цйуй

Road pavements and materials:
“Rubber modified Asphalt.”
Prepared by: Zhiger Kurmangaliyev (UZ96Y9)

Professor Name: Dr. Richárd Nagy; Dr. Mohammad Fahad
Széchenyi István University
Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport
TITLE
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2
3
1.0 Introduction
Pavements are a crucial part of our infrastructure, consisting of layers of aggregates on a soil base,
with the top layer bearing the brunt of traffic and environmental forces. Asphalt is the preferred option for lo-
cal roads in the US due to its economic feasibility and ease of maintenance. With diminishing natural re-
sources and a growing need for recycling waste materials, the asphalt industry is finding innovative ways to
incorporate recycled materials into paving. One such material is recycled asphalt pavement (RAP), while oth-
ers include waste roofing shingles, slag, waste plastic, and ground tire rubber (GTR). GTR has gained signifi-
cant attention for its performance benefits and the need to divert scrap tires from landfills.
1.1 History
Rubber modified asphalt history in terms of research.
Year Description/Major Development Reference

(United States
Charles Goodyear developed vulcanization process for natural Environmen
1839
rubber. Protection
Agency, 1971)
The earliest experiments incorporating natural rubber into as-
1840 phalt to (Allison, 1967)
increase its engineering performance properties.
The process of asphalt modification involving natural and syn-
(Thompson &
1843 thetic
Hoiberg, 197
rubber reported.
4
Publication of results from two studies: 1) Lewis and Welborn

for
Bureau of Public Roads (BPR), California, conducted a study
intending
1954 (Caltrans, 2003)
to evaluate "The eects of various rubbers on properties of petro-
leum
asphalts", and 2) Rex and Beck at BPR, California, published
"Laboratory study of rubber-asphalt paving mixtures."
Charles McDonald fabricated surface patches for application on
localized distresses on asphalt pavements. The surface patches
had asphalt binder modified with high percentage of crumb rub-
ber grains. This was further developed into spreading of stress (M. Heitzman,
1960s absorbing membranes that included rubber-modified asphalt 1992; G. B. W
embedded with 3/8in. (9.5 mm) aggregate chips. Development et al., 2011)
of McDonald Process (traditional wet process). Minimum 15%
rubber used by weight of binder. Arizona DOT places the first
stress absorbing membrane in 1968.
(M. A.
Modifications and developments of wet process method. Devel-
Heitzman,
opment of Arizona Refinery Method wherein 18-22% rubber is
1970s 1992b;
used, which is a blend of vulcanized and de-vulcanized rubber
Schnormeier,
along with an extender oil (like kerosene, or tall oil)
1986)
Development of asphalt rubber materials for use in joint sealers,

1930s (Caltrans, 2003)
patches, membranes.
1st symposium on rubber in asphalt held by Asphalt Institute in

1960 (Caltrans, 2003)
Chicago, IL.
Development of dry process modification technology in Swe-

(M. A. Heitz-
1960s den under
man, 1992b)
trade names "Skega Asphalt" or "Rubit".
Development of Florida wet process which is a continuous blending (M. A.

technology instead of the batch wet processes (McDonald and Arizona Heitzman,
1980s Refinery processes). Lower percentage of rubber used (8-10% by weight 1992b;
of binder), finer size of particles, lower mixing temperature and shorter Schnormeier,
interaction time. 1986)
Section 1038 of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Eiciency Act
1991 mandated increasing percentages of rubberized asphalt in federally
funded highway projects as a requirement to continue receiving federal
1991 funds. The states were to increase usage of rubber from 5% in 1994 to (Carlson, 1999)
20% in 1997, with 5% increment every year to continue to receive fed-
eral funds. In response to the mandate, several states invested in paving
trial section with different rubber technologies.
5
Reports from various DOTs summarizing performance of the trial

sections with rubber. Most reports reached a conclusion that using rub-
ber was not cost-efective as it did not perform well enough to justify the
high initial capital investment. Development of the Wright process (a so-
1995- (G. Baumgard-
phisticated wet process technology), where approximately 10% rubber
2005 ner et al., 2020)
by weight of binder was added at elevated temperatures (approximately
190C) to obtain a product with be-er storage stability than traditional
wet process methods. This process was the precursor to Terminal Blend-
ing - a popular wet process technology used today.
"PlusRide" in 1978 by a company called EnviroTire. 1-3% of crumb
rubber by weight of mixture is added to mix. Rubber sizes ranging from
1970s 4.2-2.0 mm (1/4 in. to #10 sieve size). Sections placed by Alaska DOT FHWA website
(1976), Minnesota (1979), Washington State DOT (1977),
Catrans(1983), New York (1989).
PlusRide technology specified gap-gradation which hindered its
adoption. This led to development of Generic Dry Process wherein
conventional mixtures (dense-graded) could be used. Rubber did not
exceed 2% by weight of the mix. Florida, New York, Oregon, Ontario (Eaton, Roberts,
had field sections. Dry Process Chunk Rubber modification process, & Blackburn,
1980s wherein rubber particles larger than 4.75 mm (#4 sieve) to 9.5 mm (3/8 1991; Takallou
in.), was investigated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Cold & Sainton,
Regions Research Engineering Laboratory (CRREL) to evaluate 1992)
disbonding ice on pavements. Development of TAK process wherein a
blend of coarse and fine rubber particles were used in conjunction with
a catalyst to improve binder-rubber interaction.
Most paving agencies were opposed to adopting the mandate due to
following reasons: a) at this point most technologies were patented
with talks about extending the patents, leading to high initial capital
investment, b) initial trials by many states had not shown encouraging
results, especially considering the additional capital investment, 3) (Harmelink,
1995
there was a lack of understanding and awareness on mixture 1999)
production/laying processes associated with rubber modified asphalt
mixtures. Ultimately, the NHS Designation Act of 1995 amended
Section 1038 of the ISTEA Legislation to eectively repeal
the mandate.
In wet process, terminal blends start getting popular among users of

wet process. Terminal blends are rubber-modified bitumen produced
and stored at asphalt terminals and transported to job sites when re-
quired. Caltrans preferred "wet process no agitation" as these
2000- blends used finer size rubber particles (less than # 50 sieve (0.3 mm)) (Caltrans,
2010 put in binder at high temperatures (>200C) such that the rubber particles 2003)
can be kept dispersed by normal circulation within the storage tank
rather than by agitation by special augers or paddles. Polymers and
other additives could be included to satisfy the viscosity and storage sta-
bility requirements.
6
In dry process, use of finer particle size (30 to 40 mesh (0.600 to 0.420
mm)) and pre-treatment of rubber particles became common. Modern
dry processes also did not require "replacement" of fine aggregates in
mixtures, instead the rubber particles were added directly to the aggre-
gates via the RAP(recycled asphalt pavement) collar. Parallel develop-
(G. Baum-
2000- ments in US and Europe. Examples of such products commercially
gardner et
2011 available- RARx (Reacted and Activated Rubber), SmartMix by Liberty
al., 2020)
Tire, and Elastiko by Asphalt Plus. Among these products, Elastiko has
the most tonnage of asphalt mixtures (more than 8 million US tons till
date) in Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana, Missouri, and many other
states in the US. Liberty Tire and RARx demonstrate new technology in
recent projects in Michigan and Ohio.
Significant increase in market for use of rubber modified asphalt with

2010 the new processes proving to be largely cost-eective and sustainable. (G. Baum-
and Projections of increased usage in future years. gardner et
beyond USTMA hosts 7th Rubber Modified Asphalt Conference in Ann Arbor, al., 2020)
Michigan in 2016. Research and Development continue.
The use of ground scrap tire rubber has been in practice since 1870 in the United Kingdom, while the
first experiment of using natural rubber in bitumen dates to 1840. Charles Goodyear also introduced the vul-
canization process for natural rubber around the same time. However, the exponential increase in automobile
use during the latter half of the 20th century caused mountains of scrap tires to accumulate in landfills, lead-
ing to environmental problems such as difficult-to-contain fires and disease-carrying mosquitoes and vermin.
State programs have managed to clean up 95% of the peak stockpile of scrap tires from the early 1990s by
2019, but end uses for scrap tires have declined, especially in Europe due to strict environmental regulations.
Therefore, finding an environmentally friendly solution for scrap tire disposal remains crucial, and rubber-
ized asphalt concrete (RMA) could be a potential win-win solution if done correctly.
1.2 Rubber modified Asphalt processes:

