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Training Protocols and Specific Performance in Judo Athletes: A Systematic

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 Brief Review

Training Protocols and Specific Performance in

Judo Athletes: A Systematic Review
Luvanor Santana da Silva,1 Nasto Rabelo Trindade Neto,1 João Paulo Lopes-Silva,2 Carol Gois Leandro,1 and
Marcos David Silva-Cavalcante1,3
1
Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, CAV, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil; 2Department of Physical
Education, University Center CESMAC, Maceió, Alagoas, Brazil; and 3Postgraduate Program in Nutrition—PPGNUT, Faculty of
Nutrition, Federal University of Alagoas, Maceio, Brazil.
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Abstract
da Silva, LS, Neto, NRT, Lopes-Silva, JP, Leandro, CG, and Silva-Cavalcante, MD. Training protocols and specific performance in
judo athletes: A systematic review. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000–000, 2021—The aim of this systematic review was to describe
different training protocols (e.g., resistance training, high-intensity interval training [HIIT], sprint IT, standard judo training [SJT], and
aerobic training [AT]) used to improve neuromuscular adaptation and performance in specific tests with judo athletes. In addition,
comparisons were made of the training protocols in the articles analyzed. The searches were conducted using the electronic
databases PubMed/MEDLINE, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and Cochrane. This review was conducted according to the Preferred
Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis guidelines. Search terms included martial arts, judo, physical endur-
ance, physical conditioning, training, strength training, resistance training, IT, HIIT, adults, and young adult. A total of 9,230 articles
were initially identified. Based on the inclusion criteria, 19 published studies were selected. Approximately 94.7% of studies
analyzed used the traditional judo training method, and 57.9% of the articles analyzed introduced the high-intensity interval
protocol, whereas 57.9% of the articles analyzed used strength training, and 31.5% of the articles analyzed used AT. Of the 19
studies analyzed, 3 contained female athletes in their samples, representing 15% of the studies, and 4.3% of the athletes who
participated in the analyzed studies were women. In addition, some studies reported interventions with more than 1 training method
used throughout the training program. It seems that the HIIT methods and SJT promoted greater effects on physiological and
neuromuscular adaptations in judo athletes than other methods.
Key Words: combat sport, exercise, physical fitness, physiological responses

Introduction techniques, anaerobic endurance for successive attacks during the

match, and aerobic endurance to provide a faster recovery action
Judo is a dynamic, high-intensity, and intermittent combat sport.
throughout the match and between successive matches in a
During judo combat, 2 opposing athletes engage in open-task
competition (13,20). From a metabolic pathway perspective, judo
activities requiring a combination of physical and technical-
combat is predominantly an aerobic system (50–81%), followed
tactical capacities (20). The total combat time in judo is 4 minutes
by ATP-PCr (40–12%) and glycolytic (6–10%) systems (24).
or more, when a tie occurs, and is characterized by high-intensity
Although there is a greater aerobic contribution, the outcome of
actions corresponding to 15–30 seconds of effort with pauses of
the judo combat is determined mainly by throwing technique
5–10 seconds (34). During a typical judo tournament, winning
attacks, requiring a high rate of energy over a very short period, a
athletes usually fight several times (i.e., 5–7 matches) in the same
role played by the ATP-PCr system (30). Based on this evidence, it
day, with intervals of 1–15 minutes between each fight (38), re-
has been proposed that physical training program for judo ath-
quiring a good physical conditioning (13). Athletes can score
letes should be aimed at improving aerobic and anaerobic systems
using the following techniques: throwing techniques (nage-waza),
but with an emphasis on the anaerobic system because of the
immobilizing techniques (osae-komi-waza), elbow lock joint
crucial actions for performance in judo involving the gripping
techniques (kansetsu-waza), and strangle techniques (shime-
disputes (glycolytic metabolism) and the throwing technique at-
waza). Furthermore, during official judo competition, the nage-
tacks (ATP-PCr metabolism) (22).
waza is executed in the standing position (tachi-waza), whereas
Many training protocols and methods are applied to achieve
all other groups of techniques are executed during groundwork
the well-developed physical conditioning required. In general,
combat (ne-waza) (38).
judo athletes prepare using generalized training methods, such as
In relation to physical components, the judo performance is
running, cycling, and strength exercises, as well as adopting
influenced by physical components such as muscular strength for
specific methods: input technique (uchi-komi), execution tech-
the execution of immobilization techniques, strength endurance
niques (nage-komi and kumi-kata), and simulation of standing
for grip disputes, muscle power for the execution of throwing
and ground fighting (randori) (3). Athletes may also be submitted
Address correspondence to Marcos David Silva-Cavalcante, cavalcantemds@ to various mixed protocols: standard judo training (SJT) with
hotmail.com. strength training, SJT with aerobic training (AT), and SJT with
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 00(00)/1–12 high-intensity interval training (HIIT). This indicates that there is
ª 2021 National Strength and Conditioning Association no isolated training system (14).

