrich Tietze
independently introduced the concept of local compactness. In this chapter, we will study the topics
compact space, compactness in term of finite intersection property, continuity of compact set, basic
properties of compactness, sequentially and countable compact sets, local compactness and one point
compactification.
 Understand the concept of compactness.
 Define compactness in term of finite intersection property.
 Learn about countably compact, sequentially compact and locally compact.
 Know what one point compactification is.
5.2. Compact space
Definition 5.2.1. (Covering of a set): Let E by any set. A collection of sets {A} is said to be a
covering of E if
E A

Definition 5.2.2. (Open covering): Let E by any set of a topological space (X, ) and {A} be a
covering of E. If all the sets of collection {A} are open, then this is called open covering of E.
Definition 5.2.3. (Finite subcover): Let E be any set of a topological space (X, ). A covering {A}
of E is said to be reducible to a finite subcover if there exists a finite subfamily of {A} which itself is
a covering of E.
Definition 5.2.4. (Compact set): A subset E of a topological space (X, ) is said to be compact if every
open covering of E is reducible to a finite subcovering of E.
Example 5.2.5.
(1) If X is a finite set and  is a topology on X, then (X, ) is compact.
(2) If X an infinite set and  is the discrete topology on X, then (X, ) is not compact.
(3) The real line is not compact, since {(n, n), n  N} is an open cover which has no finite
subcover.
Theorem 5.2.6: Let (X, ) be a topological space and (X*, *) be its subspace. A subset E of X* is
*compact if and only if E is compact.
Proof: Firstly suppose that E is *compact. Let {G} be any open cover of E. We have to show
that {G} has a finite subcovering.
Consider, E G

 EX  
G  X*
 E (G  X * ) [ E  X*]
Now since G is open, so G  X* is *open. Thus {G  X*} is a *open cover of E. But E is
*compact, so that {G  X*} is reducible to *open finite subcover, say {Gi  X *}in1 . Hence, we
have:
n
E (Gi  X * )
i 1
 n  n
=  Gi   X *  Gi
 i 1  i 1
n
 E Gi
i 1
Hence, {G} is reducible to finite subcover of E and hence E is compact.

Conversely, Suppose that E is compact. We have to show that E is *compact. For this, Let {G* }
be any *open cover of E. By the concept of open sets in relative topology, we have that for each ,
there exists a open set G such that
G*  G  X *
86 Compactness
Now,
E G*  (G  X * )  G  X *
 E G
Hence, {G} is a pen cover of E. But it is given that E is compact, so that {G} is reducible to a
open finite subcover, say {Gi }in1 . Hence, we have
n
E Gi
i 1
n
 E  X*  (Gi )  X *
i 1
n n
 E (Gi  X * ) = G*i
i 1 i 1
Hence {G* } is reducible to finite subcover of E and hence E is *compact.
Theorem 5.2.7: Every closed subset of a compact space is compact.

Proof: Let (X, ) be a compact topological pace and let E be closed subset of X. We have to show that
E is compact.
Let {G} be any open cover of E. Now since E is closed. X  E is open and the collection {{G},
X  E} forms an open cover of X. But it is given that X is compact so that this open cover is reducible to
a finite subcover of X i.e. we must have:
 n 
X   G   ( X  E )
 1 
 n 
 E   G 
 1 
Hence, {G} is reducible to finite subcover of E and hence E is compact.
5.3. Compactness in terms of finite intersection property:
Definition 5.3.1. (Finite intersection property): A family of subset is said to have finite intersection
property if every finite subfamily of the family has nonempty intersection.
Theorem 5.3.2: A topological space (X, ) is compact if and only if any family of closed sets having
finite intersection property has non empty intersection.
Proof: Firstly, let (X, ) be compact and let {F} be a family of closed sets having finite intersection
property. We have to show that this family has nonempty intersection i.e. F  .

On the contrary, let us suppose that, F = . Then, consider


X=X=X F = ( X  F )
 
Hence (X  F) forms an open cover of X. But X is given to be compact so that this cover must be
reducible to a finite subcover, say {X  Fi }in1 i.e.,
n
X= { X  Fi }
i 1
n
 XX=X { X  Fi }
i 1
n
 = Fi
i 1
i.e., we have found a finite subfamily of {F} with empty intersection. This contradicts the fact that the
family {F} has finite intersection property.
Hence F  .

Conversely, suppose that the given condition holds and let if possible X is not compact. So there exists
an open cover {G} of X which is not reducible to a finite subcover. Thus for every choice of finite
subfamily {Gi }in1 of {G}.
n
X Gi
i 1
n
 X Gi
i 1
n
  ( X  Gi )
i 1
Thus the family {X  G} of closed sets has finite intersection property, so, by given hypothesis, it must
have nonempty intersection i.e.
( X  G )  

 X G  

 X G

which is a contradiction, since {G} is a cover for X.

88 Compactness
Hence X must be compact.
5.4. Continuity and compact sets:
Theorem 5.4.1: Let f be a continuous mapping of a topological space (X, ) into (X*, *) and let E be a
compact subset of X. Show that f(E) is a compact subset of X*.
Or
Continuous image of a compact set in a topological space is compact.
Proof: Given that E is compact subset of X and we have to show f (E) is compact. Let {G* } be an open
cover of f (E) i.e. we have f (E)  G* (1)
Now, E  f 1 ( f ( E ))  f 1  G*  [By (1)]
= f 1 (G* )
Thus { f 1 (G* )} forms an open cover of E. But it is given that E is compact, so that this open cover must
be reducible to a finite subcover i.e.
n
E f 1 (G*i )
i 1
 n  n n
 f ( E )  f  f 1 (G*i )   f f 1 (G*i )  (G*i )
 i 1  i 1 i 1
5.5. Countably and Sequentially compact space

