1. What is cement? How it is manufactured?

Any material, which can bind or fix permanently two or more different particles, is
generally called a cement or adhesive. But, builder’s cement is an inorganic Grey coloured
fine powder capable of reaction with water to produce strength giving compounds, which set
and harden without any appreciable change with regard to its properties in due course of
time. Generally, cement is termed as Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), named after the
place where it occurs naturally in England as a stone.
Portland cement clinker is produced by burning a mix of calcium carbonate (limestone or
chalk) and an aluminosilicate (clay or shale). It is chemically an acid-base neutralization
reaction at a higher range of temperature in a powder/partially molten state of reactants.
The base part is mostly CaO and the acid part is all the oxides of Si, Al, and Fe. The Lime
saturation factor (LSF) gives a measure of completion of the reaction, although a little lime
remains ultimately as non-neutralized free lime. The product formation varies with the raw
meal composition and temperature of the kiln. The LSF is given by

LSF = CaO
2.80 Si O2 + 1.18 Al2O3 + 0.65 Fe2O3
In past, the cement as an industrial product has gone through technological evolution
and technology upgradation. Cement manufacture is a complex process involving proper
selection of raw materials, their proportioning and grinding into fine powder to obtain the raw
meal which needs to be stocked in advance in huge quantities, at least a month’s supply for
cement plant. The old process of mixing the raw meal ingredients thoroughly, water slurry
process was used, which required additional heat energy for drying. But nowadays, efficient
dry mixing systems have been employed. The raw meal is then fed into a rotary horizontal
kiln inclined at a small degree to the horizontal. The raw meal is fed from the upper level end
of the kiln, which passes through the hot kiln to the lower level end.
Chemical reaction of clinkering of the raw meal takes place at about 1200 o to 1450 o C
inside the rotary kiln which is always kept hot for maintaining the continuous process flow
and also rotating for the raw meal to get uniformly mixed and heated. The kiln is fired from
the lower end through a firing nozzle fuelled with powdered coal. The ash from the coal
gives oxides of Si, Al and Fe and contributes to some extent to the insoluble residue (IR), if
the same is not fully neutralized with lime CaO in the kiln. For producing “white cement
clinker”, the raw meal is totally iron-free and instead of coal fired, gas or furnace oil fired
system is used. The ash of the burnt coal also gets mixed up with the clinker formed inside
the kiln at a high temperature.
The reaction between clay, limestone and ash from the coal is dehydrated,
decarbonated and partially melted and the product formed is silicates of calcium, iron and
aluminum – C3S, C2S, C3A, C4AF, along with some Periclase (overburnt and fused
magnesium oxide). The notation for the chemical compounds are - C= Ca O, S= Si O 2,
A= Al2 O3, F= Fe2 O3. This mixture gets rolled inside the rotating kiln and comes out as small
(20-25 mm size diameter) balls called “clinkers”. These clinkers are stored for many days to
allow them to get cooled down to ambient temperature. Although, apparently a clinker may
be cool enough to touch with hand, yet it may be very hot inside like our earth. The top cover
of the ball gets cooled down, thereby insulating the heat inside the clinker.
Later on, these clinkers are sampled, powdered and tested for their properties in the
cement plant laboratory to determine how much quantity of gypsum is to be added for inter-
grinding with clinker batch to produce OPC, so that it passes the ISI Quality Mark. The
clinker is then finely ground with the calculated quantity of gypsum, while water is sprayed
intermittently inside the ball mills to cool down the heat released from the inside of the
clinker balls, otherwise the heat is sufficient to reduce the gypsum to plaster of Paris. It may
be noted here that gypsum is added to partially neutralize the C 3A content of the
cement whereas the plaster of Paris is responsible for introducing the “False Set” which is
not at all desirable. Chemically, there is very little difference between gypsum, which is
CaSO4.2H2O and Plaster of Paris, CaSO4. ½H2O, but the of 1½ H2O difference is enough to
make the product a cement or a waste.
 The finally approved and ISI marked cement in powdered form is stored in silos, from
where either it is bagged and transported or transported in the drums or in bulk form to the
end users. Cement should be purchased and stocked in appropriate moisture-free
conditions and may be used within three months. In no case, the cement stored beyond a
year should be used, unless re-tested and found to be acceptable for the type of use. A
typical set of chemical composition is reproduced below as an example:

Table: Composition of Portland Cement

Grey White Grey White
Oxides Cement Clinker Clinker Cement Clinker Clinker
% % %
Si O2 18-24 21.7 23.8 LSF % 88-102 98.4 97.2
Al2 O3 4-8 5.3 5.0 LCF % - 96.2 93.8
Fe2 O3 1.5-4.5 2.6 0.2 S/R 1.5-4 2.7 4.6
Total CaO 62-67 67.7 70.8 A/F 1-4 2.0 25
Incl. Free Lime
MgO 0.5-4.0 1.3 0.08 C3 S % - 65.4 59.4
(max. limit)
K2 O 0.1-1.5 0.5 0.03 C2 S % - 12.9 23.5
Na2 O 0.1-1.0 0.2 0.03 C3 A % - 9.6 12.9
S O3 2.0-3.0 0.7 0.06 C4AF % - 7.9 0.6
(max. limit)
LOI 3.0 - -
(max. limit)
IR 1.5 - -
(max. limit)
Free Lime 0.5-1.5 1.5 2.5
LOI = Loss on Ignition (CO2 + H2O); IR = Acid Insoluble Residue; S / R = Si O2 / (Al2 O3 + Fe2O3 );
A/ F = Al2 O3 / Fe2 O3 ; LSF & LCF = Lime Saturation & Lime Combination Factors.
The general solution to the calculation is expressed in the following equations (Bouge
1955) in which the chemical formulae represent the weight % of each oxide:
C4AF = 3.04 Fe2 O3
C3A = 2.65 Al2 O3 – 1.69 Fe2 O3
C2S = 8.60 Si O2 + 1.08 Fe2 O3 + 5.07 Al2 O3 – 3.07 CaO
C3S = 4.07 CaO – 7.60 Si O2 – 1.43 Fe2 O3 – 6.72 Al2 O3

The approximate indicative percentages of C3S, C2S, C3A, C4AF compounds in

different grades of cements is indicated below:
33 grade OPC 43 grade OPC 53 grade OPC Low heat
Ordinary Medium strength High strength
(IS : 269-1989) (IS: 8112-1989) (IS : 12269-1987) (IS:12600-1989)
C3 S 45 % 50 % 55 % 30 %
C2 S 27 % 22 % 17 % 46 %
C3 A 11 % 11 % 11 % 5%
C4AF 10 % 10 % 9% 13 %

2. What is understood by Characteristic Properties of Cement?

Physical: Fineness, Water for normal consistency, Initial and final Setting Times,
Strength, Drying Shrinkage, Soundness, Permeability,
Chemical: Chemical analysis (Oxide composition), Calculation of the four phases of
compounds, free lime, free alkalis, Magnesium Oxide as Periclase, Hydration reactions
of cement phases and the products. Example of how the phases compositions are
calculated from the chemical oxide compositions.
Pozzolanas and pozzolanic reactions: Lime leached from C3S phase, reactive silica
content and lime reactivity.
Admixtures: Super plasticizers, pozzolanic admixtures.
IS: 4031 – 1988 Indian Standard Methods of Physical Tests For Hydraulic Cement
(Part 1) Determination of Fineness By Dry Sieving (First Revision) First Reprint April
1992
 (Part 2) Determination of Fineness By Specific Surface By Air Permeability Method
(First Revision) First Reprint March 1992
(Part 3) Determination of Soundness (First Revision) First Reprint November 1991
(Part 4) Determination of Consistency of Standard Cement Paste (First Revision)
First Reprint August 1993
(Part 5) Determination of Initial and Final Setting Times (First Revision) First Reprint
November 1991
(Part 6) Determination of Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Other than
Masonry Cement (First Revision) First Reprint June 1992
(Part 7) Determination of Compressive Strength of Masonry Cement (First Revision)
First Reprint March 1992
(Part 8) Determination of Transverse and Compressive Strength of Plastic Mortar
using Prism (First Revision) First Reprint January 1993
(Part 9) Determination of Heat of Hydration (First Revision) First Reprint August
1993
(Part 10) Determination of Drying Shrinkage (First Revision) First Reprint August
1993
(Part 11) Determination of Density (First Revision)
(Part 12) Determination of Air Content of Hydraulic Cement Mortar (First Revision)
First Reprint March, 1992.
(Part 13) Measurement of Water Retentivity of Masonry Cement (First Revision) First
Reprint September 1992
(Part 14) Determination of False Set (First Reprint January 1993)
(Part 15) Determination of Fineness By Wet Sieving (First Reprint July 1994)

IS 650: 1991 Standard Sand for testing cement –

Obtainable from: Tamil Nadu Minerals Ltd. 81, Kamaraj Salai, TWAD Board
Buildings, Chepauk, Madras 600005.
Particle size: Smaller than 2 mm and greater than 1 mm 33.33 %; smaller than 1
mm and greater than 500 microns 33.33 %; Below 500 microns but greater than 90
microns 33.33 %. In each fraction, retention on the larger sieve size and passing
through the smaller sieve size to a maximum amount of 1 % may be permitted. 100
% passing 2-mm size and 100 % retained on 90 microns sieve. IS 460 (Part 1):
1985 Test sieves: Part 1 Wire cloth test sieves (third revision)
Free from organic impurities, acid-soluble in HCl acid of 1.16 RD, not be more than
0.250 %.
Testing done as – 2 g dried (at 100 o C for one hour) sand + 20 ml HCl + 20 ml
d.water in dish on water bath for one hour, filter, wash with hot d. water, dried,
ignited, cooled, weighed, loss of acid soluble be calculated.

IS: 2386-1963 INDIAN STANDARD METHODS OF TEST FOR

AGGREGATES FOR CONCRETE
Regularly Done Tests:
Part I Particle Size and Shape
Part II Estimation of Deleterious Materials and Organic Impurities
Part III Specific Gravity, Density, Voids, Absorption and Bulking
Part IV Mechanical Properties

NOT DONE AS ROUTINE TESTING (DONE ONLY WHEN NEEDED):

Part V Soundness
Part VI Measuring Mortar Making Properties of Fine Aggregate
Part VII Alkali Aggregate Reactivity
Part VIII Petrographic Examination

IS: 2386-1963 INDIAN STANDARD METHODS OF TEST FOR

AGGREGATES FOR CONCRETE

PART III SPECIFIC GRAVITY, DENSITY, VOIDS,

ABSORPTION AND BULKING
Determination of:
“Specific Gravity and Water Absorption”
Method I: Aggr. Larger than 10 mm
Apparatus: Balance, Oven, a wire basket, a stout watertight
container, Two dry soft absorbent cloth, a shallow tray, an airtight
container.
Sample: 2000-g min., not artificially heated.
Test Procedure: Wash thoroughly to remove fine dust. Place in wire basket to
drain, Jolt the basket and weigh it in water (weight A1). Remove the
aggregate on a dry towel for surface drying, then weigh the empty basket in
water (weight A2). The weight of saturated aggregates in water = A= (A1 –
A2). Wipe the surface of aggregates, allow to air dry for minimum 10-minute
time till the surface appears dry, weigh it, the weight of saturated surface dry
aggregates in air = (weight B). Heat in an oven at 100-110 oC for 24 hours.
Cool and weigh, the weight of oven dried aggregates in air = (weight C).
Calculations: Specific Gravity = C/ (B-A)
Apparent Specific Gravity = C/ (C-A)
Water Absorption (percent of dry weight) = 100 (B-C) / C
Reporting of results: As percent of dry aggregates. Size of aggregates.