Copyright © 2021 National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
 Training Protocols and Judo (2021) 00:00
Although there is a great deal of information on the types of
training that are used to increase performance for the judo ath-
letes, no systematic review has been performed to date on the
effect of training methods (protocols) on specific and nonspecific
performance and physiological adaptations. This indicates the
need for systematization of the main studies that treat training
methodology. The main goal of this study was to describe the
effects of different training protocols on the physiological re-
sponses and performance (specific and nonspecific) in the judo
athletes.
Methods
Search Strategy
The refined search strategy in the literature was performed
according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Re-
views and Meta-Analyses guidelines (37). PubMed/MEDLINE,
ScienceDirect, Scopus, and Cochrane searches were performed
without restriction of years using a strategy with the operators
AND, OR, and a combination of the following descriptors:
(“martial arts” OR “judo”) AND (“physical endurance” OR
“physical conditioning”) AND (“training” OR “strength train-
ing” OR “resistance training” OR “interval training” OR “high-
intensity interval training”) AND (“Adults OR young adult”).
The initial search included publications from January 1966
through July 2020.
Inclusion Criteria
The search for the articles was performed respecting the following
inclusion criteria: (a) randomized and nonrandomized controlled
trials, (b) published in the English language, (c) specific reference
to training methods and judo, (d) comparisons between groups
training and nontraining and groups with a combined training
and noncombined training, (e) participation of both sexes, and (f)
athletes aged 18 years and older. Only studies with a training
period of a minimum of 4 weeks were considered (19).
Exclusion Criteria
The search for the articles was performed, and the articles with
following conditions were excluded: (a) articles that investigated
nutritional and pathological aspects, (b) review articles, (c) arti-
cles that did not intervene or did not use a training protocol, (d)
articles with no English version published, (e) articles where a
pharmacological substance was used, and (f) articles using nu-
tritional supplementation.
Quality Assessment
The Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale was used
to classify the methodological quality of randomized clinical
trials. The PEDro scale has a total of 11 items (29) referring to
eligibility criteria, blinding of assessors, randomization and
blinding of subjects, the number of subjects completing all
testing sessions, and reporting of data for the key outcomes.
The maximum possible score on the scale is 10 points because
the first item (related to external validity) is not included in the
total score. The PEDro scale ranges from 0 to 10, where 9–10
points correspond to excellent quality, 6–8 points correspond
to good quality, 4–5 points correspond to low quality, and less
than 3 points correspond to poor methodological quality. All
Copyright © 2021 National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
studies classified using the PEDro scale were included. The
search is illustrated in Figure 1.
Results
Subject Characteristics
Of the 19 studies included (Figure 1), 9 studies were conducted
with randomized groups (2,4,15,17,20,20,24,48,49) and 10
studies were nonrandomized (3,7,8,16,31,37,33,36,37,46). A
total of 465 athletes (men, n 5 436, and women, n 5 20) were
described in these studies. Ages ranged between 18 and 35
years, with practical experience in the modality ranging from 8
to 15 years (3,4,8,17,18,37,36,37). Some studies did not re-
port the amount of experience or graduation (belt color)
(7,15,16,25,26,28,36,41,42,46). Only 3 studies conducted
research with female athletes (3,7,37). Most of the studies had
been conducted with elite athletes (men, n 5 223, and women,
n 5 20) (3,4,7,17,18,30,37,36–39) (Table 1).
Study Design and Physiotherapy Evidence Database Scores
Based on the PEDro checklist, 9 studies were classified as pre-
senting excellent quality (2,4,15,17,20,20,24,48,49), whereas
10 studies were classified as presenting low quality
(3,7,8,16,31,37,33,36,37,46). Individual scores for the quality
assessment can be found in Table 1.
Training Programs
The training periods were between 4 and 18 weeks, in which all regular
competing athletes performed approximately 2 hours of training 3–6
times a week. Except for one (40), all other studies adopted the SJT
method (3,4,7,8,11,15–18,30,31,34,37,33,36,38,39,43). One study
used a judo-specific machine (2), whereas 7 studies adopted resistance
training method (4,15,16,26,28,31,43,47–49). In addition to these
methods, 3 studies used running training (3,16,33,39,46), 5 used HIIT
(3,4,17,18,36), 3 adopted IT (7,26,28,42,46), 1 used complex training
(16), 1 used flexibility method (41), and 1 used interval speed training
(25) (Table 2).
Specific Performance
Among the 19 articles included in this study, 8 assessed the
effects of training protocols on specific performance
(2,3,15–17,27,36,37). Four studies reported increases in the
total number of throws (i.e., ippon-seoi-nage throw) in the
special judo fitness test (SJFT) (3,15,17,37,37) (Table 2).
Nonspecific Performance
Five articles showed increases in nonspecific performance neu-
romuscular variables (7,15,16,39,41), 2 articles showed increases
in performance in squatting, isokinetic strength knee extensors,
and vertical jumping (7,15,39), and 1 article showed increases in
upper-limb flexibility performance (41) (Table 3).
Physiological Effects
Twelve articles showed changes in physiological variables
(3,4,8,15–18,30,31,34,37,39), including the increases in the
hormonal parameters (18,31). Four articles demonstrated the
improved physiological markers of muscular stress
 Training Protocols and Judo (2021) 00:00
Figure 1. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses flow diagram.
(4,8,17,26,43,49,43). One study found no changes in V̇ O2max
and peak V̇ O2 (18). Only 1 study reported positive changes in
V̇ O2max (42). Several studies have shown changes in hormonal
parameters and biochemical and immunological markers
(4,8,17,18,26,28,31,43,46,47,49) (Table 4).
Discussion
The purpose of this systematic review was to describe the
training methods used with judo athletes. In addition, the ef-
fects of the protocols used were compared regarding the
physiological, neuromuscular, specific, and nonspecific re-
sponses in the performance.
All articles included in this revision used the SJT method
(3,4,7,8,11,15–18,30,31,34,37,33,36,38,39,43). This method of
training is commonly used with judo athletes because of its sim-
ilarity to the temporal actions and specific movements of the judo
combats (2). In general, in judo combat, many techniques of
gripping the judogi (kumi-kata) are performed, requiring a high
level of strength in the upper limbs, whereas decisive and explo-
sive actions are performed by the lower limbs for success in ap-
plying the techniques (33). Thus, the SJT needs to be more specific
for conditioning athletes and training them in the techniques used
in this particular type of combat.
In the selected studies, SJT was also integrated into the re-
sistance training program (4,7,15,16,26,28,31,46,41,42,46). A
study of judo athletes comparing a linear and periodic use of
both training protocols (SJT and resistance training) in the
training program observed improvements in the anthropometric
variable (skinfold thicknesses26.5%), performance in specific
(maximal isometric handgrip strength 4.6 and 6.1% for right
and left hands, respectively, isometric strength endurance for the
judogi 18.9%, and SJFT 5.5%), and nonspecific neuromuscular
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variables (squat exercises 7.1%, total weight lifted at 70% one
repetition maximum, bench press 15.1%, and flexed arm
2.0%). Conversely, there were no changes in the physiological
parameters. Other studies, in which strength training protocols
were also used, recorded improvements in the adaptation of
variables of force (6,11).
Resistance training protocols are used constantly to increase the
performance of the judokas (4,15,16,26,28,31,43,47–49). Strength
training brings functional adaptation and develops maximum power
endurance, which is important for judo athletes. The athletes usually
performed power training protocols for 4–6 weeks, with intensities
between 40 and 60% of the maximum, repeated in cycles of 8–12
times each in 2–3 sets (6). The training protocol needs to be adjusted
according to specific demands of the modality, such as the de-
velopment of maximum strength and endurance force (6).
The development of specific strength in judo has been accompa-
nied by throwing exercises, in which judokas are required to develop
elbow flexion or extension strength and grip strength to obtain an
advantageous position and trunk and neck strength to minimize the
risk of injury to the cervical spine (27,47). It was showed that a
training protocol (10 weeks, twice a week, 5 sets 3 10 repetitions of
specific exercises, techniques [o-soto-gari and morote-seoi-nage]),
with the help of an adapted machine, promoted increases in strength
in the execution of both techniques (pretraining: 25.0 6 6.1 kg vs.
posttraining : 31.1 6 7.0 kg and pretraining: 13.1 6 2.4 kg vs.
posttraining: 27.8 6 7.9 kg) (2). Although this kind of training is not
specific for judo, its strengthening improvement helps athletes to
perform strong and powerful pull and push movements during
combat (11). The main effects of load training are related mainly to
the adaptation of contractile structures and gains in muscle strength
(16). Thus, this seems to be an important strategy to optimize the
strength capacity of athletes.
 Training Protocols and Judo (2021) 00:00