Wet process:
The wet process for rubber modification of asphalt binder was developed in the US during the mid-
1960s by Charles McDonald. It involves using ground tire rubber to modify the liquid asphalt binder, which
is then stored and later used to produce asphalt paving mixture. Wet process modification can be done on-site
at the asphalt plant or at an asphalt blending terminal. The most used classifications and terminology are as-
phalt rubber and terminal blends. Asphalt rubber is a blend of asphalt cement, reclaimed tire rubber, and ad-
ditives, with at least 15% rubber by weight of binder. Coarser rubber particles are used for production, and
the process is carried out at the asphalt plant. Terminal blends are produced at a supplier terminal, using finer
7
rubber particles and chemical additives, and are stored until delivery to the work site. One popular terminal
blend is the "Wright Process", which is used mainly in Arizona, Texas, and surrounding states. Rubber settle-
ment has been a main production and quality control issue with the wet process for rubber modification of as-
phalt binder.
Dry process:
The Dry Process for producing Rubber Modified Asphalt (RMA) mixture was first developed in Swe-
den in the 1960s under trade names such as Skega Asphalt and Rubit. The process involved replacing a small
portion (1-3% by weight) of the fine aggregate fraction with rubber particles ranging from 4.2 mm to 2.0 mm
to increase skid resistance and durability. The PlusRide technology used gap-graded mixtures for RMA,
which contains a gap in particles across a range of aggregate sizes to accommodate rubber particles. How-
ever, gap-graded mixtures have limited application categories, and dense-graded mixtures are preferred in
cold climates. The development of the Generic Dry Technology allowed RMA to be used with any existing
local mixture gradation, but the flexibility in particle size increased project costs. Today's modern dry process
technologies use even finer rubber particles (0.600-0.300 mm) and may incorporate chemical surfactants to
improve the production, construction, and performance of RMA. Rubber is injected into the mixing plant in
the bottom portion of the mixing drum, and minor adjustments to the blended aggregate gradation may be
necessary. Trademarked products such as ElastikoTM and SmartMix are examples of modern dry process or
dry-hybrid approaches. Reports suggest that in the past decade, over five million tons of engineered crumb
rubber have been used in multiple US states, with the majority using the ElastikoTM system. Regenerate re-
sponse
1.3 INTERACTION OF RUBBER WITH ASPHALT BINDERS AND MIXTURES

Extensive research has been devoted to better understanding the precise nature of the interaction between
rubber and asphalt binder in RMA. Findings suggest that the interaction is of a physical nature, whereby the
rubber particles absorb the lighter ends (lower molecular weight) of the asphalt binder and swell up to 3-5
times their original volume (Dong, Huang, Li, & Zhang, 2012; Gawel, Stepkowski, & Czechowski, 2006).
The migration of the lighter ends (saturates and aromatics) and subsequent swelling results in the disintegra-
tion of the outer periphery of rubber particles, as shown in Figure 1. However, the rubber particles maintain
their physical integrity to a large extent, if produced and stored with normal temperature ranges (160-180C)
and when using typical shear mixing ranges (Gawel et al., 2006; Ghavibazoo, Abdelrahman, & Ragab, 2013;
Stroup-Gardiner, Newcomb, & Tanquist, 1993). Excessive temperatures (> 200C) and high mixing rates
could result in depolymerization of rubber particles (Ghavibazoo et al., 2013; D. L. Presti, 2013), reducing
their efficacy in physical property enhancement of the binder. The absorption of the lighter ends from asphalt
binder and the consequent swelling results in an increase in the viscosity of the modified binder. Needless to
say, the source of asphalt, time of interaction, mixing temperature, and rubber particle properties (source,
8
grinding process, etc.) are all important factors that determine the degree to which the asphalt-rubber interac-
tion will occur. For example, Frantzis (2004) reported that binder sourced from Venezuela had a higher reac-
tion rate with GTR as compared to binders from the Kuwait region (Frantzis, 2004), Lougheed et al. (1996)
found that softer binders grades reacted more readily with GTR (Lougheed & Papagiannakis, 1996). Lee et
al. (2008) reported that GTR produced via the ambient grinding method resulted in a more viscous binder
that is less susceptible to rutting and cracking (Soon J. Lee, Akisetty, & Amirkhanian, 2008).
Figure 1
The fact that rubber particles retain their physical structure during the interaction with asphalt binder
provides an important insight into to the crack inhibiting mechanisms introduced in asphalt mixtures due to
incorporation of rubber. Research has shown that rubber particles in an asphalt binder behave as hyperelastic
inclusions that provide crack pinning, thus impeding crack propagation until a significantly higher energy is
imparted to the crack front, as shown in Figure 11 (a, b & c) (Ding et al., 2021; Rath, Gettu, et al., 2021). Al-
ternatively, the crack is forced to take a path around the particle inclusion, thereby increasing the crack resis-
tance of the asphalt matrix. Similar results have been shown with cement paste by Segre et al. (2006) (Segre
et al., 2006), as shown in Figure 2.
9
Figure 2
1.4 The ecosystem of ELT

A study on global management of End-of-Life Tires (ELT), commissioned by the World Business
Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), revealed that ELT production in 13 major countries in Eu-
rope and the US totaled approximately 29 million metric tons annually (refer to Figure 3). The WBCSD fur-
ther reported that the US alone generates around 3,700 metric kilotons of ELTs each year.
Figure 3
Economics
There are two ways to evaluate the economics of using modifiers like Ground Tire Rubber (GTR) in
asphalt paving mixtures. Firstly, in terms of initial bid price or capital cost, incorporating GTR may result in
higher bid prices compared to conventional or non-premium mixtures, but lower compared to premium mix-
tures. Secondly, in terms of economic impact on costs over a selected life cycle, where GTR has the potential
10
to produce longer-lasting pavements, delaying maintenance, repair, and rehabilitation activities, which can
reduce costs for the owner agency in the long run, as illustrated in Figure 4.
Figure 4
1.5 PAVING APPLICATIONSS

