Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128550

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Experimental studies on the effect of natural and synthetic fibers on

properties of fresh and hardened mortar
Jyoti Rashmi Nayak a, Jerzy Bochen b, *, Małgorzata Gołaszewska b
a
Silesian University of Technology, Doctoral School, Poland
b
Silesian University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Building Processes and Building Physics, Poland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords The study investigates various properties of fresh and hardened mortar reinforced with natural fibers (jute and
Recycled plastic fiber sisal) and synthetic fibers (polypropylene) dosages ranging from 1% to 2%. Experimental studies of mortar
Natural fibers (cement-sand mortar, cement-lime mortar, and mortar with air-entraining admixture) were conducted, including
Mortar
air content, consistency, compressive strength, flexural strength, and shrinkage, porosimetry MIP and SEM
Admixture
Physical-mechanical properties
photography. According to the findings of the research, the use of natural waste fibers has distinct advantages
over synthetic fibers. Finally, because of its beneficial effect, this paper recommends using jute fiber with mortar
for any structural purpose.

1. Introduction concrete structure improves tensile strength, prevents opening, reduces

Mortar and concrete are the most commonly used building material
due to their high compressive strength, fire resistance, durability, and
low permeability [1–4]. However, in addition to all these favorable
properties, it also has adverse effects such as low tensile strength, brit­
tleness, and low crack resistance. To overcome these effects, the use of
fibers as reinforcement is proposed [3,5]. Fibers are commonly used to
control shrinkage cracking and increase tensile strength, toughness, and
durability. The performance of fibers depends basically on their length,
diameter, shape, proportion, interaction with cement, and dispersion in
the mixture [6]. The most commonly used fibers that can improve the
properties of concrete and mortar mixes are steel, glass, polypropylene,
but natural as well, such as: sisal, jute, coconut, cotton, flax, hemp, and
kenaf [7]. For decades, in-depth research has been conducted on syn­
thetic fiber composites that are used to reinforce existing reinforced
structures. For example, Kheradmand [8] used 0.08 % polymer fibers in
a fly ash-based mortar matrix, which could reduce shrinkage cracking up
to four times compared to unreinforced mortars. Ming-xiang [9]
discovered that replacing low content polypropylene fibers up to 0.91
kg/m3 of concrete increases flexural strength and toughness index but
decreases compressive strength for the same mix proportion. In the work
[10] Ding suggested that the advantages of using polypropylene fibers
result in a light weight composite and no corrosion. Shahnewaz and
Alam [11] reported in a study that the addition of steel fibers to the
cracking and increases ductility. Similarly, many researchers have found
that the use of metal fibers in concrete has a positive effect on fire
exposure, improves energy absorption, and reduces cracking [12,13].
The addition of nylon fibers of up to 1 % increases compressive and
flexural strength by 7 % and 12 %, respectively, compared to the control
sample [14]. Similarly, in the work [4] it was reported that the addition
of 2 % to 11 % polypropylene fibers to the concrete improved the tensile
strength and reduced the drying shrinkage at 70 days. Some studies
found that the concrete reinforced with polypropylene fibers did not
show a change in compressive strength compared to the control mixture
[9], while few studies found an increase in flexural and compressive
strength of up to 20 % [4]. However, the production of synthetic fibers is
not environmentally friendly and contributes to global warming. These
fibers are not biodegradable and cost a lot of money. Recycling the fibers
is also tricky.
Many research studies show that the need for alternatives to syn­
thetic fibers with a low environmental footprint is bringing natural fi­
bers back to the forefront. Composites reinforced with natural fibers
have additional advantages such as lower CO2 emissions, low cost,
improved energy recovery, good reinforcing effect, and easy availabil­
ity, which ultimately reduces the management and application of these
materials [15]. Natural fibers are biodegradable and nontoxic; their
mechanical capabilities are superior to those of synthetic fibers in terms
of strength and durability, which is confirmed by many studies. For