Table 1
General description of subject characteristics and study objectives.*
Sample characteristics
Sex/sample Practice time (y), [mean 6 SD]/ PEDro
Study size (n) Age (y) graduation, (belt color) Level Type of study score Study objective
Franchini et al. M 5 35 22.3 6 5.2 to 26.4 12 6 7 to 18 6 7/ND Elite judoka Randomized 9/10 To investigate the effects of high-
(18) 6 7.0 intensity interval training (HIIT) on
lower- and upper-body graded
exercise and high-intensity interval
exercise performance and on
physiological and muscle damage
markers responses in judo athletes.
Franchini et al. M 5 13 18–35 ND/brown and black Collegiate, Randomized 8/10 To compare the effects of linear and
(15) judoka undulating periodized resistance
training on strength and judo-
specific performance.
Branco et al. (4) M 5 35 22–26 12 6 7/ND Elite judoka Randomized 9/10 To verify the effects of 4-weeks of 3
different modes of HIIT, physiological
and psychometric responses among
judo athletes.
Lee et al. (28) M 5 29 20 6 1 ND/ND Collegiate Randomized 9/10 To examine training effects on
judoka immunoglobulin and changes in
physiological stress and physical
fitness l during 12-wk training in elite
judoists.
Bonato et al. (3) M 5 6/F 5 3 20 6 4 13 6 6/,brown and black Elite judoka Nonrandomized 5/10 To examine the response of HR and
VȮ 2max in elite judo athletes
submitted to a high-intensity interval
triage and traditional judo program.
Saraiva et al. M 5 39 20.69 6 2.3 ND/ND Elite judoka Randomized 9/10 To examine the effects of 12 weeks
(41) of resistance training with different
exercise orders on flexibility levels in
elite-level judo athletes.
Koga et al. (26) M 5 15 18.0 6 0.2 ND/ND Collegiate Nonrandomized 5/10 To examine the effects of a long-
judoka term exercise program on neutrophil
function in male university judoists.
Tartibian et al. M 5 24 21.0 6 2.2 ND/ND Elite judoka Randomized 9/10 To investigate the effect of 8-week
(42) judo training program on oxidative
stress biomarkers and CK in male
judo athletes.
Papacosta et al. M 5 11 20 6 6 8.5 6 4.7/ND Elite judoka Nonrandomized 5/10 To identify the time course of change
(39) of salivary testosterone (sT), cortisol
(sC), and IgA (SIgA) in judo athletes.
Franchini et al. M 5 10 23 6 2 ND/brown/black Collegiate Nonrandomized 5/10 To monitor the changes in different
(16) judoka variables during judo training
periodization.
Franchini et al. M 5 35 22.3 6 5.2 to 26.4 12 6 7 to 18 6 7/ND Elite judoka Randomized 9/10 To verify the effects of short-term,
(17) 6 7.0 low-volume high-intensity interval
training (HIIT) added to traditional
judo training on physiological and
performance responses to judo-
specific tasks.
Kim et al. (25) M 5 29 19.97 6 1.12 ND/ND Elite judoka Randomized 9/10 To investigate the effect of SIT. In
addition, to investigate the
physiological and performance
changes in aerobic and anaerobic
fitness in elite judoists.
De Oliveira (8) M 5 22 22 to 25 13.4 6 5.1/ND National Nonrandomized 5/10 To evaluate the effect of training judo
level in the competition period on the
plasmatic levels of bioactive
molecules in high-performance male
athletes.
Radovanovic M 5 14 22 6 1.8 to 23 6 12 6 3.7 to 13 6 4.2 Elite judoka Nonrandomized 5/10 To evaluate the effect of training judo
et al. (40) 1.5 in the competition period on the
plasmatic levels of bioactive
molecules in high-performance male
athletes.

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 Training Protocols and Judo (2021) 00:00 | www.nsca.com

Table 1
General description of subject characteristics and study objectives.* (Continued)
Sample characteristics
Sex/sample Practice time (y), [mean 6 SD]/ PEDro
Study size (n) Age (y) graduation, (belt color) Level Type of study score Study objective
Marques et al. M 5 11/F 5 21.9 6 3.0 and 21.7 15.9 6 3.0 and 15.7 6 1.9/ND Elite judoka Nonrandomized 5/10 To compare state- ornational-level to
(31) 10 6 1.9 international-level judo athletes
concerning maximal strength,
muscle power, judo-specific
performances, and the hormonal
responses to 3 different training time
points during BP
Miura et al. (36) M 5 56 18.0 6 0.1 ND/ND Collegiate, Nonrandomized 5/10 To examine changes in ROS
judoka production of neutrophils, SOA, and
other related parameters, including
immunoglobulins and complements,
brought about by long-term training
Blais and Trilles M 5 20 22 6 3.6 to 23 6 ND/black Collegiate, Randomized 9/10 To analyze the progress of a group of
(2) 2.4 judoka judokas after a training program with
the apparatus.
Yamamoto et al. M 5 24 18.0 6 0.2 ND/ND Collegiate, Nonrandomized 5/10 To examine the effects of long-term/
(46) judoka chronic training on myogenic
enzymes and major neutrophil
function, we measured myogenic
enzymes, ROS ROS was, now,
defined above in Miura et al. (36)
production capability, and neutrophil
PA in male university judoists who
had stopped judo training for 6
months and then restarted their
training.
Callister et al. (7) M 5 8/F 5 7 25.6 6 1.5 and 24.0 ND/ND Elite judoka Nonrandomized 5/10 To determine the effect of large or
6 1.9 sudden increases in volume training
on performance characteristics and
the feasibility of using overtraining
syndromes symptoms to monitor
performance changes.
*BP 5 block periodization; ROS 5 reactive oxygen species; SOA 5 serum opsonic activity; PA 5 phagocytic activity.