Full structural pavement system
Asphalt pavement structures and asphalt paving surfaces have evolved considerably since their inception in
the late 1800’s, resulting in several fundamentally different structural systems and materials systems involv-
ing pavements comprised with asphalt. A brief listing of these asphaltic paving systems is now provided,
with a focus on describing applications where GTR is either prevalent or potentially useful.
Rubber-modified asphalt (RMA) can be used in both traditional flexible pavement systems and full-depth as-
phalt pavements, where it provides fatigue, rutting, and cracking resistance. RMA can be used in both base
and surface asphalt mixtures, providing a range of benefits. Composite pavement systems, which involve the
use of Portland cement concrete pavement sections topped with asphalt concrete, are also gaining popularity
in high traffic areas where a long design life is desired. These systems are now frequently used by the Illinois
Tollway, where GTR is commonly used in stone mastic asphalt (SMA) mixtures to create economical surfac-
ing materials that meet modern mix design requirements.
Pavement Overlay Systems
From the perspective of lane-miles of highway treated per year, the restoration or enhancement of pavement
structural integrity and/or surface characteristics via the placement of asphalt overlays far exceed new pave-
ment construction. Asphalt overlays are also prime targets for the use of RMA. In some cases, stress absorb-
ing membrane interlayers (SAMIs) are used as the first course of a multi-layer overlay system. These are
generally thin layers of high-performance, ductile/crack resistant asphalt pavement designed to mitigate the
reflection of cracking from existing, aged pavement (asphalt or concrete) into the new overlay surface. From
11
the results of the survey presented earlier, it is clear that some states are using GTR to achieve the high-per-
formance requirements of SAMI’s. In fact, one of the first uses of RMA was in the form of SAMIs in Ari-
zona to prevent reflective cracking, as shown in Figure 5 (G. Way, 2012)
Figure 5
Data from the survey conduction in this study as well as published results show that RMA is used substan-
tially in the form of thin overlays. Depending on the sophistication of the pavement design system used, re-
duced layer thickness(es) may result from the use of RMA, increasing ustainability and leading to more at-
tractive life cycle costs. In the late 1980s, California constructed various thicknesses of conventional DGACs
and rubber-modified overlays over Rt. 395 in northeastern California. After a few years of monitoring, the
authorities concluded that he performance of substantially thinner rubber sections was like the more tradi-
tional DGAC sections (J. Van Kirk & Holleran, 2000; J. L. Van Kirk, 1997). In the 1990s, Caltrans set out to
validate the work and conducted accelerated pavement testing on unmodified and rubber modified sections.
The performance results showed that a reduction ratio of 3:1 was possible or rubber versus DGAC overlay
lifts, enabling similar performance along with substantial cost savings. Later, Harvey et al. (2000) reported
rubber-modified overlays in California to have similar performance as DGAC asphalt mixtures that were 2.1
times thicker (Harvey et al., 2000). Buttlar et al. (2019) reported a cost savings of up to 43% could be
achieved by using lesser lift thickness of RMA in place of thicker unmodified pavement without compromis-
ing pavement performance (William G. Buttlar & Rath, 2019).
1.6 Beneficial sides
PERFORMANCE BENEFITS
Recent studies indicate that using rubber modified asphalt (RMA) provides performance benefits for
pavements, including extending pavement life and reducing early pavement failures such as rutting and
cracking. RMA also significantly mitigates noise from traffic, improves ride quality, and enhances safety.
Studies conducted over the past two decades have shown that all three primary approaches to RMA - tradi-
tional wet process, terminal-blend wet process, and modern dry process (engineered crumb rubber) - lead to
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longer-lasting pavements compared to those made with unmodified binders. RMA can perform similarly to
pavements constructed with expensive polymer-modified binders. RMA is particularly effective in resisting
early pavement rutting failures due to the stability provided by the swollen, elastic rubber particles. It is also
resistant to fatigue cracking in high traffic volume areas and low-temperature cracking. RMA also contrib-
utes to noise reduction on roads caused by vehicles. The extent of noise reduction varies depending on mix
type, traffic level, vehicle speeds, and environmental factors, ranging from 1-10 decibels. Even a reduction of
2-3 decibels can provide similar environmental benefits as a 50% reduction in traffic noise intensity. Long-
term field observations have shown that noise reduction due to RMA decreases over time, but at a much
slower rate compared to other surfacing alternatives. In terms of ride quality and safety, RMA has been found
to create smoother pavements, resulting in better ride quality for motorists. It also improves pavement skid
resistance, which can reduce traffic accidents during wet weather.
Economic benefits
RMA has been proven to be a cost-effective solution as it increases the lifespan of pavements and re-
duces the need for frequent maintenance, leading to significant cost savings when evaluated using life cycle
cost analysis techniques.
• Initial costs - Although RMA may have higher initial costs per ton compared to unmodified asphalt,
it is still more affordable than polymer modified asphalt. However, when considering cost-per-square-yard
for asphalt overlay rehabilitation projects, thin RMA overlays have been shown to be cheaper than unmodi-
fied asphalt overlays, with approximately 43% less cost and a 10% boost in pavement life. Another study
demonstrated that using RMA instead of unmodified mixtures can achieve a 50% reduction in pavement
layer thickness while maintaining better performance.
• Life cycle cost savings - Life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) studies have reported varying ranges of
savings for RMA, from 4% to 40% in a study compiled for Caltrans, to over 400% savings when based on
laboratory-based fatigue performance. However, more comprehensive national databases of pavement costs,
including initial costs and subsequent maintenance costs, as well as pavement service life, are needed to ac-
curately assess the life cycle cost benefits of RMA. • Implications - The current economic outlook for RMA
has significant implications for the renewal of the nation's transportation infrastructure, as many pavement
expenditures are allocated towards restoring the surface characteristics of existing roadways and airfields. By
using RMA to upgrade more miles of pavement each year for each dollar spent, cities and states can start ad-
dressing the backlog of deferred pavement maintenance in their networks. Motorists will also benefit from
savings on vehicle repair and fuel costs by driving on smoother pavements.
Environmental benefits
The utilization of Rubberized Modified Asphalt (RMA) has been shown to have several environmen-
tal benefits, including reduced CO2 emissions and lower energy consumption over the lifespan of a pave-
13
ment. RMA pavements are also stiffer and smoother, resulting in reduced tire wear particles and improved
water quality in roadway runoff. Studies have shown that RMA pavements can significantly reduce tire wear
compared to concrete pavements, resulting in smoother rides with lower International Roughness Index (IRI)
values. Additionally, using ground tire rubber in RMA has been shown to reduce the leaching of potentially
toxic chemicals from scrap tire rubber into aquatic ecosystems. RMA pavements also have lower rolling re-
sistance, leading to potential fuel consumption savings. Although the production process of RMA may have
negative environmental impacts due to higher production temperatures and energy-intensive processes, life
cycle assessment (LCA) studies that consider the whole life cycle of RMA pavements in comparison to con-
ventional or polymer-modified pavements have shown a net positive environmental impact. These benefits
are driven by extended service life and lower maintenance requirements. However, most LCA studies in the
literature are attributional, comparing different types of asphalt mixtures, and there is a need for up-to-date,
consequential LCA studies to inform policy decisions and optimize the use of ground tire rubber in various
engineering applications."
Overview,
Early studies indicated that incorporating Ground Tire Rubber (GTR) from scrap tires into asphalt
binder improved its elasticity and physical properties, which in turn enhanced the performance of asphalt
pavements (G. B. Way, Kaloush, & Biligiri, 2011). One of the main reasons for pursuing Rubber-Modified
Asphalt (RMA) was its potential to address two technical challenges simultaneously:
(a) improving pavement durability and lifespan
(b) creating a market for the massive amounts of discarded End-of-Life Tires (ELTs) that were filling
up landfills and posing risks of uncontrolled fires (D. L. Presti, 2013; Svoboda, Vaclavik, Dvorsky, Klus, &
Zajac, 2018). Furthermore, life cycle analysis of rubber-modified asphalt has shown that despite the higher
energy consumption during production (due to higher mixing and compaction temperatures), overall energy
savings can be achieved over the lifetime of a rubber-modified asphalt pavement (Farina, Zanetti, Santagata,
& Blengini, 2017a; Tao Wang et al., 2018). Therefore, the use of GTR in pavements has the potential to yield
significant sustainability benefits on a large scale.
Rubber-Modified Asphalt (RMA) has been in existence for over 50 years, but early field trials yielded
mixed results due to the lack of proven technologies and proper construction techniques (Caltrans, 2005c;
Lundy, Hicks, & Zhou, 1993; Rebala & Estakhri, 1995). The limited adoption of RMA can be attributed to
both economic and non-economic factors. In the past, RMA pavements were often expensive, making them
less cost competitive unless financial incentives were introduced.
1.7 Structural and Functional benefits
14
The quality of a pavement is determined by its ability to withstand structural distresses like rutting
and cracking, as well as its functional benefits such as skid resistance, noise level, and ride comfort. This arti-
cle will discuss how modifying asphalt with rubber can affect both the structural and functional performance
of a pavement.
Structural benefit
Rutting
Numerous studies have focused on the use of recycled/reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) in combi-
nation with ground tire rubber (GTR) in asphalt mixtures and have consistently reported improved rutting re-
sistance. Recent research has investigated the effects of incorporating crumb rubber into asphalt mixtures
containing 25% RAP and observed an increase in rutting resistance with the addition of GTR. Similar find-
ings have been reported in prior studies, which also noted that the aged binder from RAP mixed with GTR-
modified binder exhibited good workability during the mixing process. These findings suggest that incorpo-
rating GTR with RAP and reclaimed asphalt shingles (RAS) can result in significantly higher rutting resis-
tance of the mixture, owing to the stiffness provided by the recycled content. Furthermore, these studies have
indicated that higher recycled content (RAP/RAS/GTR) can be used when a softer base binder is utilized in
asphalt mixtures, demonstrating the ability of rubber modification to enhance permanent deformation resis-
tance in asphalt pavements.
Fatigue Cracking
The quality of pavements is typically assessed based on structural and functional performance. Struc-
tural performance refers to the ability of the pavement to carry traffic loads and withstand environmental con-
ditions over its design life. The incorporation of ground tire rubber (GTR) into asphalt mixtures is known to
improve the stiffness and elasticity of pavements, making them more resistant to rutting and cracking. The in-
teraction between the rubber particles and the binder leads to increased binder viscosity, resulting in a stiffer
overall pavement.
Research has shown that the interaction between rubber and binder in GTR-modified asphalt mixtures
is primarily physical, meaning that the rubber particles retain their particulate structure rather than dissolving
completely in the binder like other polymers. The hyper-elastic nature and low glass transition temperature of
rubber particles can inhibit crack propagation through mechanisms such as crack pinning and bridging, fur-
ther enhancing the pavement's resistance to cracking.
Functional properties of asphalt pavements include surface characteristics such as smoothness, skid
resistance, and roadway noise. RMA mixtures, which incorporate GTR, have been shown to improve certain
functional characteristics of pavements, such as reducing noise, splash, and spray, and improving skid resis-
tance. They have also been found to reduce the rate of tire tread wear. These benefits may become more im-
portant as environmental and human health considerations are considered in the design of roadway infrastruc-
ture using life cycle assessment (LCA) approaches.
15
Figure 6
Thermal cracking
Thermal cracking, also known as low temperature cracking, occurs when the stresses induced by temperature
changes in a pavement exceed the tensile strength of the asphalt mixture. This type of cracking is commonly
observed in cold climates or regions with rapid temperature fluctuations, such as deserts. One way to improve
the resistance of asphalt pavement to thermal cracking is by modifying it with rubber, which has been re-
ported to increase fracture toughness, tensile strength, and reduce creep stiffness (Lee & Hesp, 1994; Se-
baaly, Gopal, & Epps, 2003). To better understand how rubber modification improves thermal cracking resis-
tance, it's important to note that rubber particles typically retain their particulate nature and are embedded at
the interface of the binder and aggregate, instead of dissolving completely into the asphalt binder as previ-
ously believed (Putman & Amirkhanian, 2006). These rubber particles have lower stiffness at cold tempera-
tures, which makes the mixture more resistant to crack propagation. Additionally, the glass transition temper-
ature of rubber is reached at a lower temperature than asphalt binder, allowing rubber to retain its toughness
even at colder temperatures. Various studies have shown the presence of cracking pinning and bridging
mechanisms in rubber-modified binders and mastics, which contribute to improved thermal cracking resis-
tance (Ding et al., 2021; Hakimzadeh, Behnia, Buttlar, & Reis, 2017; Hoare & Hesp, 2000, 2007; Morrison,
Van Der Stel, & Hesp, 1995; Rath, Gettu, et al., 2021; Segre et al., 2006; Smith & Hesp, 2007).
FUNCTIONAL BENEFIT
The functional characteristics of a road are properties that impact the road's performance and serviceability
but are not directly related to its structural integrity. These may include factors such as pavement smoothness
(ride quality), noise level, skid resistance, and other similar features. In the past, pavement evaluation has
16
typically prioritized structural performance, but there is now an increasing recognition of the importance of
constructing roads with better functional characteristics (FHWA, 2017)
Noise reduction
A comprehensive study was conducted in Arizona as part of its 'Quiet Pavement Pilot Program' (QPPP) to as-
sess the noise reduction achieved by overlaying existing Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) pavements with
Asphalt Rubber Friction Course (ARFC). The results showed an initial average noise reduction of 9.6 dB,
which decreased to 5.1 dB on average after approximately 10 years of service life, indicating an average re-
duction of 0.40 dB per year. The study also compared different pavement mixtures, including ARFC, non-
rubber Asphalt Concrete Friction Course (ACFC), Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA), porous ACFC, and porous
European mix (PEM). Figure 7 from the report displayed that ARFC exhibited the least measured sound in-
tensity. It's important to note that all measurements were taken after two years of construction, implying that
all pavements had experienced some traffic wear at the time of sound intensity measurement.
Table 1, Results from Arizona’s Quiet pavement pilot program which shows that paving with RMA reduces
noise generation as compared to other mixtures.
Way (2012) presented combined data of Arizona and California pavements to show the efficiency of asphalt-
rubber in reducing noise levels (G. Way, 2012). Figure 14 shows data from a wide variety of pavements with
varied ages and current conditions. As clearly highlighted on the figure, the asphalt-rubber friction course
produced the lowest noise level, while one of the concrete pavements investigated produced the highest noise
level in the data set.
17
Figure 7
Skid resistance
Skid resistance of a pavement surface refers to its ability to prevent loss of traction between vehicle
tires and the pavement, particularly in wet conditions, which is crucial for user safety on roads. Surface tex-
ture is a significant factor that affects skid resistance, and it is categorized into mega texture, macrotexture,
and micro texture based on the observation scale. In figure 8, mega texture ranges from 50 mm to 500 mm,
macrotexture ranges from 0.5 mm to 50 mm, and micro texture is less than 0.5 mm in size. Typically, surface
texture is assessed by measuring the friction offered to a standard tire or object, such as a pendulum.
Figure 8
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Roughness
Roughness is a term used to quantify the irregularities of a pavement surface, indicating its deviation
from a true planar surface, and is commonly associated with riding comfort for users (FHWA, 2016). It is of-
ten measured using the International Roughness Index (IRI) or by profiling the pavement surface. Studies
have shown that rubber-modified asphalt (RMA) pavements tend to provide smoother surfaces. For instance,
research studies measured the IRI of field sections with and without rubber modification overlaid on existing
asphalt pavements and reported a 24% improvement in roughness for unmodified sections and a 35% im-
provement for sections with ground tire rubber (GTR) overlay (Irfan, Ali, Ahmed, & Hafeez, 2018). Simi-
larly, research evaluated IRI for field sections in Louisiana and found that rubber modification with dense
and gap-graded mixtures resulted in equal or better smoothness compared to conventional mixtures (Cooper
et al., 2007). Willis et al. (2014) reported smoother pavements in Alabama after five years of service with
rubberized mixtures (J.Richard Willis, Carolina Rodezno, Adam Taylor, 2014; NCAT, n.d.). Vazquez et al.
Fig 9, compared field sections with gap-graded asphalt mixtures, one with 8% crumb rubber modification
and the other without and found that rubber modification produced a much smoother pavement surface, as
measured by mean profile depth, both immediately after construction and three years later (Vázquez et al.,
2016).
Figure 9
A consequence of smoother pavements is lower production (emission) of tire wear particles, which
could be beneficial to aquatic life and human health (Kreider, Doyle-Eisele, Russell, McDonald, & Panko,
2012; Simons, 2016; Wagner et al., 2018). A detailed study from Arizona compared the tire wear particle
generation from surfaces of two types of pavements- asphalt rubber friction course and PCC (Allen et al.,
2006). The study also reported the roughness and friction characteristics of the pavements. The findings sug-
gested that PCC surfaces generate 1.4-2 times more tire wear particles per km as compared to RMA. This
finding was directly related to the lower roughness measured on the rubberized pavement as compared to the
PCC pavement. However, the lack of data regarding pavement roughness reduction with RMA, and subse-
quent effects on fuel savings and LCA benefits represent another important research gap.
1.8 END-OF-LIFE TIRES (ELTS)

