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www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia

Energy
EnergyProcedia
Procedia157 (2019) 000–000
00 (2017) 945–952

Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, Environment and Sustainability, TMREES18,
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
19–21 September 2018, Athens, Greece
Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, Environment and Sustainability, TMREES18,
19–21 September 2018, Athens, Greece
A review on the latest trend of Solar Pavements in Urban
A review The 15thon International Environment
the latest Symposium
trend of on Solar
DistrictPavements in Urban
Heating and Cooling

C.N.the Papadimitriou Environment

feasibility, C.S. Psomopoulos , F.demand-outdoor
Kehagiab
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Engineering,
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b of West Attica, Campus 2,
University
a

Aigaleo12244, Greece
School ofLab,
HighVoltage and Power Systems Research
a
b
CivilDepartment
Engineering,
of Aristotle
ElectricalUniversity of Thessaloniki,
and Electronics Greece
Engineering, University of West Attica, Campus 2,
a,b,c a a b c c
I. Andrić *, A. Pina , P. Ferrão , J. Fournier ., B. Lacarrière , O. Le Corre
Thivon 250, Aigaleo12244, Greece
b
School of Civil Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Abstract
a
IN+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research - Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
b
Veolia Recherche & Innovation, 291 Avenue Dreyfous Daniel, 78520 Limay, France
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the categorizes
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applications in trend gets environment.
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related pilots around function
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what steps The
needdistrict of Alvalade,
to be taken before thelocated in mainstream.
trend gets Lisbon (Portugal), was used as a case study. The district is consisted of 665
©buildings
2018 Thethat vary in
Authors. both construction
Published by Elsevierperiod
Ltd. and typology. Three weather scenarios (low, medium, high) and three district
© 2019 The
renovation Authors.
scenarios Published
were by
developedElsevier
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND Ltd.
(shallow, intermediate, deep). To estimate the error, obtained heat demand values were
license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
This is an open
compared with access
results article
from aunder
dynamicthe CCheatBY-NC-ND
demand license
model, (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
previously developed and validated by the authors.
Selection
© 2018 The and peer-review underby responsibility
Elsevier Ltd.of the scientific committee of Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy,
Selection
The andAuthors.
results peer-review
showed
Published
that underonly
when responsibility
weather of the isscientific
change considered, committee
the of Technologies
margin of error couldandbeMaterials
acceptable forfor
Renewable Energy,
some applications
Environment
This is an open
Environment and
and Sustainability,
access article under
Sustainability, TMREES18.
the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
TMREES18.
(the error in annual demand was lower than 20% for all weather scenarios considered). However,
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, after introducing renovation
scenarios,Renewables,
Keywords:
Environment theand
error value increased
Distributed
Sustainability, up to Solar
Generation,
TMREES18. 59.5% (depending on the weather and renovation scenarios combination considered).
Pavements
The value of slope coefficient increased on average within the range of 3.8% up to 8% per decade, that corresponds to the
decrease Renewables,
Keywords: in the number of heating
Distributed hours of
Generation, 22-139h
Solar Pavements during the heating season (depending on the combination of weather and
renovation scenarios considered). On the other hand, function intercept increased for 7.8-12.7% per decade (depending on the
coupled scenarios).
* Corresponding The
author. values
E-mail suggested
address: could be used to modify the function parameters for the scenarios considered, and
cpsomop@puas.gr
improve the accuracy of heat demand estimations.
* Corresponding author. E-mail address: cpsomop@puas.gr
© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and
Cooling. © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
1876-6102
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Keywords: Heat
Selection demand;under
Forecast; Climate change
1876-6102and peer-review
© 2018 The Authors. responsibility of the scientific
Published by Elsevier Ltd. committee of Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, Environment
and Sustainability, TMREES18.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, Environment
and Sustainability, TMREES18.
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
1876-6102 © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy,
Environment and Sustainability, TMREES18.
10.1016/j.egypro.2018.11.261
946 C.N. Papadimitriou et al. / Energy Procedia 157 (2019) 945–952
2 C.N. Papadimitriou, C.S. Psomopoulos, F. Kehagia/ Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