The HIIT or IT is another method used in the training pro-
grams, often associated with the SJT method, although in dif-
ferent training sessions (3,4,7,17,18,30,31,34,36,39,43).
Considering that judo is a sport with intermittent characteristics
and acyclic movements, HIIT has shown positive results because
it shows intermittence in the structure of activity (13). One study
used a HIIT protocol (15 repetitions on a treadmill, 1 minute in
high intensity at 90% of V̇ O2max and 1 minute of active recovery
at 60% of V̇ O2max between each effort) and verified a 12% in-
crease in the index SJFT after 12 weeks of training (3). Another
study with judo athletes used a HIIT protocol (uchi-komi, lower-
body cycle ergometer, and upper-body cycle ergometer) with low
volume and short term (4 weeks) and found improvements in
mean aerobic power of upper limbs in progressive test (12.3%),
peak power in upper limb (16.7%) and lower limb (8.5%) in the
uchi-komi group, and mean limb power (14.2%) during HIIT
(18). This suggests that HIIT may be an efficient and time-limited
method that promotes important physiological adaptations in
judo athletes. However, these studies presented different periods
of training.
Some of the studies reported positive increases in lower-limb
and upper-limb power performance after 4 weeks of training with
a specific protocol (uchi-komi protocol) when compared with the
cycle ergometer protocols (7,17,18). Three studies found an im-
provement in the specific test performance index after 4 and 13
weeks of training program (3,17,37). Other studies showed im-
provements in specific test performance and other variables after
training (15,17,31). These differences suggest that positive re-
sponses in performance may be attributed to not only single pe-
riods (weeks of training) or the length of training periods to which
athletes are subjected but also possibly the specific training
methods.
The choice of training methods used can depend on the
characteristics of the physiological demands of judo combat.
Two studies showed improvements in V̇ O2max, average aer-
obic power, and anaerobic power after 8 and 12 weeks of IT
and IT combined with resistance training, respectively
(28,42). However, another study showed no differences in the
V̇ O2max of judo athletes in response to different HIIT proto-
cols (lower-body cycle ergometer, upper-body cycle ergome-
ter, and uchi-komi) (18). Another study submitted judokas to
8 weeks of sprint IT (30 seconds maximal running efforts and
4 minutes of recovery between sprints). The sprints were
performed at 80% maximal aerobic velocity (MAV), which
was determined through the maximal treadmill exercise test,
during weeks 1 and 2 and at 90% MAV from week 3 to week 8
(25). The sprint IT promoted an increase in peak and mean
power during the Wingate test after 4 (16 and 17%, re-
spectively) and 8 weeks (16 and 17%, respectively). By con-
trast, there were no significant changes in variables related to

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 Training Protocols and Judo (2021) 00:00

Table 2
Changes in specific performance caused by different training methods.*
Training program Main outcome
Duration Day/ Sets/session or block/reps/ Session
Study Training (week) Week Intensity rest (min) Specific performance
Franchini et al. SJT 8 5 All out Running warm-up 10 minutes, 85 DGSIM (s) ↑
(15) RT 3 ;80% 1RM ukemi-waza; 5 minutes, uchi- ND LMIHS (kg) ↑
(linear and undulating komi; 15 minutes, nage-komi; RMIHS (kg) ↑
periodization) 10 minutes, randori; 45 minutes SJFT ↑
(5 3 weeks)
4 3 3–5 (1–2 weeks) 4 3 6–8
(3–5 weeks) 15–20 reps (6–8
weeks) 1RM
Bonato et al. SJT 12 7 All out -5 3 week (uchi-komi and nage- 120 ↔total number of throws SJFT
(3) AT 2 60% VȮ 2max komi) 60
HIIT 2 90% VȮ 2max and 60% VȮ 2max -3 session 3 30 minutes 45
(continuous run on a treadmill)
-1 set 3 1 minutes HIIT
Papacosta SJT 5 5 All out ND 90–120 LMIHS (kg) ↑
et al. (39) HIIT 2 ND 3 3 5 minutes randori (norm) 30–60
5 3 8 minutes randori (intense)
3 3 3 minutes randori
(taper)
Franchini et al. 18 4 All out (;90% of Borg scale) ND-SJT 40–60 DGSIM (s) ↑
(16) 3 ;90% of 1RM 4 3 8–12 at 70–80% 1RM (GP) 60 DGSE (r) ↑
2 60% of RHR 4 3 3–5 at 90% 1RM (SP) 60
All out (70–90% of Borg scale) 4–8 3 5 minutes randori
3 90% of 1RM 40–60
3 90–100% of RHR 60
2 30
3 ;90% of 1RM 60

Franchini et al. SJT 4 ND ND ND ↑ Number of throws in the SJFT

(17) HIIT lower body (2- All out (lower-body cycle 2 block 3 10 3 20 seconds 3 for the UB group
block) ergometer) 10 seconds at sets and with 5
HIIT upper body (2- 2 minutes rest at blocks ↑ Index in the SJFT for the uchi-
block) All out (upper-body cycle komi group
HIIT uchi-komi (2- ergometer) 2 block 3 10 3 20 seconds 3
block) 2 10 seconds at sets and with 5
All out (uchi-komi: throwing the minutes rest at blocks
partner at the end of each set)
2 2 block 3 10 3 20 seconds 3
10 seconds at sets and with 5
minutes rest at blocks
Radovanovic RT 12 3 RT (ranged from 60 to 85% of ND ND ↑SJFT index
et al. (40) AT 2 the 1RM) 30
AT (10 minutes under aerobic minutes
threshold, 5 minutes between
aerobic-anaerobic thresholds, 5
minutes above the anaerobic
threshold and again 10 minutes
under aerobic threshold.)
Marques et al. SJT 13 5(AP) ND 8–10 sessions per week 90–120 ↑SJFT index
(31) RT 5(TP) minutes ↑SJFT
3(RP)
Blais and SJTM 10 2 ND 5 series of 10 repeated exercises ND ↑Training OSG and MSN
Trilles (2) AT (kg·kg21)
*ND 5 not described; UB 5 upper body; TP 5 transmutation phase; RP 5 realization phase; OSG 5 o-soto-gari training; RT 5 resistance training; HIIT 5 high-intensity interval training; AT 5 aerobic
training; CT 5 complex training; GP 5 general phase; SP 5 special phase; SJFT 5 special judo fitness test; SJFTI 5 special judo fitness test index; LMIHS: left maximum isometric handgrip strength; DGSIM
5 dynamic grip strength isometric; DGSE 5 dynamic grip strength endurance; R-1RM (kg·kg21) 5 Rowing 1RM; ↑ 5 significant increases; ↓ 5 significant decreases; ↔ 5 no change.