19
Rubberized asphalt concrete (RMA) is an eco-friendly pavement solution that involves using material
obtained from recycled scrap tires, also known as End-of-Life tires (ELTs), to strengthen asphalt. This sec-
tion provides a brief overview of ELTs, including their availability, environmental impact, and conversion
processes to ground tire rubber (GTR).
AVAILABILITY AND USE
It is estimated that approximately 1 billion end-of-life tires are generated globally each year. These
tires consist of natural and synthetic rubber, carbon black, steel, and other fibers/fillers (figure 10). The natu-
ral rubber is an isoprene polymer, while the synthetic rubber is made from a combination of styrene and buta-
diene monomers. Passenger car tires contain a higher proportion of synthetic rubber, while truck tires have
more natural rubber. The synthetic additives in the tires make them stiff and impermeable, thereby increasing
their lifespan. During the lifespan of a tire, approximately 8-10% of its weight is lost due to abrasion, and the
remainder can take anywhere between 80-100 years to decompose if not recycled.
Figure 10
End-of-life tires, or ELTs, can be reused in two primary ways: as a source of energy generation or as a mate-
rial for recycling. The usage of ELTs in each form of reuse depends on geographical regulations. In the
United States, approximately half of the scrap tires end up being used as tire-derived fuel. The energy ob-
tained from ELTs can replace non-renewable resources and the natural rubber content of tires is greenhouse
gas neutral, making them an environmentally friendly alternative. Pyrolysis is a method of heating ELTs in
the absence of oxygen that could result in lower emissions and material capture. Material recycling from
ELTs is primarily achieved by reducing whole tires into tire rubber granulates. The mechanical reduction of
ELTs for secondary use is an energy-intensive process, making it crucial to identify market segments where
the benefits obtained from tire material derivatives outweigh the energy used in the recycling process. As-
phalt pavements offer significant potential to utilize virtually all annually generated ground tire rubber (GTR)
in a given state. Incorporating GTR in asphalt mixtures has been studied since the 1960s, and numerous ben-
20
efits have been identified. Despite legislative actions in the 1990s to use GTR in asphalt pavements, only a
few states have a strong track record in using GTR in asphalt mixtures. Nonetheless, asphalt pavements rep-
resent the largest potential consumer segment for recycled tire rubber.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES
Scrap tires not only occupy large volumes in landfills but also pose several environmental risks. The
idle scrap tires in a landfill could ignite, leach into nearby soil and ground water, and provide a breeding
ground for insects and vermin (Tire and Rubber Recycling Advisory Council, 2003). In addition, modern
tires take about 80-100 years to degrade, which is a long time to be idle in landfills (Torretta et al., 2015). Re-
ducing scrap tire stockpiles has long been recognized as an important environmental and legislative issue.
Consequently, most states and countries have set up regulations to effectively reduce scrap tires stockpiles
(Arizona Department of Environmental Quality, 2001; Cal Recycle, 2019; Texas Commission on Environ-
mental Quality, 2019). As discussed in the previous section, there are two major ways of recycling scrap
tires,
A) energy recycling, which includes kilns and boilers using ELTs for energy instead of fossil fuels,
and
B) material recycling, which predominantly consists of applications such as pavement construction,
sports turfs, roofs, etc. Energy recycling could potentially produce harmful particles, whereas material recy-
cling often includes reduction of scrap tires into smaller particles, which is an energy-intensive process.
Choosing a better alternative would require careful analysis of environmental impacts and a realistic market
study. Researchers often rely on Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) as a tool to evaluate the environmental impacts
of a product. LCA studies can be classified into two major categories - attributional and consequential (Ek-
vall, 2019). According to Evkall, “An attributional life cycle assessment (ALCA) estimates what share of the
global environmental burdens belongs to a product…a consequential LCA (CLCA) gives an estimate of how
the global environmental burdens are affected by the production and use of the product.” In the case of RMA,
for example, ALCA can be used to assess the amount by which the inclusion of rubber in asphalt concrete
creates net positive or negative impacts in various environmental impact categories such as CO2 emissions,
freshwater eutrophication, ozone depletion, etc. CLCA could be used to assess the net environmental impact
of increasing RMA usage as an alternative to burning scrap tires for energy (pyrolysis). Thus, consequential
LCA studies are well suited to inform high-level policy decisions with regards to minimizing the environ-
mental impact of ELTs. Feraldi et al. (2013) conducted a consequential LCA on treatment methods for ELTs,
specifically focused on energy and material recycling (Feraldi, Cashman, Huff, & Raahauge, 2013). The
findings suggested that shifting the ELTs used in energy recycling to material recycling would result in envi-
ronmental benefits, i.e., provides a greener option (Feraldi et al., 2013). An LCA study from Germany found
that using 400,000 tons of scrap tires in artificial turfs versus using them for energy recovery could result in
21
reduction of 280,000 tons of CO2 from the environment (Schmidt & Kløverpris, 2009). Fiksel et al. (2011)
and Clauzade et al. (2010) investigated the energy and material recycling of scrap tires and concluded that us-
ing waste tires as raw material for synthetic turfs/grass was the most promising alternative (Clauzade et al.,
2010; Fiksel, Bakshi, Baral, Guerra, & Dequervain, 2011). However, Fiksel et al. (2011) reasoned that the
market for synthetic grass in US is saturated, and hence energy recovery in cement kilns is the most environ-
mentally profitable and feasible option. Other studies have reached similar conclusion that energy recycling
of scrap tires in cement is a greener option as it saves natural resources (coal) and has higher calorific value
than coal (Corti & Lombardi, 2004; W. Li, Wang, Jin, & Li, 2014; Ortíz-Rodríguez, Ocampo-Duque, &
Duque-Salazar, 2017). It is noteworthy that rubber modified asphalt, which is an enormous, unsaturated mar-
ket in the US, was not considered in the studies referenced above. The environmental benefits of material re-
cycling over energy recycling have made it an attractive option. In Europe, for example, material recycling is
slowly inching ahead of the energy recycling route for scrap tires, as seen in Figure 8. Reports suggest that as
much as 75% of all scrap tires are destined for material recycling (Global Recycling, n.d.). In the United
States, the energy recovery from scrap tires has gone down from 53.1% in 2013 to 36.8% in 2019, and at the
same time, material recovery market has jumped from 38.7% in 2013 to 48.9% in 2019 (U.S. Tire Manufac-
turers Association, 2014, 2020). paraphrase ChatGPT Scrap tires are a significant environmental issue as they
can cause fires, contaminate soil and groundwater, and attract pests. To address this problem, regulations
have been put in place in most states and countries to reduce scrap tire stockpiles. There are two main ways
of recycling scrap tires: energy recycling and material recycling. Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) is often used to
evaluate the environmental impacts of these recycling methods. Consequential LCA studies are particularly
useful for informing high-level policy decisions related to reducing the environmental impact of scrap tires.
Studies have found that material recycling is a greener option than energy recycling, with using scrap tires for
artificial turfs and synthetic grass being the most promising alternative. However, the market for these prod-
ucts in the US is saturated, making energy recovery in cement kilns the most profitable and feasible option.
The material recovery market for scrap tires has been growing steadily in recent years, while the energy re-
covery market has been declining. User Scrap tires not only occupy large volumes in landfills but also pose
several environmental risks. The idle scrap tires in a landfill could ignite, leach into nearby soil and ground
water, and provide a breeding ground for insects and vermin (Tire and Rubber Recycling Advisory Council,
2003). In addition, modern tires take about 80-100 years to degrade, which is a long time to be idle in land-
fills (Torretta et al., 2015). Reducing scrap tire stockpiles has long been recognized as an important environ-
mental and legislative issue. Consequently, most states and countries have set up regulations to effectively re-
duce scrap tires stockpiles (Arizona Department of Environmental Quality, 2001; CalRecycle, 2019; Texas
Commission on Environmental Quality, 2019). As discussed in the previous section, there are two major
ways of recycling scrap tires, a) energy recycling, which includes kilns and boilers using ELTs for energy in-
stead of fossil fuels, and b) material recycling, which predominantly consists of applications such as pave-
22
ment construction, sports turfs, roofs, etc. Energy recycling could potentially produce harmful particles,
whereas material recycling often includes reduction of scrap tires into smaller particles, which is an energy-
intensive process. Choosing a better alternative would require careful analysis of environmental impacts and
a realistic market study. Researchers often rely on Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) as a tool to evaluate the envi-
ronmental impacts of a product. LCA studies can be classified into two major categories - attributional and
consequential (Ekvall, 2019). According to Evkall, “An attributional life cycle assessment (ALCA) estimates
what share of the global environmental burdens belongs to a product…a consequential LCA (CLCA) gives
an estimate of how the global environmental burdens are affected by the production and use of the product.”
In the case of RMA, for example, ALCA can be used to assess the amount by which the inclusion of rubber
in asphalt concrete creates net positive or negative impacts in various environmental impact categories such
as CO2 emissions, freshwater eutrophication, ozone depletion, etc. CLCA could be used to assess the net en-
vironmental impact of increasing RMA usage as an alternative to burning scrap tires for energy (pyrolysis).
Thus, consequential LCA studies are well suited to inform high-level policy decisions with regards to mini-
mizing the environmental impact of ELTs. Feraldi et al. (2013) conducted a consequential LCA on treatment
methods for ELTs, specifically focused on energy and material recycling (Feraldi, Cashman, Huff, & Raa-
hauge, 2013). The findings suggested that shifting the ELTs used in energy recycling to material recycling
would result in environmental benefits, i.e., provides a greener option (Feraldi et al., 2013). An LCA study
from Germany found that using 400,000 tons of scrap tires in artificial turfs versus using them for energy re-
covery could result in reduction of 280,000 tons of CO2 from the environment (Schmidt & Kløverpris,
2009). Fiksel et al. (2011) and Clauzade et al. (2010) investigated the energy and material recycling of scrap
tires and concluded that using waste tires as raw material for synthetic turfs/grass was the most promising al-
ternative (Clauzade et al., 2010; Fiksel, Bakshi, Baral, Guerra, & Dequervain, 2011). However, Fiksel et al.
(2011) reasoned that the market for synthetic grass in US is saturated, and hence energy recovery in cement
kilns is the most environmentally profitable and feasible option. Other studies have reached similar conclu-
sion that energy recycling of scrap tires in cement is a greener option as it saves natural resources (coal) and
has higher calorific value than coal (Corti & Lombardi, 2004; W. Li, Wang, Jin, & Li, 2014; Ortíz-Ro-
dríguez, Ocampo-Duque, & Duque-Salazar, 2017). It is noteworthy that rubber modified asphalt, which is an
enormous, unsaturated market in the US, was not considered in the studies referenced above. The environ-
mental benefits of material recycling over energy recycling have made it an attractive option. In Europe, for
example, material recycling is slowly inching ahead of the energy recycling route for scrap tires, as seen in
Figure 11. Reports suggest that as much as 75% of all scrap tires are destined for material recycling (Global
Recycling, n.d.). In the United States, the energy recovery from scrap tires has gone down from 53.1% in
2013 to 36.8% in 2019, and at the same time, material recovery market has jumped from 38.7% in 2013 to
48.9% in 2019 (U.S. Tire Manufacturers Association, 2014, 2020).
23
Figure 11
ELTS TO CRUMB RUBBER