Definition 5.5.1(Countably compact set): Let (X, ) be any topological space. A subset E of X is said
to be countably compact if every infinite subset of E has atleast one limit point in E.
Theorem 5.5.2: Every compact subset of a topological space is countably compact set.
Proof: Let E be compact subset of a topological space (X, ). Let, if possible, E be not countably
compact. Then there exists an infinite subset A of E which has not limit point in E i.e., each point x  E,
is not a limit point of A. Thus, for x  E there exists an open set Gx containing x such that
A  Gx  {x} = 
Cleraly, A  Gx contains at most one point x itself. Thus the family {Gx}xE form an open covering E.
But E is compact, so there must be some finite subcovering i.e.,
n
E Gxi
i 1
Now, consider A=AE
 n  n
 A   Gxi   ( A  Gxi )
 i 1  i 1
which is union of sets each containing at most one point, so A is finite, a contradiction. Hence, a
compact subset of a topological space is countably cmpact set.
Definition 5.5.3.(Sequentially compact): A topological space (X, ) is said to sequentially compact if
every sequence in X has a subsequence that converges.
Remark 5.5.4: There is no direct relationship between compactness and sequential compactness.
5.6. Locally compact space
Definition 5.6.1.(Locally compact space): A topological space (X, ) is said to be locally compact if
each point of X is contained in a neighbourhood whose closure is compact.
Example 5.6.2: Show that a locally compact space need not be compact.
Solution: Consider any discrete topological space (X, ), where X is infinite. Then X is not compact,
since the collection of all singleton sets in an infinite open covering of X which has no finite subcover.
Now X is locally compact. For, let x  X, then {x} is a neighbourhood of x whose closure is {x}. Also
{x} is a compact subset of X, being finite. Hence every point of X has a neighbourhood whose closure
is compact. So, X is locally compact.
Theorem 5.6.3: Every closed subset of a locally compact space is locally compact.
Proof: Let (X, ) be locally compact space and let E be a closed subset of (X, ). We have to show that
E is locally compact. Let x be an arbitrary point of E, then x  X and X is locally compact, so there
exists an open neighbourhood Gx of x s.t. Gx is compact. Clearly Gx  E is a neighbourhood of x. Also,
Gx  E  Gx
 Gx  E  Gx
But Gx is compact, thus Gx  E is a closed subset of a compact space Gx and hence compact.
Now, Gx  E  E
 Gx  E  E  E [Because E is closed]
Thus Gx  E is compact subset of E i.e., we have obtained a neighbourhood of x, namely Gx  E

whose closure is compact. Hence E is locally compact.
Remark 5.6.4: The continuous image of locally compact space need not be locally compact.
Theorem 5.6.5: Let (X, ) be a locally compact topological space (X* , ) be a topological space and
let f: X  X* be an open continuous function from X onto X*. Then (X* , ) is locally compact.
Proof: Let x*  X* and x  f– 1(x*). But X is locally compact. There is an open set O and compact set C
such that x  O and O  C. Let U=f(i(C)) and C*=f(C). Since x  O  C and O is open, x  i(C).
90 Compactness
Since f is open, O is open set and x  i(C) , let x*  X*. Also f is continuous and C is compact, and we
know that continuous image of a compact space is compact, f(C)=C* is compact. But U  C*. Thus (X* ,
) is locally compact at x*. But x* is arbitrary point of X*.
Thus (X* , ) is locally compact.
5.7. One point compactification
Theorem 5.7.1: Let (X, ) be a topological space and let X* = X  {} where  is any object not
belonging to X. Let * consists of all those subsets of X* which are of the following type:
(i) U where U is an open subset of X.
(ii) X*  C where C is a closed compact subset of X.
Prove that * is a topology on X* i.e. (X*, *) is a topological space. Further this is a compact
topological space.
Proof: First, we show that * is a topology on X*. Clearly, empty set is of type (i) and the whole space
X* is a set of type (ii), hence both of these belong to *.
To show that finite intersection of element of * are in *. For this, we discuss the following
cases:
Case I: If U1 and U2 are open subsets of X, then U1  U2 also pen and hence is in *.
Case II: If the sets X*  C1 and X*  C1 and X*  C2 are of type (ii), then
(X*  C1)  (X*  C2) = X*  (C1  C2)
is also of type (ii) since if C1 and C2 are closed compact subset of X, then C1  C2 is also a closed
compact subset of X. Hence (X*  C1)  (X*  C2) is in *.
Case III: Let U1 is of type (i) and X*  C1 is of type (ii), then
U1  (X*  C1) = U1  (X  C1)
is of type (i) and hence is in *. [Because C1 is closed  X  C1 is open so that U1  (X  C1) is of
type (i)]
Now consider arbitrary union of members of * and we discuss the following cases:
Case I: Consider U  where U’s are open in X i.e. of type (i). Since arbitrary union of open sets of X

is open, so the set U = U  is open in X i.e. of type (i) and hence is in *.

Case II: Consider ( X *  C ) where C are closed compact subsets of X.


 
( X *  C ) = X *   C   X *  C
   
where C = C is closed and compact subset of X.


 
Case III: Consider (U  )   ( X *  C )   (U )  ( X *  C )  X *  (C  U )
   
which is of type (ii), since C  U is a closed subset of C and therefore compact since every closed subset
of a compact set is compact.
Thus (X*, *) is a topological space. Also every open set in (X, ) is open in (X*, *), since it is of type
(i). So (X, ) is a subspace of (X*, *).
Now to show that X* = X  {} is compact. Let C be the collection of open sets in X* covering X*.
Then some member of C must contain the element . That member must be of the type X*  C where C
is closed compact subset of X, since none of the open sets in X contain . Take all the members of C
different from X*  C and intersect them with X. They form a collection of open sets in X covering C.
But C is compact, so we must have a finite subcovering i.e.
n n
C ( X  Gi )  Gi
i 1 i 1
Then the class {X*  C, G1, G2, …, Gn} covers all of X* and since covering is finite, X* is compact.
Definition 5.7.2. (One point compactification): Let (X, ) be any topological space and let  be any
object not belonging to X. Let X* = X  {} which has the topology * whose members are of the
following type:
(i) U where U is an open subset of X.
(ii) X*  C, where C is closed compact subset of X.
Then the pair (X*, *) is called the one point compactfication (or Alexandroff compactification) of (X,
). The point  is called the point at infinity.
Definition 5.7.3. (Hausdorff space): A topological space (X, ) is said to be Hausdorff space if for
every pair of distinct points x, y of X there exists disjoint neighbourhood of x and y i.e., 
neighbourhoods N and M of x and y respectively N  M = .
Theorem 5.7.4: The one point compactification X* of a topological space X is a Hausdorff space if and
only if X is locally compact Hausdorff space.
Proof: Firstly, suppose that X is locally compact Hausdorff space. Let x and y be distinct points of X*. If
neither x nor y is equal to point , then these both belong to X and hence thse must be disjoint open sets
in X which contains them, since X is Hausdorff. These open sets are also open in X* as desired.
We now consider the case when one of the point say y is infinity and the other is in X. By the
locally compactness of X, there must be some open set G containing x s.t. G is compact and also closed,
since every compact subset of a Hausdorff space is closed. Thus X  G is an open set in X, whose
92 Compactness
complement is closed and compact in X. Now, by definition of one point compactfication, (X  G ) 