aerobic performance (V̇ O2max, HRmax, or HR after a judo Despite the decisive actions in judo combat predominating the
match) even after 8 weeks. These results suggest that sprint IT anaerobic system, the judoka needs a good aerobic component to
is effective in improving anaerobic performance for a short support all combat time and to recover faster between intense efforts
period. (44). The oxygen uptake increased throughout the combat (1

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Table 3
Changes in nonspecific performance caused by different training methods.*
Training program Main outcome
Duration Day/ Sets/session or block/reps/ Session
Study Training (week) Week Intensity rest (min) Nonspecific performance
Franchini et al. SJT 8 5 All out Running warm-up 10 minutes, 85 Squat
(15) RT 3 ;80% 1RM ukemi-waza; 5 minutes, uchi- ND 70% 1RM (rep)↑
(linear and undulating komi; 15 minutes, nage-komi; Squat 1RM (kg)↑
periodization) 10 minutes, randori; 45 minutes Flexed arm↑
(5 3 week)
4 3 3–5(1–2 weeks) 4 3 6–8
(3–5 weeks) 15–20 reps (6–8
weeks) 1RM
Bonato et al. SJT 12 7 All out -5 3 week (uchi-komi and 120 ↑ MAV
(3) AT 2 60% VȮ 2max nage-komi) 60
HIIT 2 90% VȮ 2max and 60% VȮ 2max -3 session 3 30 minutes 45
(continuous run on a treadmill)
-1 set 3 1minutes HIIT
Saraiva et al. SJT 12 7 All out ND 90 ↑ Trunk flexion and extension
(41) RT 3 ND 3 3 12 at 10RM ND ↔ The range of motion in both
FT 3 ND ND groups (from upper to lower
limbs and from lower to upper
limbs)
Shoulder
Papacosta SJT 5 5 All out ND 90–120 ↑ 3 3 300 minutes test (s)
et al. (39) HIIT 2 ND 3 3 5 minutes randori (norm) 30–60 ↑ vertical jump (cm)
5 3 8 minutes randori (intense)
3 3 3 minutes randori
(taper)
Franchini et al. 18 4 All out (;90% of Borg scale) ND-SJT 40–60 R-1RM (kg) ↑
(16) 3 ;90% of 1RM 4 3 8–12 at 70–80% 1RM (GP) 60
2 60% of RHR 4 3 3–5 at 90% 1RM (SP) 60
All out (70–90% of Borg scale) 4–8 3 5 minutes randori
90% of 1RM
3 90–100% of RHR 40–60
3 ;90% of 1RM 60
2 30
3 60
Radovanovic RT 12 3 RT (ranged from 60to 85% of the ND ND
et al. (40) AT 2 1RM) 30
AT (10 minutes under aerobic minutes
threshold, 5 minutes between
aerobic-anaerobic thresholds, 5
minutes above the anaerobic
threshold and again 10 minutes
under aerobic threshold.)
Marques et al. SJT 13 5(AP) ND 8–10 sessions per week 90–120 ↑Rowing 1RM (kg·kg21)
(31) RT 5(TP) minutes
3(RP)
Callister et al. SJT 10 5 ND SJT randori bouts (3 minutes 60 ↑Isokinetic strength knee
(7) RT 1–4 Phase bouts 3 30 seconds rest extensors (3–13%) 2 for 4 and
IT 1 between bouts) ↔ 4–8 weeks and ↓ (6–12%)
5–8 Phase RT (3 3 circuit training or from 4 to 10 week.
2 conventional weight)
9–10 IT (2 minutes 3 400 m 3 40
Phase 3 seconds bouts), (1 minutes 3
100 3 20 3 15 seconds) 5
minutes rest between each set.
*ND 5 not described; TP 5 transmutation phase; SJT 5 standard judo training; RT 5 resistance training; HIIT 5 high-intensity interval training; AT 5 aerobic training; FT 5 flexibility training; IT 5 interval
training; GP 5 general phase; SP 5 special phase; MAV 5 maximum aerobic velocity; SJFT 5 special judo fitness test; R-1RM (kg·kg21) 5 rowing 1RM; ↑ 5 significant increases; ↓ 5 significant decreases;
↔ 5 no change; 1RM 5 1 repetition maximum.

minute: 28%, 2 minutes: 68%, and 3 minutes: 78% of V̇ O2max) (1). ATP-PCr system (from 40 to 12%) while maintaining a low anaer-
This improvement was also reported in another study, which verified obic glycolysis contribution (between 6 and 10%) (30).
an increase in aerobic contribution (from 50 to 81%) during combat These different outcomes in cardiovascular adaptations are
development with a concomitant reduction in the contribution of the directly related to the different training protocols introduced in

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 Training Protocols and Judo (2021) 00:00