The process of reducing scrap tires begins with shredding them mechanically, after which they are
ground using either ambient or cryogenic methods. In the ambient method, equipment like granulators and
shredders are used to grind the tires at room temperature. The resulting ground rubber has a rough surface
and is partially oxidized due to the heat generated during grinding. In contrast, in the cryogenic method, liq-
uid nitrogen is used to cool the tires to below -80C (-112F), making them brittle and easy to hammer into
smaller sizes. Although the cryogenic process requires less machinery than the ambient process, it incurs an
extra expense due to the use of liquid nitrogen. The cryogenic process produces ground rubber particles that
are more cubical or have sharp edges and less surface area compared to the ambient process. Although other
methods of reducing scrap tire rubber, like waterjet size reduction, exist, ambient and cryogenic grinding are
most used for producing ground tire rubber for asphalt paving applications. Figure 12 shows a high-resolu-
tion image of ground rubber produced by both the ambient and cryogenic methods.
24
Figure 12
Environmental aspects
General aspect
In recent years, there has been a growing demand for sustainable technologies in infrastructure to protect the
environment. One such technology is the use of ground tire rubber (GTR) sourced from scrap tires, which is
considered environmentally friendly as it diverts used tires from landfills and puts them to beneficial use.
However, it is crucial to have comprehensive and quantitative assessments of the environmental impacts of
recycled material systems like recycled tire rubber to help decision-makers prioritize their adoption and pro-
mote their widespread use. The following sections provide an overview of published literature that reports on
the environmental impacts of recycled tire rubber.
Bartolozzi et al. (2015) conducted an environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) study on rubberized pave-
ment in Lamia, Greece. The study assumed a service life of 40 years for rubberized pavement with mainte-
nance required every 15 years, and for conventional pavement, the service life was assumed to be 30 years
with maintenance required every 8 years. Both pavement systems were assumed to have similar thicknesses,
with the top bituminous layer being 20 cm thick, and in the case of rubberized pavement, the top 5 cm con-
sisted of wet process rubber modified asphalt mixture (10% by weight of binder). The authors reported a 30-
40% reduction in various environmental impact categories with the use of rubberized pavement, as shown in
Table 2. They also identified that the production phase, including the extra energy consumed in the produc-
tion of rubber-modified binder using the wet process with 2 hours of mixing at 185°C, was the main contrib-
utor to the negative environmental impacts associated with rubberized pavements.
25
Table 2
Asphalt binder manufactured at asphalt terminals and transported to plants for mixture production). The dry
process included extender oil additive called trans-polyoctenamer, or TOR. During raw material production/
procurement stage, the SBS modified mixture showed much higher energy consumption due to production of
SBS pellets as compared to the use of recycled rubber. However, the greenhouse gas emissions were slightly
higher for rubber modified mixtures due to higher production temperatures. The inclusion of construction
phase in the analysis showed similar results wherein the rubberized mixtures had lower energy consumption
but higher greenhouse gas emissions. In this study, notably, the dry process modification was assigned simi-
lar burdens as terminal or field blends (wet process) during raw material production phase, despite the pro-
longed blending time required to produce field or terminal blend asphalt rubber. This burden was mostly at-
tributed to production of the extender oil (TOR), and not to production of rubber-modified asphalt binders
like in the wet process. In the past decade, the dry process techniques have evolved to move away from use
of the extender oils (Fornai, Sangiorgi, Mazzotta, Bermejo, & Saiz, 2016; Rath, Love, et al., 2019). Farina et
al. (2017) also investigated wet- and dry-process rubber modified mixtures that had recycled asphalt pave-
ment (RAP) (Farina, Zanetti, Santagata, & Blengini, 2017b). The findings suggested that although wet
process technology did give an environmental advantage over standard mixtures, dry process technology
made no difference in terms of global warming potential and energy consumption. However, this study as-
sumed similar performance of dry process rubber modified mixtures as compared to standard mixtures, while
assuming enhanced performance by the wet process rubber modified mixtures, evident from lesser mainte-
nance requirements and lower construction thickness (3 cm vs. 5 cm for wet and dry process mixtures).
Given that the use phase was dominant in emission quantities measured, the assumption of not obtaining su-
26
perior service life from dry process technology seems to have resulted in the reported inferior environmental
performance of the dry process. Bressi et al. (2019) also conducted an environmental LCA on dry process
rubber modified mixture with two different rubber dosages using vulcanized and devulcanized rubber
(Bressi, Santos, Marko, & Losa, 2019). The system boundaries of this study included processes from cradle
to gate. The results showed that overall, rubber modification led to negative impacts over the twelve environ-
mental categories investigated in this study. Use of devulcanized rubber led to significant increase in the neg-
ative impacts, as devulcanization of rubber is an energy-intensive process. The authors opined that to be envi-
ronmentally beneficial, rubber modified mixtures must deliver extended service life. This study did not con-
sider the use phase as the authors assumed that the traditional and dry process rubber modified mixtures
would perform equally. This assumption was based on reports from the early pilot projects of dry process
technology. The newer, modern dry process technologies have shown field performance superior to the tradi-
tional and equivalent to wet process and polymer modified asphalt mixtures, as presented previously. In an-
other study by White et al. (2010), asphalt pavements with and without rubber (wet process) were compared
to Portland concrete pavements with and without fly ash in terms of their global warming potential (White,
Golden, Biligiri, & Kaloush, 2010). The findings suggested that, considering the material production phase
alone, use of asphalt rubber (wet process) resulted in 71% decrease in global warming potential in compari-
son to Portland cement concrete pavement. Cement production was concluded to be the highest producer of
carbon dioxide emissions.
1.9 Effect on aquatic life