{} is an open set in X* containing  which is disjoint from G containing x. Thus X* is Hausdorff
space.
Conversely, suppose that X* is a Hausdorff space. Since X is a subspace of X* and we know that every
subspace of a Hausdorff space is Hausdorff. Thus X is a Hausdorff space.
Let x be a fixed point of X. Since x and  are distinct points of Hausdorff space X*, so, by definition,
there must exist disjoint open sets Gx* and G* in X* such that x  Gx* and   G* .
However, an open set containing  must be of the form G* = G  {}, where G is open in X
whose complement in X is compact. Since   Gx* so Gx* is an open set in X containing the point x
whose closure is contained in X  G and hence is compact. Hence X is locally compact and the proof is
completed.
Theorem 5.7.5: Every compact subset of a Hausdorff space is closed.
Proof: Let A be a compact subset of Hausdorff space (X, ). In order to show that A is closed, it is
sufficient to prove that X  A is open.
Let x be an arbitrary point of X  A. Then by T2axiom, for each y  A, there exist two disjoint
open sets Gx and Gy s.t. x  Gx and y  Gy. The family {Gy: y  A} is an open cover of A. Since A is
n
compact so this cover must reduce to a finite sub cover, say {Gyi }in1 s.t. A  G yi .
i 1
n
Let {Gxi }in1 be the corresponding open sets containing x. Let G = Gxi . Then G is an open set
i 1
containing x.
n n n
Also G= Gxi  ( X  G yi )  X  G yi  X  A
i 1 i 1 i 1
 xGXA
This implies that X  A is neighbourhood of each of its point since x was chosen arbitrarily. Thus X  A
is open hence A is closed.
Corollary 5.7.6: If f is oneone continuous map of the compact topological space X onto T2space X*,
then f is an open map and hence a homeomorphism.
Proof: Let G be an open set in X so that X  G is closed in X. Since a closed subset of a compact space
is compact so X  G is compact. Also f is continuous so f(X  G) is compact. Further f is onto so
f (X  G) = X*  F(G)
Therefore, X*  f(G) is compact subset of T2space X* so by above Theorem X*  f(G) is closed and
hence f(G) is open. Thus f is open mapping and hence, a homeomorphism keeping in mind that a
mapping is a homeomorphism if it is oneone, onto, continuous and open.
5.8. Key words: Open cover, compact, finite intersection property, countably compact, sequentially
compact, locally compact, one point compactifition.
 A subset E of a topological space (X, ) is compact if every open covering of E is reducible to a
finite subcovering of E.
 Let (X, ) be a topological space and (X*, *) be its subspace. A subset E of X* is *compact if
and only if E is compact.
 Properties of compactness:
(i) Every closed subset of a compact space is compact.
(ii) A topological space (X, ) is compact if and only if any family of closed sets having
finite intersection property has non empty intersection.
(iii) Continuous image of a compact set in a topological space is compact.
(iv) Every compact subset of a Hausdorff space is closed.
(v) If f is oneone continuous map of the compact topological space X onto T2space X*,
then f is an open map and hence a homeomorphism.
 Let (X, ) be any topological space. A subset E of X is countably compact if every infinite
subset of E has atleast one limit point in E.
 Every compact subset of a topological space is countably compact set.
 A topological space (X, ) is said to sequentially compact if every sequence in X has a
subsequence that converges.
 A topological space (X, ) is locally compact if each point of X is contained in a neighbourhood
whose closure is compact.
 Properties of locally compact:
(i) Every closed subset of a locally compact space is locally compact.
(ii) The continuous image of locally compact space need not be locally compact.
(iii) Let (X, ) be a locally compact topological space (X* , ) be a topological space and
let f: X  X* be an open continuous function from X onto X*. Then (X* , ) is locally
compact.
 Let (X, ) be any topological space and let  be any object not belonging to X. Let X* = X 
{} which has the topology * whose members are of the following type:
(a) U where U is an open subset of X.
(b) X*  C, where C is closed compact subset of X.
Then (X*, *) is called the one point compactfication (or Alexandroff compactification)
of (X, ). The point  is called the point at infinity.
 One point compactification (X*, *) is a topological space and is a compact topological space.
 The one point compactification X* of a topological space X is a Hausdorff space if and only if X
is locally compact Hausdorff space.
Chapter– 6 | Countability and Separation Axioms
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 First countable space
6.3 Second countable space
6.4. Separable space
6.5 T0separation axiom
6.8 Key words
6.9 Summary
6.0. Introduction: The concept of countability and separation axioms do not arise naturally from the
study of calculus and analysis. The equivalence of “Trennungsaxiomen” (German language) is
“Separation axioms”. The separation axioms are of various degrees of strengths and they called T0, T1,
T2 T3, and T4 axioms in ascending order of strength, T0 being the weakest separation axiom which is
introduced by A.N.Kolmogorov and T1 was introduced by Frechet in 1907. Hausdroff introduced T2
property in 1923. In this chapter we will study of first countable space, second countable space,
separable space ,T0, T1 and T2 – spaces and their characterization and basic properties.
 Understand the countable axioms: first and second countable space.
 Define separable space and relation with countable axioms.
 Learn about separation spaces: T0, T1 and T2.
 Explain characterizations for T0, T1 and T2.spaces.
6.2. First countable space
Definition 6.2.1. (Base at a point): Let (X, ) be a topological space. A nonempty collection
{Bn ( x)}nN of open sets containing x is called base at the point x if for every open set G containing x,
there exists n  N such that Bn(x)  G. The collection {Bn ( x)}nN is also called countable open base at x.
Definition 6.2.2. (First countable space or First axiom space): A topological space is called first
countable space if each point of space possesses a countable base.
Equivalently, A topological space (X, ) is said to be first countable space if for every point x  X,
there exist a countable family {Bn ( x)}nN of open sets containing x such that whenever x belongs to an
open set G, there exists n such that Bn(x)  G.
Remark 6.2.3: Let (X, ) be a first countable space and {Bn ( x)}nN be countable open base at x. Then
we can find a monotonically decreasing countable open base at x by defining.
Bn* ( x)  Bk ( x)
k n
So, B1* ( x)  B2* ( x)  ...
Example 6.2.4: The space of real R with usual topology is a first countable space .The countable open
 1 1 
base at a point x  R is given by  x  , x   : n  N  .
 n n 
Definition 6.2.5: (a) A property of a space is called topological property if it is preserved by oneone,
onto open and continuous mapping.
(b) A property of a space is called hereditary if every subspace of the space with the property has the
same property.
Theorem 6.2.6: The property of being a first axiom space is hereditary property.
Proof: Let (X, ) be a first countable space and let (Y, *) be a subspace of (X, ).
We have to show that (Y, *) is also a first countable space.
Let y be any arbitrary point of Y.
Since YX
 y  X.
But (X, ) is first countable, there exists a countable open base {Bn(y)} at y. Then, the collection B*(y)
= {YB: B  {Bn{y)} forms a countable *open base at y.
Hence (Y, *) is a first axiom space.
Theorem 6.2.7: The property of being a first axiom space is a topological property.
Proof: Let f be oneone, continuous and open mapping from a first axiom space (X, ) onto another
topological space (X*, *). We have to show that (X*, *) is also a first axiom space. Let x*  X* be
arbitrary. Since f is onto  x  X such that f(x) = x*.
Since X is a first axiom space, there exists a countable open base, say (x) at x.
We claim that the collection {f(B): B  (x)} is a countable open base at x*. Obviously this collection
is countable.
Now, let M be any *neighbourhood of x*. Then there exists a *open set G such that
96 Countability and Separation Axioms
f ( x)  x*  G  M
 x  f 1 (G)  f 1 (M )
Since f is continuous, f1(G) is a open set containing x. Since (x) is a countable base at x,
 B ( x) s.t. x  B  f 1 (G)  f 1 (M )
 x* = f(x)  f(B)  M
This shows that {f(B): B  (x)} is a countable open base at x.
Hence (X*, *) is first countable.
6.3. Second countable space
Definition 6.3.1. (Base for a topology): Let (X, ) be a topological space. A collection of  of subsets
of X is said to form a base for  if
(i)   
(ii) for each x  X and each neighbourhood N of x,  some B   such that x  B  N.
Definition 6.3.2. (Second Countable space or Second axiom space): Let (X, ) be a topological
space. The space is said to be second countable space (or to satisfy second axiom of countability) if
there exists a countable base for .
Theorem 6.3.3: Every second axiom space is first axiom space but not conversely.
Proof: Suppose, (X, ) is a second axiom space, then there exist a countable base or , say {Oi }iN . We
have to show that there exists a countable base at x where x is any arbitrary point of X. Let {Oi }iN be a
sub family of the family {Oi }iN , each member of which contains x. We assert that {Oi }iN is countable
base at x. Obviously family {Oi }iN is countable.
Let G be any open set containing x.