Table 4
Changes in physiological variables caused by different training methods.*
Training program Main outcome
Duration Day/ Sets/session or block/ Session
Study Training (week) Week Intensity reps/rest (min) Physiological effects Other variables effects
Franchini SJT 4 ND ND ND ND ↔ VȮ 2max or VȮ 2max ↑ T/C ratio
et al. (18) 2 peak The HIIT and uchi-komi
HIIT lower body (2- All out (lower-body cycle 2 block 3 10 3 20 22 minutes group
block) ergometer) seconds 3 10 seconds at 40 seconds ↑ UB and LB PP in the
2 sets and with 5 minutes uchi-komi HIIT group and
HIIT upper body All out (upper-body cycle rest at blocks LB PP in the HIIT groups
(2-block) ergometer) 22 minutes pooled
2 2 block 3 10 3 20 40 seconds
HIIT uchi-komi (2- All out (uchi-komi: seconds 3 10 seconds at ↔ skinfold thickness
block) throwing the partner at sets and with 5 minutes
the end of each set) rest at blocks 22 minutes
40 seconds
2 block 3 10 3 20
seconds 3 10 seconds at
sets and with 5 min rest
at blocks
Franchini SJT 8 5 All out Running warm-up 10 85 ↔ Heart rate AND ND
et al. (15) RT 3 ;80% 1RM minutes, ukemi-waza; 5 ND Heart rate 1 minute after
(Linear and minutes, uchi-komi; 15 ↓ skinfold thicknesses
undulating minutes, nage-komi; 10
periodization) minutes, randori; 45
minutes (5 3 week)

4 3 3–5(1–2 weeks) 4
3 6–8 (3–5weeks)
15–20 reps (6–8 weeks)
1RM
Brancoet al. SJT 4 2 All out ND 90–120 LDH ↑ ND
(4) RT 3 ND ND-RT 90 ↔ CK, AST, and ALT
HIIT 2 ND 2 310 3 20 seconds:10 15
seconds rest
5 minutes rest interval
between blocks
Lee et al. (28) SJT 12 4 All out ND 120 ↑ AMP (w) the interval ↔ Albumin, (g·L21)
RT 1 SJT 2 and 10 4 70% 1RM and 80% 1RM 2 3 12 (1–2 weeks)70% 60 group
IT 1 SJT 2 and 10 4 80% MAV and 90% MAV 1RM 90 ↑ ANP (w) the resistance
3 3 12 (3–8 weeks) group
4 3 12 (9–12 weeks) ↑ HRmax
80% 1RM ↓ PBF%
Bonato et al. SJT 12 7 All out -5 3 week (uchi-komi 120 ↑ HR and VȮ 2 recovery ND
(3) AT 2 60% VȮ 2max and nage-komi) 60 ↑ VT
HIIT 2 90% VȮ 2max and 60% -3 session 3 30 minutes 45
VȮ 2max (continuous run on a
treadmill)
-1 set 3 1 minute HIIT
Koga et al. SJT 12 5 All out ND 90 ↑ CK (m·l21) (before ND
(26) RT 2 ND ND-RT 60 training)
IT 2 ND 60 ↑ CK (m·l21) (after 3 mo
training)
Tartibian SJT 8 6 All out ND 120 VȮ 2 max ↑ ↔ Hemoglobin
et al. (42) RT 2 ND ND-RT 90 CK (m·l21) ↑ concentration,
AT 2 ND 90 ↓ BPF % hematocrit, and blood
IT 2 ND 90 viscosity.
Papacosta SJT 5 5 All out ND 90–120 ND ↑ salivary IgA absolute
et al. (39) HIIT 2 ND 3 3 5 minutes randori 30–60
(norm)
5 3 8 minutes randori
(intense)
3 3 3 minutes randori
(taper)
Franchini 18 4 All out (;90% of Borg ND-SJT 40–60 UBANP(w) ↑ ND
et al. (16) 3 scale) 60 UBANC(w) ↑

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Table 4
Changes in physiological variables caused by different training methods.* (Continued)
Training program Main outcome
Duration Day/ Sets/session or block/ Session
Study Training (week) Week Intensity reps/rest (min) Physiological effects Other variables effects
2 ;90% of 1RM 4 3 8–12 at 70–80% 60 LBANP(w) ↑
60% of RHR 1RM (GP) UBAEP(w) ↑
All out (70–90% of Borg 4 3 3–5 at 90% 1RM
3 scale) (SP) 40–60
3 90% of 1RM 4–8 3 5 minutes randori 60
2 90–100% of RHR 30
3 60
;90% of 1RM
Franchini SJT 4 ND ND ND ↓ T/C (ng.ml21) ratio ND
et al. (17)
HIIT lower-body 2 All out (lower-body cycle 2 block 3 10 3
(2-block) ergometer) 2seconds0 3 10 ↓ CK (U.L21) in the match
2 seconds at sets and with simulation for the UB
HIIT upper body All out (upper-body cycle 5 minutes rest at blocks group
(2-block) 2 ergometer)
2 block 3 10 3 20
HIIT uchi-komi (2- All out (uchi-komi: seconds 3 10 seconds at
block) throwing the partner at sets and with 5 minutes
the end of each set) rest at blocks

2 block 3 10 3 20
seconds 3 10 seconds at
sets and with 5 minutes
rest at blocks
Kim et al. SJT 8 5 All out (weeks 1, 2 at 80% ND 120 ↑*APP (16%) and AMP ND
(25) SIT 4 and weeks 3–8, 90% 6 (weeks 1 and 2) to 8 90 (17%) in SIT group at
maximal aerobic velocity (weeks 3 and 4) to 10 week 4
(MAV) (weeks 5–8)
↑ APP (17%) and AMP
(22%) in SIT group at
week 8
De Oliveira SJT 1 5 Intensity HR in 171 bpm 2 sessions (1 morning/1 240 ND ↔TNF-a, IL-6
et al. (8) afternoon) minutes ↑MCP-1
Radovanovic RT 12 3 RT (ranged from 60 to ND ND ↑Peak power (W·kg21) ↑Erythrocyte MDA
et al. (40) AT 2 85% of the 1RM) 30 minutes ↑Mean power (W·kg21) (mmol·l21)
AT (10 minutes under ↑VȮ 2peak (ml·kg21·min2 ↑Plasma CAT (IU·l21)
1
aerobic threshold, 5 ) (Arn and leg ergometer)
minutes between
aerobic-anaerobic
thresholds, 5 minutes
above the anaerobic
threshold and again 10
minutes under aerobic
threshold.)
Marques SJT 13 5(AP) ND 8–10 sessions per week 90–120 ND ↔ Cortisol and
et al. (31) RT 5(TP) minutes testosterone
3(RP) concentrations
Miura et al. SJT 12 6 Pulse rate of 128.8 6 SJT (15 minutes (uchi- 120 ↑LDH. CK, ASAT, IgG, IgA, and neutrophil
(36) RT 12.0/minutes and a komi) 20 minutes, randori 60 counts (%)
AT maximum pulse rate of (mini-matches of 5 60
180.5 6 14.0·minutes minutes each, repeated
10 times) for 100
minutes, and cooling
down exercise for 15
minutes)
RT (ND)
AT (30 minutes and short
sprint running (repeated
sprints over 30–50 m).
Yamamoto SJT 12 5 128.8 bpm and the SJT (ND) 150 ↑CK ↑ Neutrophil counts and
et al. (46) RT 2 maximum heart rate was RT (ND) 60 ROS.
AT 2 180.5 bpm 60