Method II: Aggr. Between 40 mm and 10 mm

Apparatus: Balance, Oven, Glass Vessel or Jar, Cloths, Tray, Container.
Sample: 1000-g , not artificially heated.
Test Procedure: Screen on 10-mm sieve and wash thoroughly to remove
fines. Immerse in distilled water at 22-32 oC in a glass vessel for 24 hours.
Remove entrapped air by gentle shaking. The vessel is overfilled with water
and a cover is slid so that no air is entrapped. Wipe the outer side of the
vessel and weigh it (weight A). The aggregate is removed and allowed to
drain, fill the vessel as before with water only, slid the cover, wipe outer
surface of the vessel and weigh it (weight B). Wipe the surface of aggregates,
allow to air dry for minimum 10-minute time till the surface appears dry, weigh
it, the weight of saturated surface dry aggregates in air = (weight C). Heat in
an oven at 100-110 oC for 24 hours. Cool and weigh, the weight of oven dried
aggregates in air = (weight D).
Calculation: Specific Gravity = D / [C – (A – B)]
Apparent Specific Gravity = [D / D – (A – B)]
Water Absorption (percent of dry weight) = [100 (C – D) / D]
Reporting of Results: As percent of dry aggregates. Aggregate grading,

Method III: Aggr. Smaller than 10 mm

Apparatus: Balance, Oven, Vessel, Figure: Section of Pyknometer made from
Fruit Jar.
Test Procedure: 1000-g sample, smaller than 10-mm to 4.75-mm size, or
500-g for less than 4.75-mm size, placed in a tray under distilled water at 22-
32 oC, agitation is done with a rod to remove entrapped air and kept for 24
hours. Then water is drained out through decantation using a filter paper to
retain the aggregate. By warm air current, the sample is dried to a stage
 when the surface is just dried and the sand is freely flowing. The saturated
surface dry sample is weighed (weight A). The sample sand then is filled in
the pyknometer bottle and water is filled in it to the top hole. Closing the hole
with a finger and rolling the pyknometer horizontally expels entrapped air out.
The water level in the hole is made up to full and then it is weighed (weight
B). The contents of pyknometer are emptied into the tray, including the sand
fully, the pyknometer is again filled with water as before and weighed (weight
C). The water from the tray is carefully drained on a filter paper to retain all
the sand and then the tray and sand is kept in an air oven at 100 to 110 oC
for 24 hours (stirred a couple of times during this period of drying), cooled
and weighed (weight D).
Calculations: Specific gravity = [D/ {A – (B –C)}]
Apparent Specific Gravity = [D / {D – (B – C)}]
Water Absorption (percent of dry weight) = [100 (A-D)] / D
Reporting of Results: As percent of dry aggregates. Aggregate grading.

“Determination of Bulk Density and Voids”

Apparatus: Balance, Cylindrical Metal Measure, Tamping rod (16-mm dia. x 60-mm
long, rounded at t6he end)
Calibration: The measure is calibrated by filling it to the brim with water and weighing it.
1-kg of water = 1-liter at 27 oC.
Max. size Measure Inner Inner Wall
Capacity liters diameter cm height cm thickness
mm
4.75 mm and below 3 15 17 3.15
4.75 to 40 mm 15 25 30 4.00
40 mm and above 30 35 31 5.00
Procedure: On dry material for determining the voids; on the given percentage of
moisture content of the material for determining bulking. The measure is filled up in
three equal instalments with the thoroughly mixed material, stroking 25-times for each
layer with the rounded end of the tamping rod, till the third layer is overflowing the
measure. The extra material is cut of with rod as the straight edge and the measure is
weighed. Bulk density of the material is calculated (weight / volume) in kg per liter. For
calculating loose weight, the sample is filled without compaction in the measure, leveled
with the straight edge and weighed. The bulk density is calculated by (weight/volume) as
kg/liter.
Calculation of voids: Percentage of voids = [(Gs – b) x100] / Gs, where Gs = specific
gravity of the aggregate, and b = bulk density in kg/liter.

IS: 2386-1963 INDIAN STANDARD METHODS OF TEST FOR

AGGREGATES FOR CONCRETE

PART IV MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Determination of:
1. AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE: (ACV) The aggregate crushing value gives a
relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to crushing under a gradually applied
compressive load. This test is advised for AC Value up to 30%. For higher AC Values,
better use “The 10 % Fines Value” as given at sr. no. 2 below.
Apparatus: A 150-mm cylindrical cell with appropriate plunger and base plate; tamping
rod and metal measure conforming to IS: 9376-1979, balance 3-kg cap. 1-g accuracy; IS
sieves 12.5-mm, 10-mm & 2.36-mm; compression testing machine of 40 tonnes applied
load in 10 minutes, with or without spherical seating.
 Preparation of test sample: Aggregate size as passing 12.5-mm sieve and retained on 10-mm
sieve for standard test. Other sizes as per the Table:
Nominal sizes of IS Sieves Dia. of cylinder Sieve size for separating
Passing through Retained on cm fines
mm mm
25 20 15.0 4.75 mm
20 12.5 15.0 3.35 mm
10 6.3 15.0 or 7.5 1.70 mm
6.3 4.75 15.0 or 7.5 1.18 mm
4.75 3.35 15.0 or 7.5 850 microns
3.35 2.36 15.0 or 7.5 600 microns
Surface dry condition, 6.5-kg aggregate sample is needed for 15.0-cm dia cylinder and
1-kg for the 7.5-cm dia. cylinder. Drying up to 4 hours in oven at 100-110 oC may be
done but the aggregate should be cooled to room temperature prior to test. The quantity
of aggregate should be such that after filling and tamping the depth of aggregate should
be 10 cm in the cylinder. Trial filling of the cylinder may be done in three equal layers
with 25 times tamping with the rounded end of the tamping rod on each layer to
ascertain the actual quantity of material required. After filling and tamping, the surface
should be cut of to a level by the straight edge of the rod. The weight of the aggregate
for test is determined (weight A). Figure: Principal Dimensions of Apparatus for
Aggregate Crushing Test.
Test Procedure: The weight of the aggregate taken for test should be filled in the
cylinder (on base plate) in three equal layers, each layer tamped with 25 strokes with the
rod (rounded end), surface carefully levelled, plunger seated horizontally and with free
movement vertically. The cylinder with aggregates and seated plunger should be placed
between the plattens of the compression testing machine and load applied so as to
reach the maximum 40 tonnes in 10 minutes time. The load is released and the
aggregate is taken out and sieved through 2.36-mm sieve (or appropriate sieve as per
the Table) the fraction passing is weighed (weight B).
Calculations: Aggregate Crushing Value = [B/A] x 100
Reporting of Results: Mean of two test values as the Aggregate Crushing Value.
2. 10 % FINES VALUE: (TPFV)
Apparatus: all is same as in sr. no. 1 above; except for load applied is 50 tonnes in 10
minutes, variable from 0.5 to 50 tonnes, and a dial gauge to measure the the distance
between the plattens of the compression testing machine.
Preparation of test sample: Aggregate passing 12.5 mm and retained on 10 mm sieves,
surface dry condition, or oven dried as above in sr. no. 1, in 3-equal depth-layers, 25
times strokes, levelled of, weighed as in sr. no.1, (weight A).
Test Procedure: same as that for sr. no. 1, except that the load applied in 10 minutes is
such that total penetration of the plunger is 15 mm for rounded aggregates, 20 mm for
normal crushed aggregates and 24 mm for honeycombed aggregates. After reaching
the required maximum penetration, release the load and and the material is screened on
2.36 mm sieve. The passing material is weighed (weight B), then [B/A] x100. Normally
this percentage value will be in the range of 7.5 % to 12.5 %. Or the load applied may be
appropriately adjusted in the repeat test.
Calculations: The mean percentage of fines of two tests at this load is used to calculate
the load required to give 10 percent fines: Load required = [14 x x] / [y + 4], where x =
load in tonnes and y = mean percentage fines from the two tests at x tonnes load.
Reporting of Results: Report- For producing 10 % fines: report as the nearest
(a) whole number of tonnes for total applied load 10 tonnes or more; or
(b) 0.5 tonnes for total applied load less than 10 tonnes.

3. AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE: (AIV) The aggregate impact value gives a relative
measure of resistance of an aggregate to sudden shock or impact, which in some
aggregates differs from its resistance to a slow compressive load.
Apparatus: See Figure for the impact-testing machine, 45-60 kg weight, metal base of
22-30 kg, base dia. min. 30 cm, 45 cm min. thickness of floor support –stone or concrete
 block,, the machine should not be allowed to rock on the block. Cylindrical steel cup of
102-mm internal dia. and 50-mm depth, min. 8.3 mm thickness, inner surface case
hardened, rigidly fitted with the base and detachable also. Metal Hammer weighing13.5-
14.0 kg, lower end cylindrical, 100-mm dia and 5-cm long, 2-mm chamfer at lower edge,
hammer should freely between vertical guides and should be above and concentric with
the cup. Vertical height of free- fall within the guides should be 380+5.0 mm, mechanism
to raise and allow falling of the hammer and means of adjusting the height of fall within 5
mm, means of locking the hammer for permitting the removal or fixing the cup. Sieves of
12.5, 10 and 2.36 mm sizes. Rigid-metal-measure, tared to nearest g, of internal dia.75-
mm and depth 50-mm, Tamping rod, circular in cross-section, 10 mm dia. 230 mm long,
rounded at one end. Balance min. 500-g capacity, accuracy 0.1g. Oven 100-110 oC
working temperature.
Preparation of Test Sample: Passing 12.5 mm and retained on 10 mm sieves, dried at
100-110 oC for four hours and cooled to room temperature. The measure filled in three
layers each tamped 25 strokes with rounded end rod, final layer should overflow, cut of
the level with the tamping rod straight edge and weigh (weight A).
Test Procedure: The cup should be filled up with aggregate material, in one layer,
tamping 25 strokes with the rod, level its surface, allow 15-blows of free-fall of the
hammer in minimum 15 seconds time (minimum rate- one-or more-second per blow).
Remove the material from the cup and sieve it through 2.36-mm sieve. Weigh the
fraction passing (weight B). Weigh also the fraction retained on the sieve (weight C). If
the total weight B+C is more than the initial weight A by more than 1-g, then the test is to
be repeated.
Calculations: Aggregate Impact value (%) = [B/A] x 100
The mean of the two values should be reported as the percent AIV.