Currently, environmental life cycle assessments (LCAs) of asphalt mixtures primarily focus on energy con-
sumption and greenhouse gas emissions. However, recent research indicates that it is important to consider
other environmental impact categories when using recycled materials, such as rubber, in pavement systems.
Studies have shown that when rubber is encapsulated in a binding agent, the leaching of metals and other
compounds is significantly reduced. For example, Kayhaniyan et al. (2010) conducted tests on leachates ob-
tained from rubberized sections in a controlled laboratory setting and found that the concentrations of com-
pounds/metals measured did not exceed EPA regulations. The authors used carefully designed laboratory ap-
paratus and obtained leachates at different temperatures (4, 20, 45°C) and aging levels. The study also
showed that there was no significant change in pollutant concentrations with varying temperatures or aging
levels.
A study conducted by Liu, Wang, Gheni, and ElGawady in 2018 investigated the effect of asphalt treatment
on tire particles in terms of zinc leaching. The researchers coated tire particles with asphalt, covering 50%
and 100% of the particle surface area, and compared it with uncoated particles. They found that zinc leaching
from tire particles was significantly reduced under acidic conditions (pH<6) with 50% coating resulting in a
67% reduction, and 100% coating resulting in an 82% reduction. Similar findings were reported by Gheni et
al. in 2018, who studied rubberized chip seal with crumb rubber particles and observed a 50% decrease in
27
zinc leaching compared to untreated particles. Additionally, leaching decreased with higher pH levels, which
aligns with the results shown in Figure 13 by Liu et al.
Figure 13
Azizian et al. (2003) evaluated RMA mixtures for complex organic and metallic substances (Azizian, Nelson,
Thayumanavan, & Williamson, 2003). The results showed that any contaminants from RMA surfaces are re-
tarded and delayed in their transport to nearby groundwater or soils due to peripheral soil sorption. Similarly,
findings from NCHRP Project 25-9 showed that although ground tire rubber might exhibit aquatic toxicity in
their original form, toxicity was eliminated or greatly reduced in their as-built forms, e.g., after incorporation
into paving (entombment by asphalt films) or fill due to entombment in asphalt binder and soil sorption (Az-
izian et al., 2003; Nelson et al., 2001). Although the scope of this report is focused on rubber modified as-
phalt, it was deemed important to review a recent study reporting on the effects of rubber particles on aquatic
life, which has garnered significant media attention. A study by Tian et al. (2021) linked a specific chemical
used in manufacture of tires, N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N’-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine, or 6-PPD, to the mortal-
ity of adult Coho salmon that often migrate to urban creeks to reproduce (Tian et al., 2021). The chemical in
question, 6-PPD, is an antioxidant (or anti-ozonant) that prevents tires from reacting with ozone present in
the air which would otherwise lead to degradation of the tires. The study established sufficient concentration
of 6PPD quinone in roadway runoff to cause juvenile Coho salmon mortality. The result was reached by
comparing gas chromatography-mass spectrometry assessments of TWP leachates and synthetically produced
6PPD quinone, which is a derivative of 6-PPD upon reaction with ozone. However, given the entombment of
rubber particles in asphalt films and the much higher volumes of rubber tire surface emissions as compared to
28
rubber volumes in RMA, it is not clear if RMA pavements would contribute in any significant manner to
these levels of 6-PPD concentrations in roadway runoff. However, without further proof, this represents a
current research gap.
Studies by Stephensen et al. (2005) and Day et al. (1993) had previously shown toxic effects of water run
through a newly-bought rubber hose and rubber tires respectively, on rainbow trout (Day, Holtze, J., Bishop,
& Dukta, 1993; Stephensen, Adolfsson-Erici, Hulander, Parkkonen, & Förlin, 2005). Both authors noted a
significant decrease in leaching of toxic compounds over time. Panko et al. (2013) reported that under typical
chronic exposure conditions, TWP in sediments posed low risk to aquatic life (Panko, Kreider, McAtee, &
Marwood, 2013). The authors collected TWP from a road simulator laboratory, and spiked a reference sedi-
ment from a local water reservoir at 10 g/kg, in an attempt to create representative aquatic ecosystem condi-
tions. The survival rate of the species in control and spiked sediment had no significant statistical difference.
Marwood et al. (2011) also reached at similar conclusions with a similar experimental design (Marwood et
al., 2011). The authors found that the leaching of tire wear particles could be toxic to aquatic systems under
hightemperature conditions, which are not representative of an aquatic ecosystem. Humphrey et al. (2006)
presented a review that examined data from seven field studies concerned with water quality influenced by
tire derived aggregates used above and below groundwater level. The authors noted that use of TDA, both
below and above groundwater level, was unlikely to cause increase in levels of metals in drinking water that
would exceed primary drinking water standard (D. Humphrey & Katz, 2001; D. N. Humphrey & Swett,
2006). There are a plenty of studies concerned with other civil engineering applications of rubber sourced
from scrap tires, such as use of tire derived aggregates (Sheehan, Warmerdam, Ogle, Humphrey, & Pate-
naude, 2006; Tatlisoz, Edil, Benson, Park, & Kim, 1996), use of whole tires as embankments (Brophy &
Graney, 2004; Collins, Jensen, Mallinson, Roenelle, & Smith, 2002), sports turfs (X. Li, Berger, Musante, &
Mattina, 2010; Llompart et al., 2013), and so on (Kayhanian & Harvey, 2020; Wik, Nilsson, Källqvist, To-
biesen, & Dave, 2009), but a detailed review of those studies was not considered to be within the scope of
this report. Finally, Wagner et al. (2018) presented an extensive literature review on the effects of TWP on
aquatic life and it is clear from the reported literature that this area of research is currently active and there is
a need of more in-depth field studies to better understand the effect of rubber particles from tire wear on
aquatic life (Kreider, Panko, McAtee, Sweet, & Finley, 2010; Thorpe & Harrison, 2008; Wagner et al.,
2018). It should be noted that LCA models for impact categories related to quantifying eco-toxicity are, at the
current time, unrefined. This gives rise to a high range of uncertainty in those impact categories. With the re-
cent increase in attention to the question of generation of microparticles by RMA and its effects on aquatic
life, it is a good time for the tire industry to come forward and establish an Environmental Product Declara-
tion (EPD) for using rubber modification in asphalt mixtures (Rangelov, Dylla, Mukherjee, & Sivaneswaran,
2021). An EPD will ensure standardized means of communication of environmental impacts of a product,
29
which not only will allow more streamlined, standardized, and comparable LCA studies, but also enable bet-
ter quantification of impact categories related to ecotoxicity.
Occupational safety
Recent studies have investigated the emissions of carcinogenic compounds from asphalt plants during the
production of rubber-modified asphalt (RMA). For example, Yang et al. (2019) conducted emissions mea-
surements at an asphalt plant that produced both unmodified asphalt and RMA with a rubber-modified
binder. The mixing temperatures for unmodified and rubber-modified mixtures were similar, but the authors
found that all compounds, except for xylene, were within the specified limits set by the state of Michigan.
The authors noted that the source of the asphalt had a significant impact on emissions, and any unknown ad-
ditives in the rubber-modified binder could potentially lead to higher emissions.
In another study, Zanetti et al. (2014) analyzed the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and polycyclic aro-
matic hydrocarbons (PAHs) emitted from different types of asphalt mixtures, including unmodified, polymer-
modified, and wet and dry process rubber-modified binders/mixtures. The authors found that most of the
compounds released were from the bitumen/binder, and not from the crumb rubber, as the vulcanization
process in crumb rubber prevents its degradation. The authors concluded that workers at asphalt plants are
not exposed to a higher degree of risk when working with crumb rubber modification.
It is important to note that newer processes and technologies, such as warm mix additives that lower mixing
temperatures, are resulting in less energy-consuming mixtures. Modern rubber modification processes, in-
cluding dry processes, have also improved the workability of mixtures, facilitating manual asphalt spreading
operations. These advancements contribute to the overall reduction of potential risks associated with emis-
sions during RMA production.
Figure 14 Asphalt plants are continuously evolving to capture emissions from being released to the atmos-
phere.
ECONOMICS OF RUBBER MODIFIED ASPHALT MIXTURES
The economic viability of a product is a crucial factor in its market adoption. Previous research on rubber-
modified asphalt (RMA) has shown that it was not cost-effective in many states that attempted to adopt it in
30
the 1990s. However, with advancements in production technologies and the availability of modern decision-
making tools like Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA), RMA has become more competitive in the market, as
will be elaborated in the subsequent sections.
Economic benefits
In recent times, there has been a growing recognition of the performance-enhancing benefits of rubber modi-
fication in asphalt, coupled with the increased use of Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) as a decision-making
tool instead of solely relying on bids, and the availability of more cost-effective manufacturing technologies.
As a result, rubber-modified asphalt (RMA) has become economically competitive in the marketplace. This
is evident from the utilization of RMA in various locations, such as Georgia and Illinois Tollway, where
RMA has been successfully employed in large-scale, competitively bid projects involving thousands of tons
of mainline, interstate paving.
It is worth mentioning that the initial cost of producing a ground tire rubber (GTR)-modified asphalt mixture
is lower compared to other premium mixture counterparts, such as polymer (SBS) modified asphalt mixtures.
In general, unmodified asphalt binders are modified by adding synthetic polymers, such as SBS. Studies have
shown that GTR costs about 1/6th of the price of SBS per ton (Baumgardner et al., 2018; Howard et al.,
2021). Furthermore, the average annual price of GTR has remained relatively stable at around $380/ton,
while SBS prices have experienced significant fluctuations, reaching as high as $4000/ton during supply
shortages in 2011 (Howard et al., 2021, Figure 19). As a result, many states, and agencies, such as Illinois
Tollway, Georgia DOT, Oklahoma DOT, etc., have transitioned to using GTR as a replacement for SBS to
achieve similar performance criteria while realizing increased mixture economy and sustainability benefits.
Figure 15, Asphalt cement prices for the state of Mississippi
Life cycle cost analysis
31
Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) has been used by paving agencies since the 1980s to evaluate the cost ef-
fectiveness of different paving alternatives available to an agency. Unlike traditional methods of comparing
initial project costs, LCCA incorporates initial and discounted future agency, user, and other relevant costs
over the life of alternative investments. It aims to identify the best value, which is the lowest long-term cost
that satisfies the performance objective being sought. This approach is an improvement over the traditional
method because it considers the potential cost savings due to increased pavement life and low maintenance
activities resulting from innovative material modification technologies such as polymers and rubber. The use
of LCCA as a decision-making tool has become more popular with the rise in the use of these technologies.
Jung et al. (2002) conducted a comparison of two pavement systems in Arizona - one conventional and one
made with rubberized asphalt (RMA). The conventional pavement system was a full depth pavement, while
the RMA pavement included recycled concrete, conventional asphalt concrete, and asphalt-rubber gap graded
mix-tures. The authors used the International Roughness Index (IRI) and pavement serviceability rating to
evaluate the performance of the pavements over their service life. The study found that the RMA pavement
system saved the agency over $640,000 due to its reduced total thickness. Additionally, the RMA pavement
system showed better serviceability and longer service life than the conventional pavement system. Based on
these findings, the authors concluded that RMA pavement would be more cost-effective for both the agency
and the user, as shown in Figure 16.
Figure 16
Shatnawi (2014) presented a case for using rubber-modified stress absorbing membrane interlayers (SAMI-
R) along with an HMA as a rehabilitative measure for a distressed pavement instead of using only conven-
tional HMA (Shatnawi, 2014). As such, the author compared four scenarios- first, a 105 mm (~4 inches
HMA overlay, second, SAMI-R with 60 mm (~2.4 inches) of HMA, third, 60 mm (~2.4 inches) of gap-
graded RMA, and fourth, SAMI-R with 30 mm (~1.2 inches) of gap-graded RMA. Performance of the mix-
tures adopted in this study was informed by data from Caltrans’ research. The author showed that on calcula-
tion of Net Present Value (NPV) for all the four scenarios considered in the study, the fourth scenario, which
was using SAMI-R with 30 mm of RMA resulted in the least cost associated with the agency and the user. In
comparison, the fourth scenario cost 40%, 35%, and 4% less than the first, second and the third scenarios in
terms of total cost (agency cost + user cost). Similar findings were reported by Cheng et al. (2012) who ana-
lyzed 126 asphalt rubber projects in California’s 12 districts for their cost-effectiveness in comparison to con-
32
ventional mixtures (Dingxin Cheng et al., 2012). The analysis culminated in the conclusion that use of as-
phalt-rubber was cost-effective in the majority of medium to large paving projects. Souliman et al. (2016)
conducted an LCCA to investigate whether using modified asphalt mixtures represents a cost-effective solu-
tion to mitigate fatigue cracking in comparison to unmodified mixtures (Souliman et al., 2016). The authors
compared the fatigue performance of unmodified, polymer-, and rubber-modified mixtures using the beam
fatigue test and computed the average cost per mile (1.6 km) of pavement (in US dollars) per 1000 cycles of-
fatigue life. Upon considering various lift thicknesses and vehicle velocities on roads, on average, RMA cost
$25 while polymer-modified mixture cost $36, and finally the unmodified mixture cost $108, thus highlight-
ing the effectiveness of RMA in resisting fatigue cracking
2.0 KNOWLEDGE GAP