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 Training Protocols and Judo (2021) 00:00

Table 4
Changes in physiological variables caused by different training methods.* (Continued)
Training program Main outcome
Duration Day/ Sets/session or block/ Session
Study Training (week) Week Intensity reps/rest (min) Physiological effects Other variables effects
IT 2 AT (running for 30 60
minutes and short-
distance sprinting (for
30–50 m sprints during
30 minutes).
IT (sprinting (800 m 61,
400 m 63, 200 m 63,
100 m 64)
Callister et al. SJT 10 5 ND SJT randori bouts (3 60 ↓ BPF % ND
(7) RT 1–4 minutes bouts 3 30
IT Phase1 seconds rest between
5–8 bouts)
Phase2 RT (3 3 circuit training or
9–10 conventional weight)
Phase3 IT (2 minutes 3 400 m 3
40 seconds bouts), (1
minutes 3 100 3 20 3
15 seconds) 5 minutes
rest between each set.
*ND 5 not described; UB 5 upper body; LB 5 Lower body; PP 5 peak power; MDA 5 malondialdehyde; CAT 5 catalase; T/C5 testosterone/cortisol ratio; ROS 5 reactive oxygen species; ASAT 5 aspartate
transaminase; ALT 5 alanine transaminase; RP 5 realization phase; SIT 5 sprint interval training; SJT 5 standard judo training; IT 1 SJT 5 interval training combined with standard judo training; RT 5
resistance training; HIIT 5 high-intensity interval training; AT 5 aerobic training; FT 5 flexibility training; CT 5 complex training; IT 5 interval training; GP 5 general phase; SP 5 special phase; MAV 5
maximum aerobic velocity; APP 5 anaerobic power peak; AMP(w) 5 anaerobic mean power; ANP(w): anaerobic power; LDH 5 lactate dehydrogenase; VT 5 ventilatory threshold; HR 5 heart rate; VȮ 2 max 5
maximum oxygen consumption; VȮ 2max 5 Maximal oxygen uptake; PBF % 5 percentage body fat; CK (m·l21) 5 creatine kinase; UBANP 5 upper-body anaerobic power; UBANC 5 upper-body anaerobic
capacity; LBANP 5 lower-body anaerobic power; UBAEP 5 upper-body aerobic power; R-1RM (kg kg21) 5 rowing 1RM; ↑ 5 significant increases; ↓ 5 significant decreases; ↔ 5 no change; AST 5
aspartate aminotransferase; LDH 5 lactate dehydrogenase; 1RM, 1 repetition maximum.

training programs. A reduction on HRmax has been observed
during the Bruce protocol performed on a treadmill after the
application of a HIIT protocol (28). The reduction of HRmax
may be related to a better adaptation of the cardiovascular
system when it was subjected to a HIIT stimulus during the
training program (19). According to the literature, training
sensitizes the autonomic regulation mechanisms, causing re-
duced sympathetic nerve activity and increased para-
sympathetic flow (21).
The metabolic adaptations promoted by HIIT have been im-
portant for the evolution and success of training programs in
combat sports (18). One study observed a delay in blood lactate
increase during an upper-limb exertion test in judo athletes after
undergoing a HIIT protocol for lower limbs (19). Another study
using simulated fights did not observe an increase in blood lactate
concentration [La2] in judo athletes at different competitive levels
(22). By contrast, another study reported an increase in [La2]
after simulated fighting activity (9).
In this review, one study reported an increase in the enzyme
lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in the upper limb after 4 weeks of
HIIT (4). Another study observed an increase [La2] 9.1 6 1.1
mmol·L21 after a specific training program in judo athletes (45).
A study with judokas had an effect on LDH concentrations on
upper-body performance (t9 5 22.60; p 5 0.031; d 5 1.75,
large), with higher values after a HIIT protocol when compared
with those in the control group (5). This increase in LDH con-
centration may be associated with a potentiating effect and re-
sidual fatigue, given that the actions of the upper limbs are
predominant in the fight against judo (43). This suggests that
different stimuli may generate different levels of stress in anaer-
obic metabolism and specific protocols of training may promote
better performance results.
Combat sports athletes are classified into weight categories and,
on many occasions, are involved in weight loss procedures (12). In
this sense, it was previously showed that HIIT protocols (all out
lower-body cycle ergometer, 2 block 3 10 3 20 3 10 seconds at sets
and with 5 minutes rest at blocks) vs. (all out upper-body cycle
ergometer, 2 block 3 10 3 20 3 10 seconds at sets and with 5
minutes rest at blocks) vs. (all out uchi-komi, throwing the partner at
the end of each set, 2 block 3 10 3 20 3 10 seconds at sets and with
5 minutes rest at blocks) did not result in changes in sum of skinfold
(18). On the other hand, it was showed that 8 weeks of linear and
undulating strength training protocols promoted similar decreases
(26.5%) in skinfold thicknesses. (15). It seems that the form of
construction or format of the training periodization no interferes in
the reducing the skin folds, but the type of training protocol used
appears to be important..
Other parameters evidenced in the studies evaluated in this
review are muscle stress markers, aspartate aminotransferase
(AST), creatine kinase (CK), and LDH. In this review, 3 studies
showed the effect of training protocols on these physiological
markers (17,36,46). Standard judo training protocols (15 mi-
nutes (uchi-komi), 20 minutes, randori (mini-matches of 5
minutes each, repeated 10 times) for 100 minutes, and cooling
down exercise for 15 minutes) and AT (30 minutes) and short
sprint running (repeated sprints over 30–50 m) showed in-
creases in CK, LDH, and AST concentrations (36).
Other studies using similar training protocol structures have ob-
served increases in CK, even after different training periods (i.e., 8 vs.
;12 weeks) (26,42). However, it is important to note that the ratio of
change in CK values between prepractice and postpractice is reduced
with training, demonstrating that athletes adapted to exercise load.
Thus, these results suggest that untrained individuals experience
greater metabolic stress when compared with well-trained individuals.