4. AGGREGATE ABRASION VALUE: (AAV)

Test for Abrasion of Coarse Aggregates by the use of LOS ANGELES MACHINE

Apparatus: The machine, design as per figure, hollow steel cylinder of closed at both
ends, of internal dia. 700 mm and length of 500 mm, mounted on stub shafts rotated on
its axis horizontally, opening in the cylinder to feed the aggregates, dust-tight closing,
removable cover bolted in-place, a steel shelf, firm and rigid, 88 mm long removable but
fixed radially inside the cylinder, with minimum 1250 mm distance along the
circumference between the shelf and opening. 1.70 mm IS Sieve. Abrasive Charge of
cast iron spheres 48 mm dia. each weighing between 390 to 445 g. Abrasive charge will
depend on the grading of the test sample.

Grading Number of Spheres Weight of Charge g

A 12 5000 + 25
B 11 4584 + 25
C 8 3330 + 20
D 6 2500 + 15
E 12 5000 + 25
F 12 5000 + 25
G 12 5000 + 25

Test Sample: Clean aggregate, oven dried at 105-110 oC till such time that constant
weight is obtained, conforming to the gradings as per given in the Table.

Sieve Size sq. hole Weight in g of Test Sample for Grade

Passing Retained
through on
mm mm A B C D E F G
 80 63 - - - - 2500* - -
63 50 - - - - 2500* - -
50 40 - - - - 5000* 5000* -
40 25 1250 - - - - 5000* 5000*
25 20 1250 - - - - - 5000*
20 12.5 1250 2500 - - - - -
12.5 10 1250 2500 - - - - -
10 6.3 - - 2500 - - - -
6.3 4.75 - - 2500 - - - -
4.75 2.36 - - - 5000 - - -
* Tolerance of + 2 percent permitted.

Procedure: Place the charge and sample in the machine. Speed of rotation should be
30-33 rev/min. For gradings A,B,C,D the number of rotations will be 500 revolutions and
for E,F,G it will be 1000 revolutions, at substantially uniform peripheral speed. Discharge
the material, separate out the charges(spheres) and sieve it through any size coarser
than 1.70 mm sieve in the first instance, then through a sieve of 1.70 mm size. The
material coarser than 1.70 mm (retained on) is washed and dried in an oven at 105-110
o
C to a constant weight and cooled and weighed, to nearest g.
Reporting of Results: The difference between the original weight and the final weight
expressed as a percentage of the original weight of the test sample. A mean value of
two results is reported as the percentage of wear.

LIMIT VALUES FOR AGGREGATE QUALITY IN CONCRETE

(As per IS: 383-1970)

Parameter Limiting Value

1. Aggregate crushing value Not more than 45 %, used for non-wearing surfaces
Not more than 30 % foe wearing surfaces, runways,
roads, pavements etc.

2. Aggregate Impact Value Not more than 45 % by weight for non-wearing surfaces
(as an alternative to no. 1) Not more than 30 % by weight, for wearing surfaces

3. Aggregate Abrasion Value Not more than 30 % for wearing surfaces

(using Los Angeles machine) (Not more than 35 % as per MoRTH Specifications)
Not more than 50 % for non-wearing surfaces

4. Soundness of Aggregate Average loss of weight after 5 cycles shall not exceed:
(Liable to frost) 10 % with Na2SO4 ] for fine aggregates
(coarse and fine aggregates) 15 % with MgSO4 ] for fine aggregates
12 % with Na2SO4 ] for coarse aggregates
18 % with MgSO4 ] for coarse aggregates
5. Flakiness Index
for coarse aggregates
(As per MoRTH Guidelines Not more than 35 %
4th Revision, section 1007)
(As per SP23-1982) Not more than 25 %

Limits of Deleterious Materials

Sr Deleterious Method of Fine Aggregate % by Wt., Coarse Aggregate % by wt.,
No substance Test max. max.
Uncrushed Crushed Uncrushed Crushed
1. Coal & Lignite IS:2386 (Part 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
 II)- 1963
2. Clay lumps -Do- 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
3. Material finer than IS:2386 (Part 3.00 15.00 3.00 3.00
75 micron I)-
1963
4. Soft fragments IS:2386 (Part - - 3.00 -
II)-
1963
5. Shale -do- 1.00 - - -
6. Total percentages - 5.00 2.00 5.00 5.00
of all deleterious
materials (except
mica)*
*including Sl No 1 to 5 for col 4, 6 and 7 and
Sl No 1 and 2 for col 5 only.

Note 1- The presence of mica in the fine aggregate has been found to reduce considerably the durability and
compressive strength of concrete and further investigations are underway to determine the extent of the
deleterious effect of mica. It is advisable, therefore, to investigate the mica content of fine aggregate and make
suitable allowances for the possible reduction in the strength of concrete or mortar.
Note 2- The aggregate shall not contain harmful organic impurities [tested in accordance with IS: 2386 (Part II)
–1963] in sufficient quantities to affect adversely the strength or durability of concrete. A fine aggregate which
fails in the test for organic impurities on the strength of mortar, the relative strength at 7 and 28 days, reported
in accordance with 7 of IS:2386 (Part VI)-1963 is not less than 95 percent.

COARSE AGGREGATES Grading

Tested as per IS:2386(Part I)-1963)
IS Percentage passing for single sized aggregate of nominal size Percentage passing for Graded
Sieve Aggregate of nominal size
designa
tion
63mm 40mm 20mm 16mm 12.5mm 10mm 40mm 20mm 16mm 12.5mm
80mm 100 - - - - - 100 - - -
63mm 80-100 100 - - - - - - - -
40mm 0-30 85-100 100 - - - 95-100 100 - -
20mm 0-5 0-20 85-100 100 - - 30-70 95-100 100 100
16mm - - - 85-100 100 - - - 90-100 -
12.5mm - - - - 85-100 100 - - - 90-100
10mm 0-5 0-5 0-20 0-30 0-45 85-100 10-35 25-35 30-70 40-85
4.75mm - - 0-5 0-5 0-10 0-20 0-5 0-10 0-10 0-10
2.36mm - - - - - 0-5 - - - -

FINE AGGREGATES

(Testing as per IS: 2386 (Part I)-1963)

IS Sieve Designation Percentage Passing for
Grading Zone I Grading Zone II Grading Zone III Grading Zone IV
10mm 100 100 100 100
4.75mm 90-100 90-100 90-100 95-100
2.36mm 60-95 75-100 85-100 95-100
1.18mm 30-70 55-90 75-100 90-100
600 micron 15-34 35-59 60-79 80-100
300 micron 5-20 8-30 12-40 15-55
150 micron 0-10 0-10 0-10 0-20
F.M.* 4.0-2.71 3.35-2.11 2.75-1.71 2.25-1.35
*IRC SP-23-1982.
 Note 1- For crushed stone sands, the permissible limit on 150 micron IS sieve is increased to 20 percent. This
does not affect the 5 percent allowance permitted in applying other sieve sizes.
Note 2- Fine aggregate complying with the requirements of any grading zone in this table is suitable for
concrete but the quality of concrete produced will depend upon a number of factors including proportions.
Note 3- where concrete of high strength and good durability is required, fine aggregate conforming to any one
of the four gradingzones may be used, but the concrete mix should be properly designed. As the fine
aggregate grading becomes progressively finer, that is, from Grading Zones I to IV, the ratio of fine aggregate
to coarse aggregate should be progressively reduced. The most suitable fine to coarse ratio to be used for any
particular mix will, however, depend upon the actual grading, particle shape and surface texture of both fine
and coarse aggregates.
Note 4- It is recommended that fine aggregate conforming to Grading Zone IV should not be used in
reinforced concrete unless tests have been made to ascertain the suitability of proposed mix proportions.

QUALITY SPECIFICATION ON WATER FOR MIXING & CURING

IS 456 : 2000 Indian Standard Plain and Reinforced Concrete –

Code of Practice (fourth Revision), July 2000

Water used for mixing cement or concrete should have the following specifications:
Shall be clean, free from oils, acids, alkalis, salts, sugar, organic materials and other substances
deleterious to concrete or steel. Potable water is good enough, but tests may be done as
follows:
a) To neutralize 100 ml of sample, using phenolphthalein indicator, should not require
more than 5 ml of 0.02 normal NaOH solution [Details are as per IS 3025 (Part 22).]
b) To neutralize 100 ml of sample, using mixed indicator, should not require more than 25
ml of 0.02 normal H2SO4 solution [Details are as per IS 3025 (Part 23).]

Sl. No. Permissible limits of solids – Tested as per Permissible limit, Max.
1. Organic IS 3025 (Part 18) 200 mg / l
2. Inorganic IS 3025 (Part 18) 3000 mg / l
3. Sulphates (as SO3) IS 3025 (Part 24) 400 mg / l
4. Chlorides (as Cl ) IS 3025 (Part 32) 2000 mg / l for concrete not
containing embedded steel and
500 mg / l for reinforced
concrete work
5. Suspended matter IS 3025 (Part 17) 2000 mg / l

In case of doubt, compressive strength tests on 150-mm size concrete specimens, cast
by using sample water and another by using distilled water, shall be done. The 28-day strength
of sample water specimen shall be at least 90 percent of that with distilled water specimen
(average of three specimens). IS 516. Initial setting time test [IS 4031 (Part 5)] on cement using
sample water and distilled water shall not be less than 30 minutes and shall not differ by + 30
minutes from the control value. The pH value shall not be less than 6.
Sea water:- Not recommended due to presence of harmful salts, but in unavoidable
circumstances, may be used only in case of plain concrete, NOT in case of RCC. Presence of
tannic acid or iron compounds is objectionable.

GRADES OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE

Characteristics 33-Grade 43-Grade 53-Grade PPC-I Cement PPC-II Cement

Cement Cement Cement
Chemical Requirements: Fly Ash Calcined Clay
1. CaO/ Oxides Ratio Not more than Not more than Not more than Fly Ash (of Calcined Clay
1.02 and 1.02 and 1.02 and Fineness min. 320 Pozzolana (of
not less than not less than not less than m2 / kg and Lime Fineness min. 320
0.66 0.66 0.80 reactivity value m2 / kg and Lime
not less than 4.0 reactivity value
MPa; uniformly not less than 4.0
blended or MPa; uniformly
interground with blended or
OPC - IS 269: interground with
1989; OPC - IS 269:
 homogeneity of 1989;
mix + 3 %) homogeneity of
Min. 15 % and mix + 3 %)
Max. 35 % by Min. 15 % and
weight of OPC Max. 35 % by
weight of OPC
2. Alumina/Iron OxideRatio 0.66 0.66 0.66
Not less than
3.Insol. Residue, % 4.0 % 3.0 % 3.0 % x + 4.0(100-x) x + 4.0(100-x)
Not more than 100 100
where x is % of fly where x is % of
ash in PPC Cal. Clay Pozz. in
PPC
4. MgO % Not more than 6.0 % 6.0 % 6.0 % 6.0 % 6.0 %
5. Total sulphur as SO3 % For C3A 5% or For C3A 5% or For C3A 5% or SO3 not more SO3 not more
less :- less :- less :- than 3.0 % than 3.0 %
SO3 not more SO3 not more SO3 not more
than 2.5 % than 2.5 % than 2.5 %
For C3A more For C3A more For C3A more
than than than
5%:- SO3 not 5%:- SO3 not 5%:- SO3 not
more than 3 % more than 3.0 more than 3.0
% %
6. Total Loss on Ignition, 5.0 % 5.0 % 4.0 % 5.0 % 5.0 %
Not more than
Characteristics 33-Grade 43-Grade 53-Grade PPC-I Cement PPC-II Cement
Cement Cement Cement
Physical Requirements : Fly Ash Calcined Clay
Fineness 225 m2 / kg 225 m2 / kg 225 m2 / kg 300 m2 / kg 300 m2 / kg
Not less than
Soundness
Expansion not more
than
Le- Chatelier’s :- 10 mm 10 mm 10 mm 10 mm 10 mm
Autoclave: - 0.8 % 0.8 % 0.8 % 0.8 % 0.8 %
If it fails then :-Aeration
(Keep 75 mm depth of
layer at 50 to 80 % RH,
for 7 days). Re-test for
soundness. Re-test –
not more than
Le- Chatelier’s :-
Autoclave: - 5mm 5mm 5mm 5mm 5mm
0.6 % 0.6 % 0.6 % 0.6 % 0.6 %