For over 50 years, rubber modification of asphalt mixtures has been used on roads worldwide, but its use has
been limited due to outdated institutional knowledge linking it to early failures and high initial costs from
early trials. These failures were likely caused by poor compaction techniques and lack of experience with
rubber modification, but these reasons are rarely discussed in published papers, leading to a consensus that
RMA can lead to poor field performance. However, in the last 20 years, technological advancements have
significantly improved RMA's performance in various asphalt mixtures and climates, at a lower cost.
LACK OF EXPERIENCE AND PROPER DESIGN TOOLS

Most state highway agencies and asphalt contractors have limited-to-no experience with modern RMA prod-
ucts, and limited knowledge of the new performance trends, economics, and sustainability of RMA. In addi-
tion, the following specific gaps were noted: • Almost none of the modern, advanced asphalt binder and mix-
ture performance tests and associated specifications were developed with RMA in mind. For instance, the
high stiffness and elasticity imparted by rubber particles lead to very high mixture strength, high stored elas-
tic energy and limited deformation, all of which may lead to lower scores in simple asphalt mixture cracking
tests such as the IDEAL CT index test. In the MSCR binder test, a work-around is needed (replace Jnr,diff
with Jnr,slope) to properly assess RMA.
• The ability to accurately design pavement layer types and thickness with RMA is currently difficult at best.
Additional research is needed to better reflect RMA properties and characteristics as inputs in modern pave-
ment design software programs for new pavements and rehabilitation activities, such as resurfacing with as-
phalt overlay.
2.1 LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

AND COST ANALYSIS)
33
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND COST ANALYSIS)