Then by base property of {Oi},  a member, say Oik  {Oi} such that
x  Oik  G.
Since x  Oik
 Oik  {Oi }iN .
So the family {Oij } jN is a countable base at x.
Hence the second axiom space (X, ) is a first axiom space.

To discard the converse, we give an Example of a space which is first axiom space but not second
axiom.
Let X be an uncountable set with discrete topology.
Then this topological space has no countable base since each point belonging to X must belong to every
base and there are uncountable points. So X is not a second axiom space.
But X is a first countable space because there is a countable base at each point x  X, namely
{Bn ( x)}nN where Bn(x) = {x}  n.
Theorem 6.3.4: The property of a space being a second axiom space is topological property.
Theorem 6.3.5: The property of a space being a second axiom space is hereditary.
Proof: Let (X, ) be a second axiom space and  be a countable base of . Let (Y, *) be a subspace of
(X, ). We shall show that the collection. * = {Y  B: B  } is a base for *.
Let H be a *open subset of Y and x  H. Then there exists a open subset G of X s.t. H = G  Y.
Since  is a base for ,  a set B   s.t. x  B  G. Since H  Y, it follows that x  B  Y  G  Y
= G. Hence, there exists a set B  Y  * s.t. B  Y  H. Thus we have obtained that for each x  H, 
an element B  Y  * s.t. x  B  Y  H. Hence * is a base for *. Also * is countable, since  is
countable. This (Y, *) is second axiom space.
Theorem 6.3.6: In a second axiom space, every collection of non empty disjoint open sets is countable.
Proof: Let (X, ) be a second axiom and let {Bn} be any countable base for . Let G be a collection of
non empty disjoint open sets in X. For each G  G  n  N s.t. Bn  G. Let us associated with each G,
the smallest integer n s.t. Bn  G. Since the members of the collection G are disjoint so different integer
will be associated with different members. If we order the collection G according to the order of
associated integer of each member, we obtain a sequence which contains all the members of G. Hence G
is countable.
6.4. Separable space
Definition 6.4.1: A subset E of a topological space X is called dense in X if E  X .
Definition 6.4.2. (Separable space): A topological space X is called separable if and only if X contains
a countable dense subset i.e. if and only if there exists a countable subset A of X such that A  X .
This property is called axiom of separability.
Example 6.4.3: The space R with usual topology is separable since the set Q of all rational numbers is a
countable subset of R i.e. Q  R .
Theorem 6.4.4: The property of a space being separable is a topological property.

Proof: Let (X, ) be a separable space and let f be a oneone, onto, continuous mapping of (X, ) to
another space (Y, *). We have to sow that (Y, *) is separable.
Since (X, ) is separable. Let A be a countable dense subset of X i.e. A  X so that Y  f ( X )  f ( A)

and by continuity of f, f ( A)  f ( A) .
Thus, Y  f ( A) But f ( A)  Y always.

Hence Y = f ( A) and so f(A) is dense in Y.
Also A is countable, so f (A) is surely countable.