Setting Time
Initial, Not less than 30 min. 30 min. 30 min. 30 min. 30 min.
Final, Not more than 600 min. 600 min. 600 min. 600 min. 600 min.
For false set: Remix and
break the false set, re-
test.
Compressive strength,
Progressive increase in
strength
72+1 Hr. Not less than Not less than Not less than Not less than Not less than
168+2 Hr. 16 MPa 23 MPa 27 MPa 16 MPa 16 MPa
672+4 Hr. 22 MPa 33 MPa 37 MPa 22 MPa 22 MPa
Transverse Strength 33 MPa 43 MPa 53 MPa 33 MPa 33 MPa
(IS 4031 Pt.8:1988) Mutually agreed Mutually agreed Mutually agreed
between between between
purchaser & purchaser & purchaser &
supplier. supplier. supplier.
Drying Shrinkage Not 0.15 % 0.15 %
more than
General :
Storage Protect from Protect from Protect from Protect from Protect from dampness;
dampness; easy dampness; easy dampness; easy dampness; easy easy access for
access for access for access for access for identification
identification identification identification identification
 Manufacturer’s To the effect that To the effect that To the effect that To the effect that To the effect that the
Certificate the cement the cement the cement the cement cement conforms to this
conforms to this conforms to this conforms to this conforms to this standard, as well as the
standard standard standard standard, as well value of ‘x’ %
as the value of
‘x’ %

Delivery Packed in : Any Packed in : Any Packed in : Any Packed in : Any Packed in : Any of these
of these :- of these :- of these :- of these :- :-
Jute (IS Jute (IS Jute (IS Jute (IS Jute (IS 2850:1982)
2850:1982) 2850:1982) 2850:1982) 2850:1982) Multi-wall paper (IS
Multi-wall paper Multi-wall paper Multi-wall paper Multi-wall paper 11761 :1986)
(IS 11761 :1986) (IS 11761 :1986) (IS 11761 :1986) (IS 11761 :1986) Polyethylene Lined jute
Polyethylene Polyethylene Polyethylene Polyethylene (IS 12154 : 1987)
Lined jute (IS Lined jute (IS Lined jute (IS Lined jute (IS Woven HDPE (IS 11652
12154 : 1987) 12154 : 1987) 12154 : 1987) 12154 : 1987) : 1986)
Woven HDPE Woven HDPE Woven HDPE Woven HDPE Woven Polypropylene
(IS 11652 : (IS 11652 : (IS 11652 : (IS 11652 : (IS 11653 : 1986)
1986) 1986) 1986) 1986) Jute synthetic union
Woven Woven Woven Woven (IS12174 : 1987)
Polypropylene Polypropylene Polypropylene Polypropylene Marking : Portland-
(IS 11653 : (IS 11653 : (IS 11653 : (IS 11653 : Pozzolana Cement –
1986) 1986) 1986) 1986) Calcined Clay Based
Jute synthetic Jute synthetic Jute synthetic Jute synthetic (PPC);
union (IS12174 : union (IS12174 : union (IS12174 : union (IS12174 : Average net mass 50 kg
1987) 1987) 1987) 1987) per bag.
Marking : 33- Marking : 43- Marking : 53- Marking :
Grade Ordinary Grade Ordinary Grade Ordinary Portland-
Portland Cement Portland Cement Portland Cement Pozzolana
(OPC); Average (OPC); Average (OPC); Average Cement –Fly
net mass 50 kg net mass 50 kg net mass 50 kg Ash Based
per bag. per bag. per bag. (PPC);
Average net
mass 50 kg per
bag.
Sampling As per IS As per IS As per IS As per IS As per IS 3535 :1986
3535 :1986 3535 :1986 3535 :1986 3535 :1986
Tests Temperature of Temperature of Temperature of Temperature of Temperature of testing:
testing: 27+2 o C testing: 27+2 o C testing: 27+2 o C testing: 27+2 o C 27+2 o C (As per IS 4031
(As per IS 4031 (As per IS 4031 (As per IS 4031 (As per IS 4031 (Part 4) : 1988)
(Part 4) : 1988) (Part 4) : 1988) (Part 4) : 1988) (Part 4) : 1988)
Rejection If fails to If fails to If fails to If fails to If fails to conform, may
conform, may be conform, may be conform, may be conform, may be be rejected. Stored
rejected. Stored rejected. Stored rejected. Stored rejected. Stored cement for 3-6 months
cement for 3-6 cement for 3-6 cement for 3-6 cement for 3-6 may be re-tested prior to
months may be months may be months may be months may be acceptance.
re-tested prior to re-tested prior to re-tested prior to re-tested prior to
acceptance. acceptance. acceptance. acceptance.
* 1. Calculation of % of C3A = 2.65 (% of Al2O3) – 1.69 (% of Fe2O3) (% of oxides in total cement)
2. Alkali content in cement should not exceed 0.6 % of cement, if the aggregates happen to be reactive, use of PPC is
advisable.
3. Total Chloride content (Test according to IS 12423:1988) should not exceed 0.1 % in 33-Grade, 43-Grade and 53-
Grade OPC for structures other than pre-stressed concrete, and for pre-stressed concrete should not exceed 0.05
% in 33-Grade OPC.

IS 3812: 1981 (Reaffirmed 1992)

(First revision) Fourth Reprint OCTOBER 1998.
Specification for Fly Ash for use as Pozzolana and Admixture
Fly Ash Grade I For incorporation in cement mortar and concrete and in lime-
pozzolana mixture, and for manufacture of Portland Pozzolana
cement.
Fly Ash Grade II For incorporation in cement mortar and concrete and in lime –
pozzolana mixture (may be used for PPC if IS 1489-1976 is
permitting it.)
Extraction: - By Cyclone Separator or by Electro-precipitator
Method of Test: - IS 1727: 1967.
 Chemical requirements of Fly Ash
Sr. No. Characteristic Requirement
1 SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 , % Min. 70.0
2 SiO2 , % Min. 35.0
3 MgO , % Max. 5.0
4 SO3 , % Max. 2.75
5 Alkalis as Na2O , % Max.* in case of reactive aggregates, IS 4032 : 1968. 1.5
6 Loss on Ignition, % Max. 12.0
Physical requirements Grade of Fly Ash
I II
1 Fineness- Sp. Sur. In m2/kg by Blaine’s permeability method, Min. 320 250
2 Lime reactivity – N/mm2 , Min. 4.0 3.0
3 Compressive strength at 28 days, N/mm2 , Min. Not less than 80 % of
the strength of
corresponding plain
cement mortar cubes
4 Drying shrinkage, % Max. 0.15 0.10
5 Soundness (Autoclave), % Max. expansion 0.8 0.8

M-10, M-15, M-20, M-25, M-30, M-35, M-40 Grades of concrete, but the bold Grades are
required for Dry Lean Concrete (DLC) as bases and Paving Quality Concrete (PQC)
respectively in case of concrete pavement construction.

IS 516-1959 INDIAN STANDARD METHODS OF TESTS FOR

STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

Compressive Strength:

Sample preparation: Coarse and fine aggregates, proportioning, weighing, mixing concrete-
minimum 2 minutes in machine till concrete is uniform.
Volume of concrete: 10 percent in excess over and above the requirement.
Workability – IS 1199-1959,
Cube-Moulds size – 15 cm cube (when aggregate size is limited to 2 cm, 10 cm cube may
also be used).
Cylinders: of 15 cm dia. x 30 cm length,
Tamping bar: 16 mm dia. 60 cm long bullet pointed at lower end.
Compaction- 35 strokes per layer for 15 cm cubes and 25 strokes per layer for 10 cm cubes,
3-layers filling, finishing with trowel and cover.
Curing - at 27 + 2 oC in fresh water or saturated lime solution till the time of testing.

Core specimen – height prior to capping less than 95 percent of the diameter shall be
rejected, after capping the H/D ratio should be at least one, Correction factor for H/D ratio
between 1 and 2 as per the relationship given,
Core Capping – Neat cement and Sulphur capping,
Equivalent cube strength from core strength – multiply by 5 / 4.
Age at test: 7 and 28 days, 13 weeks and 1 year.
Reporting – identification mark, date of test, age of specimen, curing conditions, including
date of manufacture of specimen in the field, weight of the specimen, dimensions of the
specimen, cross sectional area, maximum load, compressive strength and appearance of
fractured faces of concrete and type of fracture.
Equivalent Cube strength from broken beam specimen: Bearing plates of thickness 6.5 to 19
mm metal plates, 10 cm square or 15 cm square as per beam specimen depth, rate of
loading 140 kg / sq. cm / min, result is 5 percent greater than cube strengths.
 Reporting- same as above.

Flexural Strength:

Sample preparation: Coarse and fine aggregates, proportioning, weighing, mixing concrete-
minimum 2 minutes in machine till concrete is uniform.
Volume of concrete: 10 percent in excess over and above the requirement.
Workability – IS 1199-1959,
Beam-Mould size – 15 x 15 x 70 cm beam (when aggregate size is limited to 2 cm, 10 x 10 x
50 cm beam may also be used).
Tamping bar: Weight 2 kg, 25-mm sq. ramming flat face, 40-cm long.
.
Casting, Curing etc will be the same as above.
Calculation: pxl
fs = --------
b x d2
If ‘a’ = distance between line of fracture and the nearer support measured on the cener line
of tensile side of specimen, in cm,
When ‘a’ is greater than 20 cm for 15 cm specimen, or greater than 13.3 cm for a 10 cm
specimen, or
3p x a
fs = -------------
b x d2
When ‘a’ is less than 20 cm but greater than 17 cm for 15 cm specimen, or less than 11 cm
for a 10 cm specimen
Where
b = measured width in cm of the specimen,
d = measured depth in cm of the specimen
l = length n cm of the span on which the beam is supported,
p = maximum load in kg applied to the specimen.
If ‘a’ is less than 17 cm (for 15-cm beam) or 11 cm (for 10-cm beam) then the results shall
be discarded.
Reporting – identification mark, date of test, age of specimen, curing conditions, size of
specimen, span length, maximum load, position of fracture (value ‘a’), modulus of rupture in
kg / sq. cm and appearance of concrete and type of fracture.