10

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 Training Protocols and Judo (2021) 00:00
The literature has verified other physiological parameters such
as hormones and immunoglobulins of the immune system and has
related to the physical state and performance of athletes (35). The
association of these physiological markers with the manipulation
of training loads has been interesting to direct training programs,
keeping athletes training at high intensities (23). In this review, we
looked at studies that have shown effects on hormones and sub-
stances in the immune systems (8,18,31,36,39,40,42,46).
A increased blood concentrations of IgG, IgA, and neutrophil
counts (%) has been observed with SJT protocols (15 minutes,
(uchikomi), 20 minutes, randori (mini-matches of 5 minutes
each, repeated 10 times) for 100 minutes, and cooling down
exercise for 15 minutes) and AT (30 minutes) and short sprint
running (repeated sprints over 30–50 m) (36). An increase in
salivary IgA concentrations also was encontrado with SJT
protocol (3 3 5 minutes randori (norm) 5 3 8 minutes randori
(intense) 3 3 3 minutes randori (taper) (39). Regarding the
testosterone-cortisol ratio, a increased response to training was
found only in the HIIT using lower-body and the uchi-komi
training groups, but the same was no observed in HIIT using
upper-body group (18). This information shows us that the
structuring, distribution of loads, and the dose-response re-
lationship of the training interferes with the hormonal, immu-
nological profile, and the response of the athlete’s performance.
Considering that in judo the division of categories is based on
body mass, it is still divided into men and women, making it
impossible to establish a single physiological profile and struc-
turing the training loads (10). In this review, we found only 3
studies that investigated the performance variables in the female
sex within the focus of the study (3,7,37). A study used the SJT
and RT training methods (8–10 sessions per week), not in-
vestigating the percentage of fat. However, it observed perfor-
mance improvements in neuromuscular variables and in the SJFT
(31). Another study using an SJT protocol (randori bouts [3 mi-
nutes bouts 3 30 seconds rest between bouts] and resistance
training [RT] [3 3 circuit training or conventional weight] and IT
[2 minutes 3 400 minutes 3 40 seconds bouts], [1 minute 3 100
3 20 seconds and 15 seconds]); 5 minutes rest between each set)
showed an improvement in body mass, with a significant re-
duction (p , 0.05) in the fat percentage variable after the training
program (7), indicating that the result seems to be dependent on
handling loads and structuring of the training. In addition, we
observed few studies characterizing female judokas, with the
structuring of study methods and the structuring of training that
seek to direct their physiological profile and increase their com-
petitive performance.
The judo-specific training methods (e.g., uchi-komi and randori)
have been widely used for long periods during training to improve
both physical fitness and technical-tactical skills (17). This is because
many coaches believe that the use of these methods has a better
transference to judo-specific performance compared with non-
specific training modes. However, it has been shown that judokas
submitted to nonspecific training methods (i.e., HIIT using lower-
body or upper-body cycle ergometer) and judo-specific training
method (i.e., uchi-komi) had improvements in performance and
biochemical and hormonal response to judo-specific performance
regardless of the training mode (17). Thus, both specific and non-
specific training protocols can be adopted by athletes and coaches to
improve physical fitness and judo-specific performance.
The limitations of this study were in the viewpoints of the low
production of studies with elite athletes, the lack of structure of the
11
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| www.nsca.com
training programs, and the lack of details about the training sessions
of some works. It was also observed that in a few studies found with
female athletes, some presented mixed samples (male and female
athletes). However, there were no studies with a sample containing
only female athletes. In addition, another limiting factor is that most
articles do not have a random character in their methods. However,
it is understood by the difficulty of finding athletes available in their
clubs or teams for this study method, bearing in mind that they have
little time available to be involved in the research. This can make it
difficult to understand the systematization of training programs.
In conclusion, it seems that the HIIT methods and SJT proto-
cols, as found and analyzed in this study, promote greater effects
on the physiological and neuromuscular parameters when com-
pared with some other training methods (strength training and
continuous running). Methods with intermittent characteristics
and with physical encounters were found to be the most common
forms of training because they more closely approximate not only
in the energy demands of the sport but also the movements of the
combat itself. In addition, these methods are practical to apply
and can better stimulate performance in specific activities and
tests. It should be noted, however, that no ideal protocol was
found during the analysis and description of the training
protocols.
Practical Applications
Coaches and researchers of sports training seek to optimize
the performance of their athletes using different training
methods by trying out different protocols to achieve the
highest competitive level. This analysis identified that all
training programs use SJT, prioritizing the specific demands
and adaptations for combat. Studies on specific actions and
simulated physical encounters were found to provide the best
training protocols for athletes (14,30).
Our study observed that more than 70% of the training
programs were based on HIIT, justifying the intermittent
characteristics of the fight, the relation among effort, pause,
and production of metabolic components, and the use of
subtracted energy, in addition to the rapid improvement of
aerobic and anaerobic components. The duration of training
time was seen to be important for training schedules, for
which the HIIT method is strongly recommended in setting the
training periods.
Another factor observed was the introduction of non-
specific training methods, improving the responses of athletes
in general, strengthening their integration in specific training
programs. It may be questioned why most training sessions
cannot be implemented with concurrent types of training
(strength training/AT) or complex training (strength training/
plyometric training) or ballistic training (jumps with own
body mass). The studies indicated that these combinations of
training methods have only been used as a potentiator in ex-
ercise performance (43).
Strength training is recommended because it has a strong
influence on the neuromuscular and competitive performance
of judokas (32). The lack of other strategies such as concurrent
training, complex training, and ballistic training indicates the
need for further investigations on what could constitute the
training method or protocol with the greatest effect on the
specific performance in judo athletes.
 Training Protocols and Judo (2021) 00:00
Acknowledgments
L.S. da Silva thanks the Coordination of Improvement of Higher
Education Personnel (CAPES) of Brazil Ph.D. for her scholarship.
“This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de
Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nı́vel Superior—Brasil
(CAPES)—Finance Code 001.” The English text of this manu-
script has been revised by Sidney Pratt, Canadian, MAT (The
Johns Hopkins University), RSAdip—TESL (Cambridge Univer-
sity). The remaining authors have no conflicts of interest to
disclose.
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