Thus, f(A) is a countable dense subset of Y and hence Y is separable.
Definition 6.4.5: A space (X, ) is said to be hereditarily separable if and only if every subspace of X
is separable.
Theorem 6.4.6: Every second axiom is hereditary separable.
Proof: Since each sub space of a second axiom space is also a second axiom space, so we need only to
show that every second axiom space is separable.
Let X be a second countable space. We shall show that it is separable.
Since the space is second countable, there exists a countable base  for . We choose a point b from
each member B of . Let D be the set thus obtained. The set D is clearly countable. We now show that D
is dense in X. Let x be any arbitrary point of X and let G be any open neighbourhood of x. Since  is a
base,  B   such that
xB
By definition or D, b  D is such that b  B  G. Thus G is an open set which contains a point of D.
Hence x is an adherent point of D. Since x is arbitrary point of X, we have D  X .
Thus D is a countable dense subset of X.
Hence X is separable.
Example 6.4.7: Give an Example to show that the converse of above Theorem is not true. i.e. Give an
Example of a space which is separable but not a second axiom space.
Solution: Let X be an uncountable set and  be cofinite topology on X i.e.  = {, X, complements of
finite sets}. We first show that {X, } is separable. Let A be an infinite countable subset of X. WE will
show that A  X . Since the closed subsets of X are al finite subsets of X and X itself. So the only
infinite closed subset of X which contains A is X itself. Also A is infinite closed subset of X which
contains A.
 A =X
Thus (X, ) is separable. But (X, ) is not second axiom space.
Example 6.4.8: Show that a topological space X is compact if and only if every cover of X by members
of a base has a finite sub cover.
Solution: Let X be a compact, then every open covering of X has a finite sub covering, in particular
every open cover of X by members of a base has a finite sub cover.
Conversely,
Suppose that every cover of X by members of a base has a finite sub cover. Now let {G :   }
be any open cover of X. if the collection  is any base of X, then each G is union of some members of 
and the collection of all such member of  is evidently an open cover of X. By hypothesis this collection
of members of  has a finite sub cover, say
{Bi ; 1, 2, .., n}.
For each Bi in this finite subcover, we select a Gi from {G:   } such that Bi  Gi.
Then clearly {Gi: 1, 2, 3, …, n} is a finite sub cover of X.
Hence X is compact.
Theorem 6.4.9. (Lindelof Theorem): In a second axiom space, every open cover reduces to a
countable sub cover.
Proof: Suppose G is an open covering of the subset E of second axiom space X which has {Bn}nN as
countable base.
Let N(G) be the collection of integers n such that Bn  G for some G  G.
With each integer n  N(G), we may then associate a set Gn  G such that Bn  Gn. The family {Gn: n
 N(G)} is a countable sub collection of G and we assert that it is a cover of X.
Let x  X, since G is a covering of X, so x  G for some G  G. By definition of base, we have x  Bn
 G for some integer n. This means n  N(G) and so x  Bn  Gn.
This implies: X = {Gn ; N  N(G)}
Hence, every open cover is reducible to a countable sub covering. This completes the proof.
Remark 6.4.10: Converse of Lindelof Theorem is not true
For Example, let (X, ) be an uncountable space with topology  defined by
 = {, X, complements of finite sets).
We first show that in (X, ), every open cover is reducible to a countable sub covering.
Let C be any open covering of X and let G be any member of C. Now G is the complement of a finite
set, say A = {a1, a2, …, an}. To cover these n points, we need atmost n member of C. We thus get a finite
sub covering of X and this shows that in (X, ), every open cover is reducible to a countable sub
covering
But (X, ) is not second countable. If possible, let there exist a countable open base  for .
Let x be any point of X. Then we claim that  {G: G is open, x  G} = {x}
For, let y be any point different from x. If H = X  {y}, then H is an open set containing x but not y and
so the intersection can not contain y. Now for each open set G containing x, we can find a B   s.t. x 
B  G. As G runs through all open sets containing x, B runs through all those member of  which
contain x. Hence the intersection of all those members of  which contain x is {x}. Let * be the
collection of all those members of  which contain x. Then,
 {B*: B*  *} = {x}
Taking complements of both sides, we get:
 {X  B*: B*  *} = X
 a countable set = an uncountable set.
This is absurd. Hence (X, ) is not second countable.
6.5. T0separation axiom
Definition 6.5.1. (T0space): A topological space (X, ) is said to be a T0space if and only if for given
any pair of distinct points x, y of X, there exists a neighbourhood of one of them not containing the other
i.e. for every pair of points x, y  X, x  y either there exists an open set Ux containing x such that y 
Ux or there exists an open set Uy containing y such that x  Uy.
Example 6.5.2: Every discrete space is a T0space while an indiscrete space is not a T0space.
Solution: Let (X, ) be a discrete topological space and let x, y be distinct points of X. Since the space
is discrete, {x} is an open neighbourhood of x which does not contain y. It follows that (X, ) is a
T0space.
On the other hand, let (X, ) be an indiscrete space and let x, y be two distinct points of X. Now the
only open neighbourhood of x is X which also contains y. Thus, there exists no open neighbourhood of x
which does not contain y. Hence (X, ) is not a T0space.
Theorem 6.5.3: A topological space (X, ) is a T0space if and only if the distinct points of X have
distinct closure respectively.
Proof: Suppose (X, ) is a T0space and let x, y  X such that x  y. Then, by definition, there exists an
open set G which contains one of x and y and not the other. Without of loss of generality suppose that x
 G and y  G.
Now G is open
 X  G is closed
 yXG
 { y}  X  G = X G [ XG is closed]
 x  { y } and x  { x }
It follows that, {x }  { y}
Conversely, suppose that for every pair of distinct element x and y in X, we have { x }  { y } . We claim
that either x  { y } or y  { x }
Let, if possible x  { y } and y  { x }
 { x }  { y } and { y }  { x } which gives, { x } = { y } , a contradiction.
Thus the assertion. Now without of loss of generality suppose. suppose that x 
{ y } i.e. x is not a limit point of {y}, then, by definition, there exists an open set Gx such that x  Gx and
{y}  Gx  {x} = 
 y  Gx
Thus, we have a neighbourhood of x to which y does not belong. Hence (X, ) is a T0space.
Theorem 6.5.4: Prove that
(i) The property of a topological space being a T0space is a topological property.
(ii) The property of a topological space being a T0space is hereditary.
Proof: (i) Let (X, ) be a T0space and f be a oneone open making (X, ) onto another topological
space (X*, *), we have to show that (X*, *) is also a T0space.
Let x1* and x2* be two distinct elements of X*. Since f is onto, so there exist x1, x2  X such that
f(x1) = x1* and f(x2) = x2* . Also f is oneone so x1  x2
Now x1 and x2 are two distinct elements of T0space X so there exists an open set G in X which contains
one of them but not the other. Without of loss of generality suppose suppose that x1  G and x2  G.
Now, since f is open map of f(G) is open in X* such that f(x1)  f(G) and f(x2)  f(G)
i.e. x1*  f(G) and x2*  f(G). Hence (X*, *) is a T0space.
(ii) Let (X, ) be a T0space and (Y, *) be a subspace of (X, ). We have to show that (Y, *) is
a T0space. Let y1 and y2 be two distinct elements of Y.
Since Y  X, so y1 and y2 are also distinct elements of X. But X is a T0space so there exist open set G
which contain one of them but not the other. Without of loss of generality suppose suppose that y1  G
and y2  G.
Thus G  Y is an open set in Y which contains y1 but not y2. Hence, by definition, (Y, *) is also a
T0space.
Definition 6.6.1. (T1space): A topological space (X, ) is said to be T1space if and only if given any
pair of distinct points x and y of X, there exists two open set one containing x but not y and the other
containing y but not x i.e. there exist open sets G and H such that
x  G but y  G and y  H but x  H.
Example 6.6.2: Every discrete space is T1space while an indiscrete space is not a T1space.
Example 6.6.3: (R, ) is a T1space where  is the usual topology defined on R.
 k k
Solution: Let x and y be two distinct real numbers s.t. y > x. Let y  x = k. Then G   x  , x  
 4 4
 k k
and H   y  , y   are open sets in R s.t. x  G but y  G and y  H but x  H.
 4 4
Hence (R, ) is a T1space.