Modulus of Elasticity:

Size of specimen: Cylinders of 15-cm dia. and 30 cm length. Or cores of H/D ratio at least 2.
Preparation of specimen: As above, age of testing at 28 days.
Testing machine and Extensometers: Two extensometers of gauge length not less than 10.2
cm and not more than half the length of the specimen capable of measuring strains to an
accuracy of 2 x 10 –6.
Procedure: Compressive strength of 3 specimens measured and average value calculated,
extensometers be fitted on opposite sides parallel to axis, load applied at the rate of 140 kg /
sq. cm / min. till (C+5) kg/sq. cm where C is one-third of the average compressive strength
of the cubes calculated to nearest 5 kg/ sq. cm. Maintain this load for a minute and then
gradually reduce to 1.5 kg/sq. cm when extensometer reading is taken. Load is again
applied to repeat the reading. Then the third time repeat load and reading taken. The last
two readings should be in agreement to 5 percent of each other and repeat that once more
till the reading difference is less than 5 percent.
Calculation: The stress – strain curves (straight lines) for the two-extensometer readings for
the last two load-cycles are plotted. The slopes give the average ‘E’-value expressed in kg/
sq. cm nearest to 1000 kg / sq. cm.
Report: identification mark, date of test, age of specimen, shape and nominal dimensions of
the specimen, modulus of elasticity, remarks.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY BY ELECTRODYNAMIC METHOD

Specimen: as above.
Apparatus: Oscillator of range up to 10000 cycles per second. An Electromagnetic exciter
unit. Pick up unit. An audio frequency amplifier. An amplitude indicator. A fixed clamp.
Procedure: The specimen in wet condition be balanced at the center or clamped Apparatus
is fitted as shown in figure. The frequency of the exciter is varied till resonance is obtained
and recorded as natural frequency. Weight of specimen, Length of specimen, depth and
breadth of specimen is measured.
Calculation: The density of wet concrete is calculated from
106 x W
w = --------------
lxbxd

E = 4.083 x 10 –9 x n2 x l2 x w
Where E = dynamic modulus of elasticity in kg per sq cm
n = natural frequency of the fundamental mode of longitudinal vibration of the
specimen, in cycles per second
w = density in kg per cubic meter
W = weight in kg of specimen,
l = length in cm of specimen,
b = breadth in cm of specimen,
d = depth in cm of specimen.
At least three specimens are tested for each age.
Report: identification mark, date of test, age of specimen, curing conditions, average
dimensions of specimen, weight of wet specimen, natural frequency of the fundamental
mode of longitudinal vibration of the specimen, dynamic modulus of elasticity.

LIST OF REFERRED INDIAN STANDARDS

IS 2-1949 Rules for Rounding Off Numerical Values.
IS 269: 1989 Specifications for 33 grade ordinary Portland cement (fourth revision)
IS 383-1952 Specification for Coarse and Fine Aggregates from natural sources for
concrete.
IS 455-1953 Specification for Portland Blastfurnace Slag Cement.
IS 456-2000 Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete for general building
Construction (Revised).
IS 460-1953 Specification for Test Sieves.
IS 516-1959 Indian Standard Methods of Tests for Strength of Concrete.
IS 650: 1966 Standard sand for testing of cement (first revision)
IS 1199-1959 Sampling and Analysis of Green Concrete.
IS 1344: 1981 Specification for calcined clay pozzolana (second revision)
IS 1727: 1967 Methods of tests for pozzolanic materials (first revision)
IS 2580: 1982 Jute sacking bags for packing cement (second revision)
IS 3535: 1986 Methods of sampling of hydraulic cements (first revision)
IS 3812: 1981 Specification for fly ash for use as pozzolana and admixture (first
revision)
IS 4031(Parts1 to 15) Methods of physical tests for hydraulic cement
IS 4032: 1985 Methods of chemical analysis of hydraulic cement (first revision)
IS 4845: 1968 Definitions and terminology relating to hydraulic cement
IS 4905: 1968 Methods of random sampling
IS 11652: 1986 High-density polyethylene (HDPE) woven sacks for packing cement
IS 11653: 1986 Polypropylene (PP) woven sacks for packing of cement
 IS 11761: 1986 Multi wallpaper sacks for cement, valved- sewn gussetted type
IS 12089: 1987 Specification for granulated slag for the manufacture of Portland slag
cement
IS 12154: 1987 Lightweight jute bags for packing of cement
IS 12174: 1987 Jute synthetic union bags for packing of cement
IS 12423: 1988 Method for colourimetric analysis of hydraulic cement.

LECTURE ON

REPAIR MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES FOR RIGID PAVEMENTS

By
G. K. Tike’, Scientist E-II,
Pavement Engineering & Materials. (PEM)
1. REPAIRS TO RESTORE GOOD RIDEABILITY CONDITIONS OF RIGID PAVEMENTS:

In India, concrete pavements are provided comparatively at much fewer places than the
bituminous pavements. These places may be located at the touch down / take off ends of the
airfield runways, taxi tracks for aircraft, a few very heavily trafficked sections of highways or city
roads and streets, concrete bridge decks, some of the well developed market roads in the cities,
parking lots, concrete paths within the institutional premises etc. Recent thrust by the National
Highway Authority of India (NHAI) in construction of ‘Golden Quadrilateral’ and ‘N-S & E-W
Corridors’, envisages about 20 % construction in cement concrete pavements. Also some
problematic areas requiring continuous maintenance on bituminous pavements in cities are
being reconstructed through cement concrete overlays. Usually, properly designed and well-
constructed cement concrete pavements do not require much attention by way of repairs during
their desired service life span. However, imperfections at the construction stage, or subsequent
damage due to higher traffic loads, coupled with the weathering actions may necessitate their
repairs. The types of defects often observed are: - (i) fine hairline cracks, wide and deep cracks,
map-pattern cracks, (ii) corner or edge spalls, (iii) abraded surface, (iv) coarse aggregates pop-
outs, (v) pot holes, (vi) slab corner breakage, (vii) wide and deep longitudinal cracks, (viii)
differential settlements (sinking) of concrete slabs due to the soil beneath the slab by natural
water drain, soil-erosion of shoulders of pavement (or shrinkage of soil) etc. Mostly, the surface
characteristics (riding quality) of the pavement gets deteriorated. In concrete bridge decks,
another type of defect is commonly observed namely the de-lamination of the concrete covering
the reinforcement bars. If it is established through critical evaluation of a pavement that the
defects are of structural nature, then either a re-laying or overlaying of concrete pavement has to
be taken up. This is a subject of special importance and deserves a separate treatment for itself.
Hence, it is excluded here. This lecture entirely devotes itself to the techniques of speedy repairs
of the defects affecting the surface characteristics alone and thus improving the riding quality of
surface, without much dislocation of traffic and in the minimum possible time.

Bituminous mixes have been tried extensively in practice due to the lower cost and easy
availability for repairs of some types of the defects mentioned above. However, due to their non-
compatibility with cement concrete (as far as strength, bonding and resistance to the weathering
actions are concerned), these have not proven to be very successful and stable. Under these
conditions, synthetic resins, with the capacity to bond with cement concrete, set and harden in a
matter of hours, giving strengths comparable with cement concrete and provide good durability
against the weathering actions, present an attractive alternative, specially for carrying out
speedy repairs. Due to their high costs, they cannot be considered as material for routine
construction or repairs. If the total economics of minimum traffic diversions, time-saving in
effecting efficiently the repair job, avoiding costly overlays and heavy costs to wear of vehicles
and accident risks borne by the users are considered, then the one-time cost of repair using
synthetic resins may well compare with the cumulative costs of frequent repairs using cheaper
materials like bituminous mixes etc.

The use of synthetic resins in repairs of concrete pavements has been made extensively
and the technique has come of age. These resins can be divided into two groups, (depending
upon the chemical structure) polyesters and epoxies. These are commercially available with
their respective combinations of hardeners, catalysts and accelerators etc. The intricacies
involved in their selection, formulation and uses, their evaluation and assessment for their
individual usefulness according to any given situation of application, precautions to be observed
in their storage and handling, have all been described in this lecture. In resin-sand mortars, the
sand used should have a F. M. of about 1 (i.e. fine river-sand) and in resin-concrete the size of
the coarse aggregate should not exceed 25 mm or 1 inch. For obtaining a better skid resistance,
materials such as hard silica sand, crushed stone, alumina, silicon carbide, or blast furnace slag
may be used for spreading in a thin layer over a freshly coated resin on pavement surface. The
fineness of these materials may be 2 mm to 600 micron in size. Generally, resin: sand is kept
between 1:3 to 1:5 in resin mortars and resin: aggregate (Coarse + Fine) in the resin concrete is
1:8.

Details of the procedure for surface preparations, cutting of defective concrete to shape
the voids in a desired fashion, the repair techniques for fine cracks, wide cracks, spalls, pot
holes, pop outs and skid resistant surface etc have been given in the lecture.
 Laboratory tests have been described to test properties of resin-formulations and of
resin mortars such as pot life, compressive strength, moisture susceptibility, bond strength,
shrinkage, coefficient of thermal expansion, durability against accelerated weathering cycles etc.

A table presenting the typical values of different properties of resin formulations and
mortars is given below:
TYPICAL Values of Different Properties of Resin Formulations and Mortars
Resin Formulation Property Type of Resin
Epoxy Polyester
Coefficient of thermal expansion 23 – 25 20 – 35
10-6 cm / o C
Viscosity, c’ poise at 27 o C 4,000 – 5,000 – 10,000
10,000
Linear shrinkage, max. % 0.1 0.1
Specific gravity, Min. 1.05 -
Max. 1.20 0.9 to 1.0
Pot life, minutes
Varies with accelerator used, at
25 o C 90 80
30 o C 60 60
35 o C 45 40
Storage life At least 12 At least 12
months months
Moisture susceptibility Slightly Susceptible
susceptible
Resin Mortars

Compressive strength 1:3 to 1:6 350 – 1000 (at 650 – 800 (at 1
with fine and medium sand, kg / 2 days age) day age)
cm2
Tensile strength (1:3 to 1:4), kg / 80 –100 (at 2 100 – 120 (at 1
cm2 days age) day age)
Flexural strength (1:3 to 1:4), kg / 400 – 500 (at 350 – 450 (at 7
cm2 7 days age) days age)
Bond strength (1:3 to 1:6), kg / cm2 25 – 45 (at 2 25 – 45 (at 2
days age) days age)

Determining the properties of resin and resin mortars in the laboratory

1. Pot life of resin formulation: The resin formulation is prepared in a dishpan in the
desired proportions by weight, and the clock is started to note the time elapsed. Liquid
resin formulation is applied with a paintbrush on a concrete surface (each time on a
fresh surface) till such time that it becomes sticky and cannot be spread at all. The time
elapsed is noted. This is the Pot-Life in minutes.
2. Compressive strength of Resin Mortars: Resin sand mortar is prepared in the desired
ratio, cube moulds (50 mm size) are cast and cured as per the procedure for each test
as prescribed. These are de-moulded and tested at the appropriate ages as required.
(Average of 3 cubes)
3. Moisture Susceptibility: Cubes are cast as in 2. above, 3 cubes for reference and 3
cubes for the test. The cubes under test are immersed in water at room temperature,
while the reference cubes are stored in air. Both these sets are tested for compressive
strength at the specified age and the percent loss in strength of the cubes under water
as compared to those in air is the measure of moisture susceptibility.
4. Bond strength of Resin Mortar-Cement Concrete Composite: This is a shear test
between the resin mortar bonded to the cement concrete. A cement concrete cube of
100 mm size is cut with a diamond cutter to 75 mm height (i.e. remove a slice of 25 mm
 thickness from top of the cube). This specimen is dried in an oven, cooled and fitted in a
100 mm cube-mould and the top 25 mm void is patched with resin mortar after giving a
tack coat of neat resin formulation, used in mortar phase. After curing the specimen as
prescribed for the specific resin mortar for a given time, it is tested under a UTM in shear
to obtain shear strength of average of three specimens.
5. Shrinkage of Resin Mortar: 25 x 25 x275 mm mortar bars are cast with resin mortar
under testing. These are fitted with stainless steel studs at the center of end-square
faces of prism-bars during the casting. After the curing as prescribed for the specific
resin mortar, for the desired period of curing, these are de-moulded (usually immediately
after the setting time). Their length is measured in a Length Comparator with a dial-
gauge. After the bar shrinks finally, the lengths are periodically measured and compared
with the original as cast length, to note the percent shrinkage of mortar after the desired
period (usually final setting).
6. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Resin Mortars: Mortar bars of resin mortar are
cast as in 5. above. Three bars are used for this test. The initial lengths are noted with
length comparator at room temperature. Then, these are subjected to heating uniformly
in an oven up to any higher temperature, say 90 o C or 100 o C and the expanded bar-
length is measured. The calculation is made as (figure) x 10-6 cm / o C.