1. Introduction

Renewables have already a high integration rate across Europe. The even greater penetration is supported
primarily by the Paris Agreement targets and the UN sustainable goals [1-2]. The vast majority of the installations
so far are low voltage distributed generation located near the consumption loads (both thermal and electrical) and
are based on photovoltaics (PV) and/ or thermal technology. Further integration means that apart from the
installations on roof tops, new technologies and trends should be offered that will be compact and yet efficient
within the urban environment of European cities.
To this context, the trend of Solar Collector Pavements (SCP) that harvest energy from sun and provides
ancillary services within the smart city concept, was introduced. The system is integrated into the pavement
structure and can be configured to harvest either solar thermal capacity or electrical capacity from sun. Thus, SCP
can be categorized into Thermal Collector Pavements and Electrical Collector Pavements. A configuration that uses
thermal capacity from the sun to convert it to electricity is called Thermoelectric Generator pavement.

 Thermal Collector Pavement: Solar radiation heat is collected by the pavement surface and is
transmitted along the vertical direction in asphalt and subgrade (Fig.1). In these systems, the fluid
flowing through the tubes extracts the energy accumulated in the hot asphalt or concrete pavements.
Then, this energy may be stored as a low-grade heat reservoir. When necessary, the stored energy can be
increased through an auxiliary device such as a conventional furnace. Three main applications:
o a clean and low-cost energy source for heating buildings
o domestic hot water
o snow and ice melting in winter.
o Heat island phenomenon mitigation.

Fig. 1. Solar thermal pavement technology configuration. [3]

Fig. 2. Electrical Collector Pavement structure. [4]

 Electrical Collector Pavement: is a transparent driving surface that generates electricity by underlying
solar cells and LED signage that can be driven on, as seen in Fig. 2. The PV panels are made of
specifically formulated tempered glass, which can support the weight of pedestrians, bicycles or semi-
 C.N. Papadimitriou et al. / Energy Procedia 157 (2019) 945–952 947
Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 3

trucks. The solar panels LEDs are controlled via microprocessors which display information on the
surface of the pavement and are centrally controlled.

Three main applications:

o Street signaling
o Streets light
o Municipality load covering

Fig.3. The schematic design of a thermoelectric generator pavement.[5]

 Thermoelectric generator pavement: The system, as proposed in [5], integrates into the pavement a h
eat-to-electrical energy conversion module reducing this way pavement’s temperature. The system
transfers pavement heat by aluminum vapor chambers embedded in the pavement, and generates voltage
while employs a water tank for temperature reduction. Fig.3 provides the schematic of the proposed
technology.

Ref. [6] has presented a thorough review taking under consideration the Solar- Thermal Collectors systems that
are mostly integrated in building structures. Ref. [7] has also presented a detailed state of the art, concerning the
asphalt thermal behavior, and the variables involved in the solar energy collection by pavements taking into account
only the thermal pavement category as well. This paper categorizes the different solar pavement technologies and
provides a review of the most promising applications for urban environment based on these technologies while
presents the related pilots launched within the last 5 years.
This paper is structured as follows: Next section reviews the potential applications of solar pavements while
discussing their main features and potentials. Next section presents the pilots around the world embracing the above
technology whereas the last section concludes the paper.

2. Solar pavement considerations

This section reviews the solar collector pavement potential services within the smart city paradigm.
948 C.N. Papadimitriou et al. / Energy Procedia 157 (2019) 945–952
4 C.N. Papadimitriou, C.S. Psomopoulos, F. Kehagia/ Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

2.1. Thermal collector pavement

The phenomenon of heat island increases the urban temperature and the energy demand for cooling, as well as
worsens the comfort and environmental conditions in the urban environment. In specific, asphalt pavements can be
heated up to 343 K (70 Co) by solar irradiation during the summer because of their heat-absorbing property [8]. The
mitigation of the latter thermal energy from asphalt thermal collector pavements is a potential. The use of these
pavements can reduce the surface temperature of the urban skin up to10 Co leading to reduced sensible heat released
to the atmosphere and thus the environmental impact [9].