Remark 6.6.4: It follows from the definition that every T1space is a T0-space but the converse is not
true.
For Example,
Consider the topology  on N (set of natural numbers) consisting of , N and all subsets of N of
the form {1, 2,…,n} n  N. Let n1, n2 be two distinct natural numbers s.t. n1 < n2. Then we get that {1,
2,…,n1} is an open set containing n1 but not n2 satisfying the requirements of T0space. But there is no
open set which contains n2 but does not contain n1. Hence (N, ) is not T1space.
Theorem 6.6.5: Characterization Theorem for T1spaces: A topological space (X, ) is a T1space if
and only if every singleton subset {x} of X is closed.
Proof: Firstly, suppose that all the singleton subsets of X are closed. Let x and y be two distinct points
of X. Now, according to the hypothesis.
{x} is a closed set
 X  {x} is an open set and y  X  {x}
Thus, we have found an open set containing y but not x. Similarly X  {y} is an open set containing x
but not y.
Thus, (X, ) is a T1space.
Conversely, suppose that X is a T1space. Let x  X. By T1axiom, if y  X such that y  x, there exists
an open set Gy containing y but not x, i.e.
y  Gy  X  {x}
But we have, X  {x} = {y: y  x}  {Gy: y  x}  X  {x}
which gives:
X  {x} =  {Gy: y  x}
Thus, X  {x} is open being the union of open sets.  {x} is closed.
Thus, every singleton subset {x} of X is closed.
Theorem 6.6.6: Show that a finite topological space is T1space if and only if it is discrete.
Proof: Let (X, ) be a finite T1space. We have to show that (X, ) is discrete. Since the space is T1, so
by Theorem 6.6.5., every singleton subset of X is closed and consequently every finite subset of X is
closed (Being the finite union of closed sets).
Since X is finite it follows that every subset of X is closed.
Hence every subset of X is open and thus the space is discrete.
Conversely,
Suppose that (X, ) is a finite discrete space. In order to show that it is a T1space, it is sufficient
to prove that every singleton subset of X is closed. Let x be any point of X, then X  {x} is a subset of
X. Now X is discrete so all its subsets are open.
In particular, X  {x} is open  {x} is closed.
Hence {X, } is a T1space.
Theorem 6.6.7: The property of a space being T1space is a topological property.
Proof: Let (X, ) be a T1space and f be a oneone onto open mapping from (X, ) to another
topological space (X*, *). We have to show that (X*, *) is also T1space.
Let x1* and x2* be two distinct points of X*. Since f is onto, there exist x1, x2  X such that
f(x1) = x1* and f(x2) = x2* .
Also f is oneone so x1  x2. Thus x1 and x2 are two distinct points of X.

Now X is T1space so there exists two open sets G and H such that
x1  G, x2  G and x2  H, x1  H.
Since f is open so f(G) and f(H) are also open in X* such that
x1*  f ( x1 )  f (G ) and x2*  f ( x2 )  f (G ) and x1*  f ( x1 )  f ( H ) and x2*  f ( x2 )  f ( H ) . This shows
that X* is a T1space.
Theorem 6.6.8: The property of a space being T1space is hereditary.
Proof: Let (X, ) be a T1space and (Y, *) be a subspace of T1space (X, ).
Let y1, y2 be two distinct elements of Y. Since Y  X, y1 and y2 are also distinct points of X. But X is a
T1space so there exists two open sets G and H such that
y1  G but y2  G and y2  H but y1  H.
Then G  Y is an open set in Y containing y1 but not y2 and H  Y is an open set in Y
containing y2 but not y1.
Hence (Y, *) is a T1space.
Theorem 6.6.9: In a T1space (X, ), a point x is a limit point of a set A  X if and only if every open
set containing x contains an infinite number of points of A.
Proof: Firstly, suppose that x is a limit point of A. We have to show that every open set containing x
contains an infinite number of points of A.
Let, if possible, there is an open set G containing x which contains only a finite number of distinct
points of A i.e. G  A is finite.
n
Let G  A  {x} = {xi } . Since X is a T1space so each {xi} is closed and being a finite union of
i 1
n
 n

closed sets {xi } is closed. But then  X  {xi }   G is an open set containing x and we have
i 1  i 1 
 n
   n

  X  {xi }  G   A  {x}   X  {xi }  (G  A  {x})
 i 1    i 1 
 n
  n 
=  X  {xi }    {xi }   
 i 1   i 1 
This implies that x is not a limit point of A, contradiction. Thus every open set containing x must
contain an infinite number of distinct points of A.
Converse is trivial.
Theorem 6.6.10: Show that every topology finer than a T1topology of on any set X is a T1topology.
Proof: Let  be a T1topology on X and let * be a topology finer than .
We have to show that * is also a T1topology on X.
Since  is a T1topology there exists open sets G and H such that G contains x but not y and H
contains y but not x where x and y are two distinct points of X.
Since   *, it follows that G and H are *open sets such that G contains x but not y and H contains
y but not x.
Hence, * is a T1topology on X.
Example 6.6.11: Show that in T1space no finite set has limit point.
Solution: Let (X, ) be a T1space and A be any finite subset of X containing n elements say
A = {a1, a2,… an}
We know that in a T1space every singleton subset is closed, so A is closed being the finite union of
closed sets. Hence A contains all its limit points.
Now the set, B = { a2,….… an} is also finite and hence closed. So the set Bc is open containing a1 which
contains no point of A other than a1. Hence a1 is not a limit point of A. Similarly, we can show that no
other point of A is a limit point of A. This proves that A has no limit points.
Definition 6.7.1. (T2space or Hausdorff space): A topological space (X, ) is said to be T2space if
for every pair of distinct points x, y of X, there exists disjoint neighbourhoods of x and y, i.e. there exist
neighbourhoods N and M of x and y respectively such that
N  M = .
Example 6.7.2: Show that every discrete space is T2space where as no indiscrete space can be T2.
Solution: Since every singleton set is open in a discrete space, so for distinct points x and y in X, {x}
and {y} are the neighbourhoods of x and y respectively s.t. {x}  {y} = 
On the other hand, in an indiscrete space, the whole space is the only neighbourhood of each of its
points so that no two distinct points can have disjoint neighbourhoods.
Thus the results follows.
Theorem 6.7.3. (Characterization Theorem for T2spaces): A topological space (X, ) is a T2space
if and if for all x  X,  { U x ;U x  x }  {x} , where x is the neighbourhood system of x in the given
topology.
Proof: Suppose that
{U x ;U x  x }  {x}x  X
Thus, for y  x, there exists a neighbourhood Ux of x such that y  U x
 y  X  U x . Then, we have that X  U x is open set containing y and Ux is a neighbourhood of x

containing x such that (X  U x )  Ux = .
Hence X is a T2space.
Conversely, suppose that X is a T2space. Then for a fixed x  X and y  x, there exists open sets U x*
and V such that x  U x* , y  V and U x*  V = .
So V is an open set containing y such that U x*  V = 
 U x*  V  {y} = . Thus y is not a limit point of U x*  y  U x* .
This holds for every y  x, so we get: U x*  {x}

y x
Now, {U x ;U x  x }  U x*  {x} (a)

y x
Also, {x}   { U x : U x   x } (b)
From (a) and (b), it follows that

{U x ; U x  x }  {x}
Theorem 6.7.4: (i) The property of a space being T2 is a topological property.