Some Examples of Epoxy Resin Formulations, Mortars and concretes:

Materials:
(a) Epoxy Resin Formulation Parts by weight
(ERF)
E-I: Ciba Araldite ER GY-250 100
Hardener HY-961 53
Hardener HY-960 4
E-II: Ciba Araldite ER GY-250 100
Hardener HY-825 20
Hardener HY-830 20
Hardener HY-850 20
E-III: Ciba Araldite ER GY-250 100
Hardener HY-825 45
Hardener HY-960 5
E-IV: Ciba Araldite ER GY-250 100
(With MMA as diluent)
Hardener HY-830 45
Hardener HY-960 5
E-V: Ciba Araldite ER GY-250 100
Dibutyl Phthalate 7
Hardener HY-830 44.6
Hardener HY-850 22.3
Resin Mortar, Resin Concrete, Fast curing: E-II, E-IV
Repairs (Patching of pot-holes, Medium Curing: E-I, E-V.
spalled areas, pop-outs etc. resin Slow Curing: E-III
mortar overlays)
For crack sealing E-IV
(b) Sand:Dry hard, F.M. ~1, passing IS:1.15 mm sieve
(c) Coarse Aggrgates : Not more than 25 mm size, hard dry,
uniformly graded
(d) Mix Proprtions : 1 RF : 3 to 5 Sand for mortars
1 RF : up to 8 (aggregates for concrete.

Repair and Maintenance

 While properly designed and constructed cc pavements need only very little attention by
way of repair and maintenance during the designed period of service life, imperfections at the
construction stage, or subsequent damage due to heavier loading etc. may necessity their
repairs. Since in India, cement concrete pavements are mostly provided in case of airfields and
heavily trafficked roads, where it is generally not possible to close the traffic for long periods,
speedy and efficacious methods of repair are caused for. While ordinary repairs with cement
concrete alone require a minimum curing period of two weeks during which period the traffic on
the pavement has to be closed down, bituminous repairs do not prove satisfactory because of
grossly diverse material properties and need frequent attention. Under these conditions,
synthetic resigns, with the capacity to bond with cement concrete set and harden in a matter of
hours, giving strengths comparable with cement concrete present an attractive alternatives,
especially in case of speedy or emergency repairs. Due to the high cost of synthetic resigns,
they cannot be considered as a routine material for construction or repair. However compared
to the other cheaper alternatives available at hand for speedy repairs, the quick setting high
strength excellent bonding properties of synthetic resigns would outweigh mere economic
considerations, specially when major traffic stops and dislocation due to repairs are averted.
Nowadays the concept of costing includes:

1) Cost of initial construction.

2) Cost of repairs of maintenance.
3) The coat incurred by the road users.

Therefore it is all the more necessary to understand the properties and special features of these
synthetic resins and the appropriate procedures fitting the type of work are carefully learnt to
maximize the economy as the use of resins involves high costs. In addition, they are to some
extent allergenic and therefore require cautions and careful handling. Defects in cement
concrete pavements like cracking, spalling at joints and edges, cavitation and sinking (as long as
these defects are not of a serious structural nature) have been repaired by use of synthetic
resins.

2. MATERIALS :

2.1 Synthetic Resins: Resins and their curing agents such as hardeners, accelerators,
catalysts etc.
Pot life: 30-45 minutes
Shelf life: few months to a year or more for different resins
Thermosetting reaction slows at cold and fast at high temp. (Range 0-35 o C)
Epoxy – diglycidyl ethers of diphenylol- A (A may be propane or any other group)
Resins – - Epoxy novolacs.
- Chloro-aliphatic epoxies
Hardeners – Poly-sulphide polymers, polyamides and amine adducts.
Curing agents – Aliphatic or aromatic amines.
Epoxy is represented chemically as: -C-C-H
‘O’
Polyester resins – reaction product of a polyhydric alcohol and unsaturated polybasic
acid.
Polymerization starters or initiators-peroxides or hydro peroxide
Catalysts – cobalt naphthenate to accelerate the reaction initiated by starter.
2.2 Factors affecting choice of resin systems:
1. Location of use and its climate – properties of resin-mix suitable for particular
temperature and humidity range, e.g. polyester is moisture susceptible.
2. Ambient temperature during the period of use – adequate pot-life should be
obtained at ambient temperature
3. Type of repair – e.g. resin-bonded cement concrete repairs, slow setting epoxy
system with polyamide and amine adducts, non-susceptible to moisture.
 Polyester resin is ruled out for thin crack repairs by resin injection, low viscosity
resin system, for large repairs, low-shrinkage coefficients etc.
4. Bond between hardened cement concrete and resin mortar and its
durability – Epoxy resin mixes are much less susceptible to loss of bond with
cement concrete for temperature variations up to 90 o C vis-à-vis polyester resin
mixes. Sever loss of bond is there, when alkaline sand is used with polyester
resins.
2.3 Properties of resins and resin mortars – Preliminary lab testing for :
(i) Pot life,
(ii) Compressive Strength and moisture susceptibility
(iii) Bond strength of cement concrete resin mortar,
(iv) Shrinkage & Thermal characteristics,
(v) Durability of resin mortar – cement concrete composites.
2.4 Information required form resin supplier/manufacturer:
(i) Nomenclature and proportion of the resin system components,
(ii) Type of resin system
(iii) Storage & mixing directions
(iv) Hazardous potentialities and handling precautions
(v) Usable temperature range
(vi) Shelf life
(vii) Available test data
(viii) Adjustments in mix formations for change in temperature of use
(ix) Heat distortion temperature (at which resin structure change adversely affecting
its qualities
(x) Other pertinent information e.g. strength and durability, suitability for conditions
of use etc.
(xi) Date of manufacture.
2.5 Storage & Handling: Storage-cool, covered, no-naked flame
Precautions:
(i) Well ventilated area
(ii) Below eye level
(iii) Disposable containers, gloves, goggles etc.
(iv) Avoid scratch in of body, adjusting spectacles, goggles.
(v) For cleaning only soap and water – should be used, rubbing with dry sand or
hard cement concrete surface with water. On set resin formations from
containers, tools etc, these may be cleaned by:
(i) Equal volumes of ethyl alcohol and benzene
(ii) Equal volumes of ethyl alcohol and toluene
(iii) Toluene
(iv) Benzene
(v) Ethyl alcohol

2.6 Aggregates: Fine or coarse as per application, pre-cast cement concrete Blocks.
Size of coarse aggregate of maximum 25 mm.
Fine river sand passing 1.18-mm sieve of FM 1 cm is used.
Sieve Size Fine Sand % Medium Sand %
Passing Passing
4.76 mm 100 100
2.36 mm 100 100
1.18 mm 100 100
600 95-100 50-60
micron
300 90-100 20-30
micron
150 5-20 20-30
micron
 For better skid resistance hard silica, crushed stone, alumina, silicon carbide,
slag etc
2-mm to 600 micron size.

2.7 Mix Proportions: Depending on curing schedule and pot life (in outdoor work) resin:
hardener mix should be fixed and also temperature and weather conditions should be
taken into account.
For polyester resin - Accelerator should be 0.5 to 1.5 ml per 100 g of resin for mixing
temperature of 40 to 10 o C.
For Epoxy resin – Tertiary amine hardener 4 to 10 g per 100-g resin for mixing
temperature - range 40 to 10 o C.

In resin sand mortar or concrete, the quantity of resin must be enough to coat all
aggregate surfaces and to fill voids. Generally, 1:3 to 5 (medium to fine) sand is the ratio
in mortars. In case of higher aggregate size 1:8 (by weight) in specific gravity range of
2.5 to 2.8 may be done. Select appropriate viscosity resin for optimum Resin: Aggregate
ratio. It is advisable to make trial mixes at the field conditions. For mixing, hemispherical
bottom disposable vessels should be used, knife spatula etc for mixing up to 1-kg batch.
Paddle type mechanical mixer could be used up to 2-kg batch. Bigger than 2-kg batches
can be made by power driven mixers, however, balling of mix should be carefully
avoided by adding resin to the aggregate slowly but mixing vigorously till mix is uniform
and homogeneous.

2.8 Temperature Conditioning: Of pavement, aggregate and resin formulation according

to temperature of weather cold or hot.
(a) Temperature – below 10ºC : Temperature of pavement up to depth of 7.5cm
should be raised so as to accelerate hardening rate. The slab temperature
should at least be 15 ºC and preferably 25 ºC by circulating warm air, radiation
from electric heaters, bulbs etc. The surface temperature must be below 40ºC
during hardening period.
(b) Temperature below 25 o C and above 10 o C : Hardening period is somewhat
longer but it is normal for this practice.
(c) Temperature above 30 o C: Difficulties may arise due acceleration of hardening
rate. Work should be carried out in cool hours of the day night or protected from
sunlight.
(d) Temperature conditioning of Aggregate and resin 25 o C - 35 o C: Heating or
cooling of resin for temperature conditioning should not be done beyond 60 ºC
or below 15 ºC respectively. (Moisture-free conditions)

3. SURFACE PREPARATION:

Freshly exposed concrete, free of all loose & unsound materials, clean & dry and at
proper temp. Care should be taken that moisture does not rise through capillary action
at the interface of resin and concrete during application & curing period.