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jerzy.bochen@polsl.pl (J. Bochen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128550
Received 13 May 2022; Received in revised form 15 July 2022; Accepted 19 July 2022
Available online 31 July 2022
0950-0618/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
J. Rashmi Nayak et al.
Table 1
Chemical composition of CEM I 42.5 grade.
Chemical components (%)
SiO2 Al2O Fe2 O3 CaO MgO SO3
18.9 3.8 3.9 63.3 1.2 2.9
Table 2
Chemical composition of lime.
Chemical components (%)
SiO2 Al2O Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O
0.7 – – 90.2 1.0 0.7 0.15
example, Aluko [16] in a review study reported the use of various nat­
ural fibers in cement composite and show the benefit of it with me­
chanical properties. However, they also have a high volume variation
rate due to their high water absorption and degradation by alkaline
attack [17]. The durability of natural fibers can be improved by applying
coatings and modifying the matrix. The coating seals the fibers and
makes them more resistant to degradation [18]. Tong et al. [10] sug­
gested that the use of bio fibers reduces cracking. Shahnewaz [11]
through his results shows that the use of a suitable natural fiber content
could increase flexural and compressive strengths. Similarly, Wongsa
[19] shows the effect of lignin, hemicellulose, and cellulose fibers on the
mechanical properties of geopolymers and suggests that the use of a
small amount of up to 5 % improves the compressive and flexural
strength compared to a blend without fibers. Natural fibers such as sisal,
jute, cotton, flax, hemp, and kenaf have already been considered as
possible alternatives to synthetic fibers and are available all over the
world [16,19–23]. These fibers are not only considered reinforcement in
cementitious materials, but also as the most promising sustainable ma­
terials [24,25]. Roma [26] investigated the effect of adding sisal to
cement tiles and found that plant fibers are an effective alternative to
asbestos fibers. Other research by Mesbah [27] shows that the addition
of 0.5 % sisal fibers of size 20–50 mm to cement improves tensile
strength and reduces cracking. Toledo [28] in his study reported the
reduction of the shrinkage of free plastic by adding 0.2 % sisal fibers of
25 mm size in cement mortar. According to various researchers
[16,21,28,29] the use of jute fibers in cement matrix improves the
durability and strength of composites. Islam [30] studied the addition of
jute fibers of 0 %, 0.25 %, 0.5 %, 1 % in a length of 10 mm and 20 mm
and found that the addition of 10 mm fiber has the maximum
compressive strength of 0.5 % and the 20 mm fiber has the maximum
compressive strength of 0.25 %. Similarly, de Beus [31] studied a life
cycle assessment for various natural fibers such as jute, hemp and kenaf
and found that the carbon footprint of these fibers is less than that of
glass fibers and other mineral fibers. Nigrawal et al. [32] reported in
their study the use of sisal and jute fibers in hybrid composite with epoxy
resin having maximum tensile strength due to the mixed mode of fiber
polymer interfaces In his studies, Miraoui et al. [33] reported the use of
long undirected sisal fiber in cement mortar and discovered that the best
flexural strength is obtained for 120 mm fiber length and 0.78 percent
fiber volume fraction, corresponding to a 15 % increase in strength.
However, Majumder et al. [34] demonstrated jute fiber reinforced
thermal and structural mortars and discovered that adding jute increases
ductility while decreasing strength.
Recently much work has been done on the use of natural fibers
reinforced composites. Researchers have found an additional benefit
compared to synthetic fibers and to natural fibers and concluded that the
use of natural fibers improve flexural strength and dry shrinkage of
cement composites [35,15]. However several studies have been carried
out showing that the mechanical performance of natural fibers based
reinforcement in cement composite is poor compared to synthetic fibers
2
Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128550
Na2 O K2O Loss on ignition Insoluble residue
0.15 1.05 3.17 1.89
based due to alkaline hydrolysis [36,37]. Other than mechanical prop­
erties enhancement Moreira et al. [38] who investigated self-healing
properties of sisal fiber in a hybrid composite with sisal plus steel fi­
bers, with sisal fiber added at a 0.28 percent volume ratio to the mixture
resulting in a faster healing kinetic in the mix with hybrid fiber rein­
forcement, as well as promoting a higher mechanical performance than
in the mix with only steel fibers. The use of natural fibers in mortar and
the effects of it to important properties such as shrinkage are studied,
which were found to be limited. In the current study, phys­
ical–mechanical tests were performed to characterize this newly devel­
oped material. In this paper, two types of wasted natural sisal and jute
fibers are studied compared to synthetic polypropylene fibers, and their
role in binder replacement of lime, cement mortars made of lime and
APA (air entraining plasticizer admixture) is tested and compared with
samples without fibers. To check the effect of the type and amount of
fibers on the physical or mechanical properties of fresh and hardened
mortars, different tests were carried out. Fresh mortars were evaluated
in: flow table consistency test, cone penetration test, and aerometer test.
The hardened mortar was evaluated in compressive strength, flexural
strength and shrinkage. Additionally, the surface micro structures,
morphology, and size of the elements were determined and analyzed in
SEM and MIP analysis at the age of 28 days, demonstrating the effect of
the fibers additive on the mortar matrix.
2. Materials and methodology
2.1. Binders and aggregate
This work aims to investigate the behavior of natural fibers
compared to polypropylene fiber in cement (C), cement-lime (CL) and
cement-APA (air entraining plasticizer admixture) (CA) mortars.
Composition of the mortars was set on the basis of the commonly used in
practice proportioning on the construction site, for uses such as masonry
mortars, plasters, or renders. The compositions were chosen to better
check the effect the fibers on mortars used in everyday practice. For the
cement mortar and cement mortar with APA, the volume ratio of
cement: sand was 1:6, while for the cement – lime mortar, the volume
ratio of cement: lime: sand was 1:1:6. Such ratio was chosen because it is
traditional and still widely used effectively for both masonry mortar and
plaster [39]. In this study a locally available natural quartz sand with
fraction up to 2.0 mm was used. The amount of water in all of the
mortars was selected to obtain similar, set consistency measured with
Novikov’s cone [41]. The exact compositions of the mortars are shown
in Tab. 3.
Ordinary Portland cement CEM I 42.5 and lime were used as binders.
Their properties are shown in the Tables 1 and 2. Air-entraining plas­
ticizing admixture (APA) was added in the amount of 0.5 percent of the
cement mass, which was used as a plasticizing agent for cement mortars,
is a commercially available admixture. The amount of the APA was
chosen based on previous tests [40]. This is an aqueous solution of
naphthalene resin and surfactants with a density of 1.040 ± 0.03 g/cm3
and an alkali content of less than 5 % by mass and up to 0.1 percent
chlorides it surrounds the cement grains in the cement paste, giving
them a homogeneous charge that causes them to repel each other, thus
plasticizing the cement mortar and replacing lime as a plasticizing
agent. Furthermore, it improves cohesiveness, prevents segregation, and
lowers water surface tension, resulting in the formation of air micro­
pores that are uniformly distributed throughout the mortar volume.
J. Rashmi Nayak et al. Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128550