(ii) The property of a space being T2 is hereditary.
Proof: The proof is simple and can be done on the same lines as in the case of T0 and T1spaces.
Definition 6.7.5: Let (X, ) be a topological space. A sequence <xn> of points in (X, ) is said to
coverage to x if for every open set G containing x, there exists an integer N such that
xn  G  n > N
A sequence is called convergent if and only if there is at least one point to which it converges.
It is interesting to know that in an arbitrary topological space a sequence need not coverage to a unique
limit.
For Example, in an infinite indiscrete space every infinite sequence coverage to every point.
Theorem 6.7.6: Every convergent sequence in a Hausdorff space has unique limit.
Proof: Let (X, ) be Hausdorff space and let <xn> be a convergent sequence in X. If possible, let the
sequence <xn> converges to two distinct points x and y. Since the space is Hausdorff, there exist two
open sets G and H s.t. x  G, y  H and G  H = .
Since <xn> converges to x, there exists no  G for all no < n
Again since <xn> converges to y, there exists mo  N s.t. xn  H for all n > mo
Let m be any integer larger than both no and mo. Then xm must be in both G and H. But this contradicts
the fact that G  H = . Hence the sequence must coverage to a unique limit.
Remark 6.7.7: It follows from the definition that every T2space is a T1space but coverage is not true.
For Example,
Consider the cofinite topology  on an infinite ste X. Let x be an arbitrary point of X, then by
definition of , X  {x} is open and hence {x} is closed. Thus every singleton set in X is closed.
Consequently the space is T1.
But this space is not T2 because no two sets in  are disjoint. For, if G and G are two open subsets such
that G  H = , then X  (G  H) = X   = X
 (XG)  (X  H) = X.
But X  G and X  H are finite sets so their union is also finite, a contradiction, since X is infinite.
Hence distinct points of X cannot be separated by open sets.
Theorem 6.7.8: If <xn> is a sequence of distinct points of a subset E of a topological space (X, )
which converges to a point x  X, then x is a limit point of E.
Proof: Let G be an open set containing x. Since xn  X, so there exists an integer m such that xn  G 
n > m.
Since xn are distinct so at most one of them is equal to xn.
 E  G  {x}  . Hence x is a limit point of E.
Remark 6.7.9: If <xn> is a sequence of distinct points of a closed subset E of a topological space (X, )
which converges to a point x  X then x is a point of E.
Theorem 6.7.10: If f is a continuous mapping of the topological space X into X* and <xn> is sequence
of points of X which converges to the point x  X, then the sequence < f(xn) > converges to the point
f(x)  X*.
Proof: Let G* be any open set containing f(x). Since f is continuous, so f1(G) is open set in X
containing x. Since xn  x, so by definition,  a positive integer m such that
xn  f1(G*)  n > m
 f(xn)  G*  n > m
Hence < f(xn) > converges to f(x).
Theorem 6.7.11: A topological space X satisfying the first axiom of countability is a Hausdorff space if
and only if every convergent sequence has a unique limit.
Proof: If X is Hausdorff then every convergent sequence has unique limit (already proved) Conversely,
suppose (X, ) is a topological space satisfying the first axiom of countability such that every
convergent sequence has a unique limit.
We have to show that X is a Hausdorff space. If possible, let X be not Hausdorff, then there exist at least
two distinct points x and y such that every open set containing x has a nonempty intersection with
every open set containing y.
So, if {Bn ( x)}nN and {Bn ( y)}nN are monotonically decreasing countable open bases at x and y
respectively, then we must have
Bn(x)  Bn(y)    n
So we can choose a point xn  Bn(x) and Bn(y) for all n. If Gx and Gy are arbitrary open sets containing x
and y respectively, then  some integer m such that
Bn(x)  Gx and Bn(y)  Gy  n  m (By definition of countable base).
Hence xm  Gx  n  m and xn  Gy  n  m.
Then xn  x and xn  y
i.e. the sequence <xn> converges to two distinct points, a contradiction to the given hypothesis.
Hence (X, ) must be Hausdorff space.