3.1 Case I – When Concrete is to be cut in a depth:

Chisel & hammer manually or parallel & perpendicular grooves to the joints & edges
shape for better interlocking. Joint cutting machine P. Hammers should be med. To light
and care should be taken not to cause five cracks during hammering.
3.2 Case II – When cutting in depth is not required:
Sound area be leaned to remove oil, dirt, asphalt, mortar droppings, weak laitance etc.
At joints the joint sealing compound should be completely removed to expose clean
sound surface. Wash sodium hydroxide light chiseling up to 1mm depth for better
 results. Alternatively, HCl dil wash @ 4kg / 10 sq. m. in two applications. Flushing
operation (after 5 min. Brushing with iron wire brushes or brooms) immediately after
forming ceases.
3.3 Case III – When crack is to be repaired:
Cleaning along the crack formation of trapezoidal notch 3-4 cm and 4-5 cm wide.

4. REPAIR TECHNIQUES

Formwork for patching of potholes spalled areas, pop-outs etc. Joint grooves should be
maintained by inserting wooden or metal strips covered with alkathene or mobile oil for
easy removal after the work tack coat to be spread on the finished top. For expediting
the repairs, slightly higher temp. (30- 40) ºC could be used.
4.1 Skid and Wear resistant Layer:
Sprinkling excess fine aggregate on tack coat, 16-17 kg fine aggregate / 10 sq. m per
layer. This can be repeated for two or three layers. No resin should get into joint
grooves.
4.2 Crack Repairs:
The cause of crack – formation should be investigated & rectified (e.g. differential
settlement of subgrade etc.) Mechanical lifting of slabs and pressure grouting can be
employed. Fine shrinkage cracks (less than 0.2 mm wide) may not need any treatment.
Pressure injection of low viscosity resin formulation can be done after cleaning the
cracks and sealing it on top while fixing aluminium pipe nipples through which resin
formulation is pumped till its comes out from the next nipples.
4.3 Resin Mortar Overlays:
For extremely heavy traffic involving iron tyred or studded tyred traffic, on bridge decks
which cannot sustain the weight of additional cc layer, tack coat is to be applied before
putting resin mortar or concrete. Richer mixes make it to easy to finish level the top
surface, easier compaction by trowelling, etc. for rough texture broom finish may be
done.
4.4 Resin Bonded cement concrete Overlay Resurfacing:
Only epoxy formulation should be used. Mild steel pegs should be fixed if required.
Potholes, cracks etc on the existing surface should be repaired. A mild steel bar mesh
may be provided extending on either side of the crack should be embedded at mid
depth, in concrete overlay. Joints in the overlay should be matched with those of the
existing pavement both in type and location. Formwork should be held in position with
the help of wooden plank bonded to the existing concrete surface. Tack coat to be
applied. Flow of resin into joints should be guarded against. Edges & corners must be
well coated with resin formulation. Minimum thickness of overlay should be 25 mm.
Fixing Mild Steel Shear Pegs in Existing Concrete Pavement before Overlaying/
Resurfacing: 20 mm diameter mild-steel peg 15 cm embedded. Can take a pull load of
650 kg, 25 mm diameter can take 900 kg. However 5 cm bottom cover should be left in
the existing slab in the hole shear peg is given tack coat of resin and resin sand mortar
issued for filling the gap in the hole after placing the peg in the hole.
4.5 Curing And Opening To Traffic
Resin formulation should be well-cured four hours in summer & six hours in winter
generally adequate. Curing at slightly elevated temperature can reduce the curing
immediately. In case of cement concrete overlay (resin bonded), 24 hours wet hession
and then by ponding up to 28 days. Working should be carefully avoided by keeping the
concrete wet for 28 days. After curing, joints sealed before opening to traffic.

MAGNESIUM PHOSPHATE CEMENT – AN ALTERNATIVE FOR EMERGENCY REPAIR OF

CONCRETE PAVEMENTS

Raw materials
(i) Dead burnt magnesite, (ii) Mono ammonium phosphate, (iii) Sodium Tri-poly Phosphate, (iv)
Borax (retarder), (v) Water
Properties of MPC mortar
Properties 1 hour 4 24 3 day 7 day 28
hour hour day
Compressive strength (kg/cm2) 440 460 510 580 610 640
Flexural Strength (kg/cm2) 72 95 96 98 98 101
Bond Strength (kg/cm2) 15 30 43 44 44 44
Other important characteristics
(i) Pot life 6-10 minute, (ii) Temperature of the mix 50 – 60 C
Advantages
(i) Early compressive, flexural and bond strength, (ii) Exothermic reaction, no extra heat is
required for setting, (iii) Favorably suitable for cold climatic condition, (iv) MPC is about 50% to
60% cheaper than synthetic resin, (v) Non toxic, (vi) Early opening to traffic.

References:
1. IRC: 77-1979 Tentative guidelines for Repair of Concrete Pavements Using Synthetic
Resins.
2. R.K. Ghosh, “ Concrete Repairs with Epoxy and Polyester Resins”, Highway Research
Record pp. 12-17, No.327, National Research council, Washington D.C. USA
3. Ghosh R.K., Phull, Y.R. and Pant C. S., ”Repair of Concrete Pavements Using Synthetic
Resins”, Journal of The Indian Roads Congress, V.37, No.2, 1976.
4. Strategic Highway Research Programme, “Concrete Pavement Repair Manuals of Practice,”
SHRP-349, p.12, and p.109, National Research Council, Washington D.C., USA.
5. David G. M. and Adrian, G.L.”Detecting Defects and Deterioration of Highway
Structures” National Co-operation of Highway Research Programme (NCHRP),
Transportation Research Board, Report 118, pp.5-10, 1985.
6. S. S. Seehra, Mrs. S. Gupta and Satander Kumar,”Rapid Setting Magnesium Phosphate
for Quick Repair of Concrete pavements: Characterization and Durability Aspects”, An
International Journal of Cement and Concrete Research (USA), Vol.23, N.2, pp.254-
266, March 1993.
7. Dr. S. S. Seehra, G.K.Tike and J. B. Sengupta,” Repair and Maintenance of Cement
Concrete Pavements”, International Symposium on Innovative World of Concrete Vol.II
(ICW-98), Organized by Indian Concrete Institute, Calcutta, 16-19 Nov. 1998.
8. Polymer Modified Hydraulic-Cement Mixtures by Kuhlmann / Walters STP1176 ASTM,
June 1993.
9. Repairing Concrete Bridges, ACI Seminars Seminar Background Materials, SCM-27
(93), Second Edition.
10.
 QUESTIONNAIRE ON REPAIRS OF RIGID PAVEMENTS

1. What is meant by rehabilitation of pavements? And repairs of pavements?

2. What are the reasons for deterioration of rigid pavements?
a) Deterioration caused by defective design and construction
The most commonly observed defects on account of defective design are …….
(fill-in yourself)
The most commonly observed defects on account of defective construction
………

b) Deterioration caused by overloading of vehicles

The most commonly observed defects on account of overloading of the vehicles
are…..

c) Deterioration caused by environmental factors

The most commonly observed defects on account of environmental factors are
…….

3. What are the structural and non-structural types of defects?

Types of defects on rigid pavements:
a) Structural defects: ………
b) Non-structural but Performance Defects: ………

4. What are the reasons for each type of defect?

Spalls : Edge spall, Corner spall and joint space spall ……
Break: Corner break, chunk formation and rocking or faulting of chunks
Abrasion & Scaling:
Pop-outs and Pot-Holes:
Cracking: Longitudinal, Lateral, Through the full depth, Shrinkage, alligator, D-shape,
5. How crack depth is estimated using a portable ultrasonic non-destructive in-situ
test (PUNDIT)?
5. How to assess the riding quality of a rigid pavement?
Bump Integrator, Straight Edge
6. What are the materials and techniques available for repairs for each type of
defects?
Organic binders and mixes:
Inorganic binders and mixes:

7. What makes rigid pavements on highways different from airfield pavements as far
as repairs are concerned?
Rigid Pavements for Highways: Load and design
Rigid Airfield Pavements: Load and design, pavement surface requirements
 LECTURE ON

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

By
G. K. Tike’, Scientist E-II,
Pavement Engineering & Materials, (PEM)

The following is a series of some questions which you may please go through and ask
sincerely to yourself whether you can answer them right now? Do you think that it will be better
if a knowledgeable person would answer them and explain in some details?

1. What is meant by durability of concrete?

2. What are the types of stresses that concrete is expected to resist while in its service life?
3. What are the load-stresses? Permissible levels of standard legal axle loads?
4. What are the environmental stresses?
……………………………………………
5. What is ordinary Portland cement chemically and physically?
6. How does the OPC hydrate? What is the secret of strength of OPC?
7. What are the main functions of water addition in dry cement concrete mix?
…………………………………………………………………………………
8. What are the causes for deterioration of concrete?
9. How does the microstructure of concrete look like?
10. What is porosity of concrete? How to measure it?
11. What is permeability of concrete? How to measure it?
12. Is there any link between the porosity and strength, and strength and durability of concrete?
Is any strong concrete specimen automatically durable also?
……………………………………………………………………………..
13. What is salt-crystallization? What is sulphate attack?
14. What is Alkali-silica reaction? What is “D” cracking in concrete pavements?
………………………………………………………………………………….
15. Water is a universal solvent. How do the external body steel plates of ships and submarines
dissolve in seawater? Do you actually see the dissolution of iron in water? Brown
coloured rust or mud suspended in water? As far as reaction of metals (dissolution) with
water is concerned, do you know which is the most reactive and which is the least reactive
metal? Electrochemical reactivity series of metals?
16. What is rusting phenomenon in reinforcement bars? Do you recognize seriously that
corrosion of steel is a contributing to non-durable
17. How do chloride ions accelerate rusting process in reinforcement bars?
18. How to avoid/reduce rusting of steel reinforcement bars? Coatings? Electro-chemical
methods?
19. Can we ever have a new material of construction in civil engineering, which is not using
steel reinforcement? Is Steel-free (RCC) concrete a possibility in the present age of
plastics? Stone age, copper age, bronze age…. Atomic age… so it is now the plastics age!
Plastics are replacing metals due to the quality of non-corrosion and equal strength and
lighter weight than steel.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
20. What can we do to make a concrete sample durable? Do’s & Don’ts.

Durability of Concrete-
 In this world, every man-made thing has a discreet beginning, a
definite life period and an end. Concrete is no exception to this rule.
During the designed service life, a concrete member must be
able to withstand all the STRESSES to which it is subjected and
must perform well without any signs of distress.
Such concrete is said to be durable.
These stresses have to be within the designed safe-limits.

Types of STRESSES Acting on Concrete in its Service Life-

a) Load-STRESSES-

In the context of rigid pavements, to withstand the legally permitted

axle load, the design of pavements uses the flexural strength and
factor of safety in the design calculations.

However, impact loads are not included. Bombardment by enemy

warplanes, earthquake, flooding and displacement, boulderslide,
landslides, avalanche etc. is clearly excluded.

b) Environmental STRESSES-

1. Temperature highs and lows;

2. Differences in the linear coefficients of thermal expansion
properties of cement gel, aggregates, concrete and steel;
3. Temperature differentials- curling and warping stresses;
4. Moisture movements within the concrete,
5. Wetting and drying- sub-soil water table, floods and
submergence,
6. Salt actions from environment
are all examples of environmental stresses. Further, Chemical
attack, sulphate attack, alkali-aggregate reaction are from
environment only. Rusting of steel reinforcement or load transfer
devices (dowel bars) is also included in the environmental stresses.