It is worth noting that even though efforts have been taken to standardize LCA processes at a global level, an
LCA procedure specific for roads has not yet been universally agreed upon (Santero, Masanet, & Horvath,
2011). Conducting LCAs for recycled materials incorporated in asphalt mixtures is not straight-forward.
There are some inherent hurdles in the LCA process, such as lack of reliable primary sources of data, use of
different and appropriate allocation methods, etc. All these LCA-related gaps are discussed elsewhere
(Hoxha et al., 2021), but key knowledge gaps specific to rubber modified asphalt mixtures can be summa-
rized as follows:
• Assumption of life expectancy of rubberized pavements in use phase: Even though rubber modification of
asphalt mixtures has been around for a few decades at this point, there have been rapid developments in mod-
ification technologies, both wet and dry. There are numerous research reports that have shown that rubber
modified mixtures perform adequately and are on par with polymer modified mixtures. It is important for
LCA studies accounting for use phase of pavements that includes maintenance to base their assumptions on
the current performance record of rubber modified mixtures, and not on outdated reports/findings. There are
numerous research reports that have shown that rubber modified mixture perform adequately and are on par
with the polymer modified mixtures.”
• Improvement of functional characteristics (noise reduction, skid resistance): Research has shown that rub-
ber modification improves the functional characteristics of the road such as noise reduction, skid resistance,
ride quality (smoothness), etc. compared to other pavement systems. Traditional LCA analysis often ignores
a proper quantification of these social factors. Some recent work has been done towards quantifying the ef-
fect of noise reduction in urban areas by using rubber modified roads, but it is yet to be fully incorporated
into LCA.
• Focus on limited impact categories: Most LCA studies for rubber modified asphalt are focused on energy
consumption and emissions (greenhouse gas emissions). Recent studies on the environmental effects of tire
wear rubber particles in water streams have proved that more emphasis needs to be given to eco-toxicity and
other similar impact categories in the LCA procedure for pavements. Research has shown that rubberized
pavements produce less tire wear rubber particles due to a smoother surface compared to other pavement/
mixture types. A quantification of such impacts for different types of mixtures would allow the decision of
choosing a pavement type to become multidimensional (instead of looking at a limited number of impact cat-
egories). Another broader aspect associated with this issue is that the current LCA models for quantifying
ecotoxicity are not fully refined, which results is poor resolution of obtained results.
• Life Cycle Cost Analysis is primarily affected by assumptions on maintenance and rehabilitation of pave-
ment sections. Much like the incorrect assumption of low life expectancy in the effect of use phase in envi-
ronmental LCA, LCCA also suffers from similar assumptions which are based on outdated literature. •
Avoided burden for recycled crumb rubber: Ground tire rubber is an efficient way of converting a waste ma-
34
terial into a stream of raw materials for asphalt mixtures. While this helps to reduce scrap tire stockpile is-
sues, RMA does not appear to be allocated any avoided burden in current LCA studies. It is worth noting that
allocating an avoided burden in attributional LCA studies would require an expansion of system boundaries
to include end of life phase of tires, and such system expansion would be rather convoluted.
• Lack of consequential LCA studies: Policy-based decisions in the US on the use of ELTs by various
means, material recycling or energy recycling, could be aided by rigorous consequential LCA studies, which
are not widely available at this point.
INFORMATION ON USE OF RUBBER-MODIFIED PAVEMENT
RAP In the United States, and around the world, it is becoming commonplace to re-use the milled asphalt
pavement as an aggregate stockpile, called recycled asphalt pavement (RAP). While it is known that rubber
modification provides enhanced performance, limited data exists on its reuse from testing of crumb rubber
modified RAP resulting in research gaps. For instance, there is a lack of in-depth research on the quality of
air emissions from rubber modified RAP which could be variable depending on the process of mixture manu-
facturing (dry versus terminal or field blends) (Caltrans, 2005a; Rice & Halligan, 2020). In addition, the de-
gree of binder availability from crumb rubber modified RAP would need to be thoroughly investigated. The
work relating to this is still under debate for conventional RAP, but an additional dimension to this research
gap for rubber modified RAP would be the quality of binder available since it is known that rubber particles
absorb the lighter ends of the binder. Finally, research needs to be directed to determine if there needs to be
any modifications to the existing mixture design process to incorporate rubber modified RAP. Notably it has
been reported that milling of There is a lack of in-depth research on the quality of air emissions from rubber
modified RAP which could be variable depending on the process of mixture manufacturing (dry versus ter-
minal or field blends).”69 rubber-modified roads need extra energy (Bischoff & Toepel, 2004). Factoring this
into an LCA analysis would give a clearer picture of the complete reusability of rubber modified pavements.
NOISE REDUCTION
While there is an overwhelming agreement on the positive effects of rubber modification in terms of noise re-
duction, there are a few instances where reports disagree on the longevity of the noise reduction effect of
RMA. For instance, reports from Sacramento County (Sacramento County Public Works Agency, 1999) and
Arizona (G. Way, 2012) indicated longlasting effects (>6 years) of rubberized pavements for reducing noise
levels, but a study by Lu et al. (2010) in California showed that the positive effects of RMA diminish within
a few years (2-4 years) of paving in comparison to conventional mixtures (Lu et al., 2010). Although it is
known that the ability to reduce noise levels would depend on mixture types, pavement quality, and other
factors, there is a need to obtain a deeper understanding of the effects of rubber in noise attenuation. In addi-
tion, the choice of sound level measurements and the ensuing calculations also differ from study-to-study,
and hence needs standardization.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
35
The effect of RMA on aquatic and human toxicity is currently gaining a lot of media attention. While past
research reports that once rubber particles are entombed or treated with asphalt binder, the rate of leaching re-
duces drastically, recent studies are identifying newer chemicals from tire rubber that could be harmful for
aquatic life. There is a great opportunity for industry to develop an Environmental Product Declaration (EPD)
for the usage of rubber in asphalt mixtures. EPDs would also provide the building blocks for conducting stan-
dardized LCA analysis with due consideration of ecotoxicity.
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY
Occupational safety is an important issue in any industry. Even though the current state of knowledge and
field experience has shown that RMA is safe to work with in the long-term, there is a lack of quality primary
data on plant emissions and its long-term effects on workers, especially in the United States. It is important to
mention that measuring plant and field emissions are complex tasks and are affected by many factors, as
pointed out in a study by Zanetti et al. (2014) (Maria Chiara Zanetti et al., 2014). Furthermore, studies con-
ducted at different points of time have shown differing results, for instance Stout et al. (2003) and Yang et al.
(2019) reported gaseous emissions from asphalt plants producing RMA in Michigan and found subjectively
contradictory results (Stout & Carlson, 2003; Yang et al., 2019). There is a need to bring in standardization in
the method of measurements that would account for sitespecific factors, as pointed out by Zanetti et al.
(2015) (M. C. Zanetti et al., 2015). It is noteworthy that newer processes and technologies, such as warm mix
additives that reduce mixing temperatures by 50-75F (10-25C), are resulting in less energy-consuming mix-
tures. Modern rubber modification processes, especially the dry processes, have also aided in the manufactur-
ing of more workable mixtures, which facilitates manhole covers.
2.2 Conclusion
The path leading to the current state of knowledge in rubber modified asphalt has been filled with technologi-
cal innovations, many great success stories, and a few challenges along the road as best practices for RMA
have developed over the past several decades. With the second wave of RMA innovations gaining a solid
foothold across the US in recent years, the asphalt industry and end-of-life tire stakeholder communities have
an opportunity to build on the current momentum, and to finally realize RMA’s full potential as a main-
stream, asphalt paving technology. Realizing this potential can lead to tens of millions of annual savings for
state highway agencies, and thus hundreds of millions nationwide in the reduction of paving costs, increased
pavement life, and decreased maintenance activities. These savings can then be reinvested to address the sub-
stantial deferred maintenance needs that have steadily accrued since the completion of various roadways
comprising the national highway system, built 30-60 years ago, along with the vast network of other roads,
airports, parking lots, and pavement facilities across the US. In addition, the increased use of RMA can effec-
tively utilize scrap tires in the US and prevent stockpiles, while significantly contributing to overall pavement
sustainability and citizen-centric benefits such as quieter and smoother pavements, lower vehicle operating
costs, and lower vehicle maintenance costs. To help fully realize these goals, the key knowledge gaps identi-
36
fied in this study should be rigorously addressed. It is recommended that the closure of these knowledge gaps
be addressed without delay, in order to build on the current momentum in RMA usage across the US. The
following steps are recommended to further the responsible and sustainable use of rubber in asphalt pave-
ments:
1. Gaps in knowledge related to RMA sustainability and its role in transportation resiliency should be ad-
dressed in a comprehensive, integrated fashion. Not only will this serve to guide the responsible use of RMA
in the asphalt paving industry, but it will also enable far more accurate LCA estimations and forward-looking
pavement designs as the transportation community moves towards increased attention to sustainable and re-
silient infrastructure.
2.Gaps in knowledge with respect to RMA performance testing, modern performance specifications, and in-
tegrated pavement/materials design should be addressed with an eye towards national standardization, bol-
stered by a national clearinghouse of test results, field performance data, improved performance prediction
models, and templates for new RMA construction and materials specifications. Advances in data science and
machine learning should be developed and fully exploited in an effort to reduce the time-to-adoption of new
research results, reduce testing, design, and pavement evaluation costs, and to bolster the efficacy of RMA
performance prediction.
3.The establishment of a National Center of Excellence for Rubber-Modified Asphalt would facilitate the
timely conduct of the critically needed research and could assist in the dissemination of research being car-
ried out at other institutions nationwide and across the world. Partnership with a local department of trans-
portation and existing center for transportation research and innovation would serve to expedite the timeline
to reach full center operational capacity, by capitalizing on access to existing laboratory facilities with exist-
ing RMA research capabilities, experienced research personnel, and in the establishment of a national test
road facility dedicated to RMA research.
4.Investment in regional demonstration projects, scrap tire recycling infrastructure, and hot-mix asphalt plant
recycling infrastructure to facilitate RMA usage, particularly in areas with little-to-no current RMA usage
should be given priority. The strategic investment of existing tire recycling fees or the establishment of other
funding streams to support the expansion of rubber recycling into pavements should be considered in light of
the opportunity to build on the current positive momentum in RMA usage and innovation in the US and
abroad.
5.A national expert task force should be established, which can help develop and coordinate national re-
search priorities and studies for RMA, provide oversight to a national center of excellence for RMA research,
and help prioritize and coordinate regional demonstration projects, strategic investments in recycling infra-
structure, and provide overall industry leadership and advocacy towards increased pavement sustainability,
resiliency and circular economy solutions involving RMA.
37
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Road pavements and materials:

“Rubber modified Asphalt.”

Prepared by: Zhiger Kurmangaliyev (UZ96Y9)

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Year Description/Major Development Reference

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Publication of results from two studies: 1) Lewis and Welborn

Development of asphalt rubber materials for use in joint sealers,

1st symposium on rubber in asphalt held by Asphalt Institute in

Development of dry process modification technology in Swe-

Development of Florida wet process which is a continuous blending (M. A.

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Reports from various DOTs summarizing performance of the trial

In wet process, terminal blends start getting popular among users of

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Significant increase in market for use of rubber modified asphalt with

1.2 Rubber modified Asphalt processes:

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

1.3 INTERACTION OF RUBBER WITH ASPHALT BINDERS AND MIXTURES

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

1.4 The ecosystem of ELT

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

1.5 PAVING APPLICATIONSS

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

1.6 Beneficial sides

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

1.7 Structural and Functional benefits

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

1.8 END-OF-LIFE TIRES (ELTS)

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

ELTS TO CRUMB RUBBER

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

1.9 Effect on aquatic life

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Figure 15, Asphalt cement prices for the state of Mississippi

Life cycle cost analysis

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

2.0 KNOWLEDGE GAP

LACK OF EXPERIENCE AND PROPER DESIGN TOOLS

2.1 LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND COST ANALYSIS)

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport

Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Transport