Theorem 6.7.12: Let (X, ) be a topological space which is T1 as well as countable and E be a subset of
X. Let x  X, then x is a limit point of E if and only if there exists a sequence of distinct point of E
converging to x.
Proof: If <xn> is a sequence of distinct points in E such that xn  x, then x is a limit point of E.
(already proved).
Conversely, Suppose that x is a limit point of E. Let {Bn ( x)}nN be a monotone decreasing countable
open base at x. Then Bn(x)  E  {x} must be infinite.
[In a T1space, x is a limit point of E if and only if every open set containing x contains an infinite
number of distinct point of E].
Now we start choosing the points from the set Bn(x)  E  {x}. By induction, we may choose a point xn
in this set different from each previously chosen xk with k < n. So we have found a sequence of distinct
points of E.
Now we claim that xn  x. Let G be any open set containing x then  some positive integer m such that
x  Bm(x)  G. Since {Bn(x)} is a monotone decreasing countable open base, so we have,
Bn(x)  G  n  m i.e. xn  G  n  m
Thus, by definition, xn  x
Theorem 6.7.13: If f is a mapping of the first axiom space X into the topological space X*, then f is
continuous at x if and only if for every sequence <x n> of points of X converging to x, the sequence
<f(xn)> converges to f(x)  X*.
Proof: If f is continuous at x and xn  x, then f(xn)  f(x) (already proved)
Conversely, suppose that for every sequence <xn> of points in X converging to x, we have the sequence
<f(xn)> converging to f(x). We have to show that f is continuous at x.
Let, if possible, f be not continuous at x. So there exists an open set G* such that f(x)  G* and
f(G) is not contained in G* for all choices of open sets G in X containing x.
This implies:
f (G)  X *  G*   G   s.t. x  G
Let {Bn ( x)} be a monotone decreasing countable open base at x. Then
f ( Bn ( x))  X *  G *   n. So let xn*  f {Bn ( x)}  X *  G *  n
Now xn*  f ( Bn ( x)) so  xn  Bn ( x) s.t. f ( xn )  xn*  n
Thus we have formed the sequence < f(xn) > = < xn* > and this sequence does not converge to f(x)
because xn*  X *  G *  n and f(x)  X*  G*.
Now the sequence xn  x since {Bn(x)} is a monotone decreasing countable open base at x. So we get:
xn  x but f(xn) 
 f(x), a contradiction to the given hypothesis.
Hence f is continuous at x.
Key words: First countable space, second countable space, separable space, hereditary property,
topological property, Lindelof Theorem, T0 – space, T1 – space, T2 – space, Hausdroff space.
 A topological space is first countable space if each point of space possesses a countable base.
 The property of being a first axiom space is topological and hereditary property.
 A topological space (X, ) is second countable space if there exists a countable base for .
 Every second axiom space is first axiom space but not conversely.
 The property of a space being a second axiom space is topological and hereditary property.
 A topological space X is separable if and only if X contains a countable dense subset.
 The property of a space being separable is a topological property.
 Every second axiom is hereditary separable.
 A space which is separable but not a second axiom space.
 Lindelof Theorem: In a second axiom space, every open cover reduces to a countable sub cover.
But converse is not true.
 A topological space (X, ) is a T0space if and only if for given any pair of distinct points x, y of
X, there exists a neighbourhood of one of them not containing the other.
 A topological space (X, ) is a T0space if and only if the distinct points of X have distinct
closure respectively.
 The property of a topological space being a T0space is a topological and hereditary property.
 A topological space (X, ) is T1space if and only if given any pair of distinct points x and y of
X, there exists two open set one containing x but not y and the other containing y but not x.
 A topological space (X, ) is a T1space if and only if every singleton subset {x} of X is closed.
 The property of a space being T1space is a topological and hereditary property.
 A topological space (X, ) is T2space if for every pair of distinct points x, y of X, there exists
disjoint neighbourhoods of x and y.
 A topological space (X, ) is a T2space if and if for all x  X,  { U x ;U x  x }  {x} where x
is the neighbourhood system of x in the given topology.
 The property of a space being T2 is a topological and hereditary property.
 Every convergent sequence in a Hausdorff space has unique limit.
 Every T2space is a T1space and every T1-space is T0- space but coverage is not true.
Reference books:
 C.W. Patty, Foundation of topology, Jones & Bertlett, 2009.
 Fred H. Croom, Principles of Topology, Cengage Learning, 2009
 George F. Simmons, Introduction to Topology and Modern Analysis, McGraw- Hill Book
Company, 1963
 J.L.Kelly, General topology, springer Verlag, New Yark, 2000.
 J.R.Munkres, Toplogy, Pearson Education Asia, 2002.
 J.N.Sharma and J.P.Chauhan, Topology,Krishna Prakashan Media, Meerut, 2011.
 K. Chandrasekhara Rao, Topology, Narosa Publishing House Delhi, 2009.
 K.D. Joshi, Introduction to General Topology, Wiley Eastern Ltd, 2006.
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Master of Science (Mathematics) (DDE)

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

Copyright © 2015, 2022; Maharshi Dayanand University, ROHTAK

Chapter Title Page No.

1. Topological Spaces 5-46

2. Related Topology, Base and Subbase 47-55

3. Continuity and Homeomorphism 56-63

6. Countability and Separation Axioms 94-110

1  {,{a}, (b), X } Discrete topology

If members of this family are infinite, then A  X  

G =  or X or complements of a finite subset of X for each   .

 X  G  X or  or finite subset of X, since intersection of arbitrary family of finite

 G   or X or complement of finite subset of X.

Gi =  or X or complements of a finite subset of X for each i.

G =  or X or complements of a countable subset of X for each   

 X  G  X or  or countable subset of X, since intersection of arbitrary family of countable

 G   or X or complement of countable subset of X.

Gi =  or X or complements of a countable subset of X for each i.

 {G :   }  1 and {G :   }  2

But 1 and 2 are topologies on X, so we have

Thus arbitrary union of members of 1  2 is in 1  2 which satisfies [O1].

Then  some ,   s.t. x  O.

Hence [O1] is satisfied.

Let x  O1  O2

 x  O1 and x  O2 .

 (x,x+)  O1 and (x, x+)  O2

 (x, x+)  O1  O2

 [O2] axiom is satisfied.

Let x  O , then  some 0 such that x  O0 .

Now O0   and x  O0 ,  some r > 0 such that

Hence [O1] is satisfied.

0 such that S ri  Oi : i = 1, 2, 3, 4,…,n.

Let r = min ri , then Sr(x)  Oi for each i = 1 to n.

Case I: The subset is empty, then we have: d() = 

 d(A)  d(A  B) (3)

 G  F   for all G   such that. x  G.

Thus, we have: {x}  Gx  X  F

 X  F is open because it is union of open sets Gx.

 ( X  F )   since  satisfies [O1] axiom.

By definition of , we have O  , So  satisfy [O1] axiom

  satisfy [O2] axiom.

We can denote X and  as: X =∩X and   

A =  {F: F  A and F is closed with respect to}

Theorem 1.8.2: A is the smallest closed set containing A.

By (1) and (2), A = F, so A is the smallest closed set containing A.

Theorem1.8.3: A set ‘A’ is closed if and only if A = A.

Conversely, suppose that A = A. By definition, A is closed set. Hence A is closed.

Again, since  is open so X   = X is closed and hence XX

(iii) Since AB B

A and B are closed sets so A  B is closed set and A  A , B  B

But A  B is the smallest closed set containing A  B, so

So by (1) and (2), we get A B  A  B

(v) Since ABA

Example 1.8.6. Give an Example to show that A  B  A  B .

1.9. KurotowaskiClosure operator:

We want you to show that F  Ƒ. Now,

Since F  F for each , so we can write:

 Fc  ( F  F )c  F c (By [K4])

and ( F1  F2 )c  F1c  F2c (By [K4])

First we prove that if A  B then Ac  Bc. If A  B, then A  B = B

Now we know that, A A  Ac  ( A)c (As proved above)

[ 𝐴̅ is a closed set and so A  Fr  ( A)c  A ]

for all subsets A, B of X where Ac denotes of A.

= Ac  ( Bc )c [By [K2], A  Ac]

Since G1  G2  , so (G1  G2)  X  . That is G1  G2*  *.

 f 1 ( E* )  f 1 ({B* : B* })  { f 1 ( B ) : B* *}