But, [(a) + (b)] STRESSES how much (in quantity) above the safe-limits?

Causes for Deterioration of Concrete

a) Internal
Alkali-aggregate reaction, volume changes due to differences in
thermal expansion properties of aggregates and cement paste,
porosity and permeability of concrete- sulphate and chloride attacks.
b) External
Physical, chemical or mechanical due to weathering, extreme
temperatures (temperature-shocks), abrasion, electrolytic actions,
erosion, attack by natural or industrial liquids and gases.

Hydration of Concrete

In the dry OPC powder, four phases are present in different

proportions. These are - C3S, C2S, C3A and C4AF. Gypsum
(CaSO4.2H2O) is also present in calculated quantity based on
C3A content. C means CaO, S means SiO 2, A means Al2O3 and F
means Fe2O3.
 When water is mixed with this dry powder, all the four phases of
cement- C3S, C2S, C3A and C4AF begin to hydrate
simultaneously. Major contribution to the strength of cement is
given by the first two phases only; the latter two are associated
phases.

Hydrated cement paste has pores and capillaries, as seen from

its microstructure through Scanning Electron Microscope -
S.E.M. It has also deposits of crystals of hydrated (leached) lime
leached out from the hydration of C3S phase.

C3S hydrates rapidly to give C2SH + Ca(OH)2. This C2SH

contributes to initial strength and simultaneously C 2S phase
starts hydrating slowly up to one-year age to give the long-term
strength, in addition to the strength initially contributed by
C2SH.

C3A completes its hydration immediately, but in any case within

(Initial Setting Time- I. S. T. - of cement paste) 30 minutes upon
mixing with water. Gypsum in calculated quantity is inter-
ground with the cement clinker in the cement factory itself. This
is done to control the I. S. T. by neutralizing the C 3A (False-
setting) and possibility of expansion of C3AH after the final set
has occurred. If all the hydrated C3AH is not completely
neutralized with gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) before the initial setting
time, then it becomes a potential risk of sulphate attack. C 3AH
contributes to the total and ultimate strength of cement
negligibly, so in a sense, it is an “unwanted material” in the
cement powder. Therefore, the user prefers to have low C 3A
content in cement. The alumina part in clay raw material is
inseparable, so the presence of C 3A in cement phases cannot
be avoided. Since it also melts in the kiln at a comparatively
lower temperature thereby saving energy, it helps in better
completion of the clinkering reactions. That is why the
manufacturer prefers to have it to reduce fuel cost and better
clinkering. So, there must be an optimum level for C 3A in the
cement powder, which is 7%. Below this level, the cement is
called low C3A cement and is preferable but this level may be
allowed up to 11 % as the maximum permissible. If by chance,
cements containing higher C3A than this value without proper
neutralization with gypsum are used then structures may crack
and crumble due to sulphate attack from ground water.

Microstructure of concrete

The hydration of the ‘first two’ cement phases continues up to one

year and even beyond. The gel grows and water molecules are
chemically bound to the gel. There is “free water” and “bound water”
in the gel system. The free water eventually dries out leaving behind
the voids. There are continuous voids, which are called capillaries,
and discontinuous voids, which are called pores. Through these
pores and capillaries water or solutions from the environment can
again enter the system.
 If we dry the gel by heating it up to 100-105 o C in an oven, the free
water can be completely evaporated without any loss of the strength
of the gel. However, the gel water or the bound water can be dried
only by heating up to 375-400 o C. Once the gel is dried (say in
buildings accidentally on fire) the cement (and so the concrete also)
loses its strength.

Water or solutions can become absorbed in the gel (or concrete) in

the pores and capillaries but these can also “pass through”
(seepage) a thickness of gel (or concrete). This seepage can be
measured through the Permeability of Concrete in milliliters /
centimeter / second at a given conditions of hydraulic pressure and
the temperature of the water.

Porosity of Concrete
The voids in the gel occupied by free water in the saturated state
gives the value of its Porosity. It is expressed as the percentage of
void volume (equal to volume of water absorbed by concrete) over
the total volume of concrete. Inside the gel, these pores and
capillaries are formed due to evaporation of mixing water, used in
excess of its exact chemical requirement for the hydration of dry
cement.

How to measure it?

% Porosity = [Weight of water-saturated concrete – weight of dry concrete ] x 100
Volume of concrete

Permeability of Concrete

How to measure it?

Relationship between the Porosity and Strength

Strength and Durability of Concrete

Is any strong concrete specimen automatically durable also?

Ordinary Portland cement-

Chemical Composition-

Physical Properties-

Hydration of OPC
Strength of OPC

Purpose of water addition to dry cement concrete mix

Chemical reaction of hydration-

Physical workability of the mix-

Sulphate Attack-

Salt-Crystallization-

Alkali-silica reaction-

“D” cracking-

Dissolution of Iron in water

Rusting Phenomenon in reinforcement bars

Acceleration of rusting process by chloride ions

Some Steps to make a concrete sample durable

Do’s

& Don’ts

Steps to reduce rusting of steel- reinforcement bars

Can we ever have a new material of construction in civil engineering, which is not using
steel reinforcement?

Is Steel-free (RCC) concrete a possibility?

How this knowledge on Durability of Concrete going to help you in your work?
Did you need this information at all? Or this is an area, which you will never go in?

5. OPC and Blended Cements?

OPC: Ordinary Portland Cement – 33, 43 & 53 grades as per BIS specifications, Rapid
Hardening Cements, Jet Set cements, Fastcrete cements, Oil well cements,
Blended Cements: Fly ash + OPC, GBFS + OPC, Silica Fume + OPC, Rice Husk Ash +
OPC.
Non-Portland Cements: MPC, MOC, Epoxy and Polyester resins, sulphur, High Alumina,
Super sulphate cement, Lime-Pozzolana mixtures, Lime- GBFS Cement,
6. Indian Standards on Quality of Cements?
BIS Numbers and their salient points on different cements: BIS
7. Chemical Hydration of Cements and microstructure of Cement and Concrete?
Ingredients of Concrete: Inert fillers (sand + Stone aggregates) and binders (Cement +
water), workability aids – super-plasticizers, leached lime fixers – pozzolanas – fly ash,
micro silica or condensed silica fume, rice husk ash, granulated blast furnace slag etc.

In the dry OPC powder, four phases are present in different proportions. These are -
C3S, C2S, C3A and C4AF. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is also present in calculated quantity
based on C3A content. C means CaO, S means SiO2, A means Al2O3 and F means
Fe2O3. When water is mixed with this dry powder, all the four phases of cement- C 3S,
C2S, C3A and C4AF begin to hydrate simultaneously i. e. C3S + H2O, C2S + H2O, C3A +
H2O, C4AF + H2O. Major contribution to the strength of cement is given by the first two
phases only; the latter two are merely associated phases. Hydrated cement paste has
pores and capillaries, as seen from its microstructure through Scanning Electron
Microscope - S.E.M. It has also deposits of crystals of hydrated (leached) lime
leached out from the hydration of C 3S phase. C3S hydrates rapidly to give C2SH +
Ca (OH)2. This C2SH contributes to initial strength and simultaneously C2S phase
starts hydrating slowly up to one-year age to give the long-term strength, in
addition to the strength initially contributed by C2SH.
C3A completes its hydration immediately, but in any case within (Initial Setting
Time- I. S. T. - of cement paste) 30 minutes upon mixing with water. Gypsum in
calculated quantity is inter-ground with the cement clinker in the cement factory
itself. This is done to control the I. S. T. by neutralizing the C 3A (False-setting) and
possibility of expansion of C 3AH after the final set has occurred. If all the
hydrated C3AH is not completely neutralized with gypsum (CaSO 4.2H2O) before the
initial setting time, then it becomes a potential risk of sulphate attack. C 3AH
contributes to the total and ultimate strength of cement negligibly, so in a sense,
it is an “unwanted material” in the cement powder. Therefore, the user prefers to
have low C3A content in cement. The alumina part in clay raw material is
inseparable, so the presence of C3A in cement phases cannot be avoided. Since it
also melts in the kiln at a comparatively lower temperature thereby saving energy,
it helps in better completion of the clinkering reactions. That is why the
manufacturer prefers to have it to reduce fuel cost and better clinkering. So, there
must be an optimum level for C 3A in the cement powder, which is 7%. Below this
level, the cement is called low C 3A cement and is preferable but this level may be
allowed up to 11 % as the maximum permissible. If by chance, cements
containing higher C3A than this value as well as without proper neutralization with
gypsum are used then structures may crack and crumble due to sulphate attack
from ground water.
 Microstructure of concrete
The hydration of the ‘first two’ cement phases continues up to one year and even
beyond. The gel grows and water molecules are chemically bound to the gel. There is
“free water” and “bound water” in the gel system. The free water eventually dries out
leaving behind the voids. There are continuous voids, which are called capillaries, and
discontinuous voids, which are called pores. Through these pores and capillaries water
or solutions from the environment can again enter the system.
If we dry the gel by heating it up to 100-105 o C in an oven, the free water can be
completely evaporated without any loss of the strength of the gel. However, the gel
water or the bound water can be dried only by heating up to 375-400 o C. Once the gel is
dried (say in buildings accidentally on fire) the cement (and so the concrete also) loses
its strength.
Water or solutions can become absorbed in the gel (or concrete) in the pores and
capillaries but these can also “pass through” (seepage) a thickness of gel (or concrete).
This seepage can be measured through the Permeability of Concrete in milliliters /
centimeter / second at a given conditions of hydraulic pressure and the temperature of
the water.
8. Durability and permeability of Concrete?
Porosity of Concrete & How to measure it?
The voids in the gel occupied by free water in the saturated state gives the value of its
Porosity. It is expressed as the percentage of void volume (equal to volume of water
absorbed by concrete) over the total volume of concrete. Inside the gel, these pores and
capillaries are formed due to evaporation of mixing water, used in excess of its exact
chemical requirement for the hydration of dry cement.

% Porosity = [Weight of water-saturated concrete – weight of dry concrete ] x 100

Volume of concrete
Permeability of Concrete & How to measure it?

Relationship between the Porosity and Strength

Strength and Durability of Concrete
Is any strong concrete specimen automatically durable also?

Micro-Structure of Cement Concrete and its weaknesses to aggressive solutions from

environment:
Pores and Capillaries:
Pore-blocking effect of lime-pozzolana reaction products:
Improvement in impermeability:
9. Water/Cement ratio and workability of concrete?

10. Water/Cement ratio and strength of concrete?

11. Why concrete pavement slabs show cracking after 28 days age?

12. Questionnaire on the topic.

The word I-M-POSSIBLE says…. I (a)m possible! So, the word impossible is found
only in the dictionary of FOOLS.
Today is a gift for you; that is why it is called “The Present”.
Marriage is not a word. It is a sentence. A life sentence!

Questions to be asked to the trainee participants:

1. What should be the contents of this course?
2. What should be the sequence of the lectures and demonstrations?
3. What should be the mode of presentation of lectures whether- transparencies or
PowerPoint?
4. Should the field visit be included or the library studies are good enough?
5. Do they wish to get refresher training in material testing methods (Lab.-demonstration)
or do they wish to see the modern techniques of material characterization? (in NCCBM)