Ref [3-10–11] have studied the thermal capacity of asphalt pavements and their efficiency. Ref. [12]
experimentally investigated the temperature distribution on asphalt pavements when working as solar collectors
under snow melting. The results showed that a low temperature of the circulating water is enough for the efficient
working of the system. Ref. [13] proposes for the snow melting application that a tradeoff between higher
temperature circulating fluid and the low waste of energy should be taken care.

However, an asphalt collector with embedded tubes implies certain problems. Whenever metallic tubes are used,
problems of corrosion and difficulties in on-site installation or maintenance can occur. When using polymer tubes,
the poorer thermal conductivity and the more complicated milling and later re-use of the asphalt mix are drawbacks.
Furthermore, the pavement structure is weakened because of the introduction of a flexible element within a much
stiffer material. Also possible leakages in the joints between pipes can occur with both materials. In case of a
roadway, these problems become more critical and more difficult to handle [14-15]. Regarding the thermal collector
pavement materials, Ref. [16] indicated that asphalt pavements could absorb more solar radiation than other
materials in summer and could emit more heat into the atmosphere in winter. To the same direction Ref. [17] claims
that asphalt collectors can have a satisfying efficiency above 33,3%. This means that asphalt pavements can be
satisfying candidates for heat island alleviation phenomenon and snow/ice melt as well.

Of course, apart from the materials used, there are a number of factors that affect the heat transfer performance of
pavement-thermal collectors such as solar radiation intensity, ambient temperature, wind speed around the
pavement, pavement surface temperature, the layout of the heat exchanger, circulating water flow rate of the system,
etc. It seems that pavement material and solar radiation intensity are the most affective factors regarding the
efficiency of such a system. Ref[18], has also investigated the different parameters affecting the efficiency of the
thermal collector resulting that the water velocity or the fluid within the system is of the greatest influence for the
system.

The surroundings play also an important role in the efficiency of the system. Ref[19] claims that the efficient
thermal collection by such systems are affected by the geometry of the surrounding buildings in an urban mesh as
well. Ref[20] proceeds further to quantify the urban environment impact by assesing how the temperature surface is
affected by the symmetrical or unsymmetrical heights surroundings of the thermal pavements. Ref. [21] models the
integrated system in order to investigate the effect of aging on the performance of the system.

Solar pavement technologies are not as advanced as other heat island mitigation strategies due to no official
standard or labeling program to designate cool paving materials until now. Also, performance and economic
considerations hinder their way. Ref. [8] presents, a new technology in which a multilayered pavement with a highly
porous middle layer is used instead of a solar collector with an embedded pipe network. These collectors are fully
integrated within the infrastructure and offer low cost solar energy for both applications of water heating and
pavement cooling.
 C.N. Papadimitriou et al. / Energy Procedia 157 (2019) 945–952 949
Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 5

2.2. Electrical collector pavement

As previously, materials and design of construction leads to an effective system. Ref. [15] performed an analysis
to evaluate the feasibility of using solar pavements as a sustainable energy producer to supply electrical energy by
introducing a novel design of energy generator pavement. The proposed system consists of layers of solar cells and
an electrical system on the asphalt layer that cover both electrical energy requirements and safety in the roads.
The general design include the transparent and porous surface that passes the sunlight, the solar cells with their
connections and a base to transfer the load to asphalt.
Apart from covering peak loads, PV pavements can be used to cover the electricity demand of outdoor lighting,
electric vehicles and street signaling [9]
However, a critical issue that should be addressed is the siting of the electrical collector pavements to succeed
minimization of shading from adjacent buildings and construction elements in order to maximize the energy
production. Moreover, the protective glass should be made by highly endured glass with anti-slip coatings so the
pavement is structurally strong enough to withstand both load and mechanical stress from pedestrians, vehicles as
well as weather elements.
For the above reason Ref. [14] sets piezoelectric devices as ideal candidates for harvesting energy in asphalt
pavement roadways as they convert mechanical strain energy into electric voltage. The experiment results show that
the quantity and arrangement of the piezoelectric sensors alter the applied stresses leading to variations in the
generated output power. The effect of temperature on the output power was found to be negligible. In addition, the
magnitude and loading time significantly affect the output power. Considering the best combination of variables, the
piezoelectric devices could be ideal candidates for harvesting energy in asphalt pavement roadways.

The table below shows the synopsis of possible services provided by the solar pavements technology and the
main considerations about them.

Table 1. Solar pavement services

Type Services potential barriers
Heat island Alleviation -10o C in summer days No official standard, non-economic
viable by itself , affected by many
Thermal collector pavement

parameters in the urban mesh i.e.

buildings heights
Heat Reservoir(1) cover the hot water needs and thermal Unpractical in certain cases, difficulties
loads of buildings in O&M, material effectiveness to give a
technical viable solution
Heat Reservoir(2) Snow or ice melting difficulties in O&M, material
effectiveness to give a technical viable
solution
Energy production(1) Cover peak loads, cover street lighting Difficulties in siting in urban areas,
loads material standing
Electrical collector
pavement

Energy production(2) Street lighting signaling material standing, high cost, difficulties
in O&M

3. Solar Collector Pavement Installations in the Real World

It is noted that all real world pilots are employed to primarily cover local electrical needs and secondly melt the
snow or ice.
950 C.N. Papadimitriou et al. / Energy Procedia 157 (2019) 945–952
6 C.N. Papadimitriou, C.S. Psomopoulos, F. Kehagia/ Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

Amstredam(Netherlands) -2014: A 70-metre stretch of solar panels installed on a cycling lane north of Amsterdam.
The panels contain LED lights to create lines and signage without paint, allowing for more flexibility with road
signs and can warn drivers when animals are crossing the road ahead. They contain heating elements to prevent
snow and ice accumulation, making roads safer in freezing conditions. And the panels have microprocessors, which
allows them to communicate with each other, a central control station and vehicles. [22]

Tourouvre (France)-2016: This 1 km paved roadway with solar panels that meet the local energy needs is launched
in 2016. It consists of 2800 square metres of photovoltaic cells — enough, theoretically, to power the village’s street
lights. The resin-coated solar panels were integrated to the local power grid. [23]

Fig.4. The solar road in Netherlands.[22][AFP]

North Holland (Denmark) -2014-2016: SolaRoad converts the sunlight on the road pavement into green electricity
in a 70 m bike road in the province of Noord-Holland. An additional 20 meters was added to the existing 70 m bike
path in Krommenie. The extension consists of new elements with improved technology where new solar panels were
developed, which are better tailored to application in pavements. The elements no longer have a glass top layer. Two
of the elements have thin-film solar cells embedded. [24]

Missouri (USA)-2016: A solar sidewalk to be installed on Route 66. Solar Roadway’s hexagonal, LED-embedded
solar panels will be used to generate electricity for the Route 66 Welcome Center at Conway, as well as possibly
fund future pilots. [25]

Fig.5. The solar road in China.[26].

 C.N. Papadimitriou et al. / Energy Procedia 157 (2019) 945–952 951
Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 7

Shandong Province ( East China)-2017: The road is constructed using solar panels which have a thin sheet of clear
concrete on top of them, protecting the surface from mechanical loads such as passenger vehicles. The innovative
panels were built to transfer energy to electric vehicles passing on top of them - and to instantly melt snow. The new
stretch is two kilometres and will not be able to support trucks which are too heavy. [26]

4. Conclusions

This paper reviewed the considerations on different applications of solar collector pavements technology.
Thermal and electrical collector technology can be employed to cover thermal and/or electrical needs of the urban
environment.
Although the potentials seem promising enough, the big scale pilots for the past 5 years are quite a few. It seems
that further research should be done with the aim of studying new ways of increasing the efficiency of the systems
through new design, novel implementation and advanced material science. By securing, not only efficiency but also
economic viability and robustness of the system, the solar pavement technology can become mainstream.

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