Fig. 1. Used fibers in tested mortars: a) jute fiber, b) sisal fiber, c) polypropylene fiber.

from the Genus corchorus of the family Tiliaceace, obtained in Gujrat as

Table 3
well, India, by cutting, roasting, shredding, drying, packing and classi­
Physical properties of fibers.
fying. They are long, soft, and shiny vegetable fibers of cream to brown
Property Sisal fiber Jute fiber Polypropylene fiber color (Fig. 1a) with physical properties listed in Table 3. Many re­
Density (g/cm3 ) 1.58 1.3 0.91 searchers [16,22,46–48] found that it has high tensile strength and low
Elongation (mm) 0.8–12 17 12 extensibility. In addition to natural fibers, synthetic polypropylene fi­
Young’s modulus (GPa) 9–22 3.5
–
bers from plastic waste materials from a local company with a rectan­
Tensile strength (MPa) 385–728 230 0.56–0.77
gular cross section and are 12 mm long (Fig. 1c). The addition of
polypropylene fiber to mortar and concrete increases toughness, flexural
2.2. Fiber characterization strength, tensile strength [23,49,50–53] as well as the failure mode of
composites.
Different types of fibers are used in this study. The mortar paste is
reinforced with different fibers such as natural jute, sisal, and synthetic
polypropylene, as shown in Fig. 1 with all the physical properties 2.3. Sample preparation
mentioned in Table 3. Each group of modified mortars was compared
with an unreinforced reference mortar (C, CL, and CA). Sisal fibers are For the analysis, a ratio of 1:6 was used for the cement-sand mixture
stiff fibers extracted from agave plant [14] obtained from Gujarat state, and 1:1:6 for cement, hydrated lime, and sand. Three reference samples
India, with properties in Table 3 and cut to the desired length (15 mm). were prepared to establish the reference and others with different fibers,
These fibers are straight, smooth, and yellow (Fig. 1b). They are namely sisal, jute, and polypropylene with 1 % and 2 % cement weight,
commonly found in Kenya (Africa) and India. Researchers [4,42–45] respectively. The mortar was mixed using a rotary mixer, with the
through their studies, found use of it as building material to improve the mixing procedure based on the standard procedure from standard EN
durability and strength of building components. Jute fiber is obtained 197–1 [54]. The materials were poured into the mixer’s drum and the
rotation time was 5 min. For the sample with the addition, the dry

Table 4
Final mixtures proportion.
Mixtures Constituents (in gram)

CEM II/ 42.5R Lime Water w/(c + L) ratio Sand APA Fibers

Jute Sisal Polypropylene

CM 450 440 0.98 2308

CL 350 253 410 0.68 1795
CA 450 310 0.44 2308 2.25

C-P1 450 440 0.98 2308 4.5

C-P2 450 440 0.98 2308 9
C-J1 450 440 0.98 2308 4.5
C-J2 450 440 0.98 2308 9
C-S1 450 440 0.98 2308 4.5
C-S2 450 440 0.98 2308 9

CL-J1 350 253 410 0.72 1795 4.5

CL-J2 350 253 410 0.72 1795 9
CL-S1 350 253 410 0.72 1795 4.5
CL-S2 350 253 410 0.72 1795 9

CA-J1 450 310 0.69 2308 2.25 4.5

CA-J2 450 310 0.69 2308 2.25 9
CA-S1 450 310 0.69 2308 2.25 4.5
CA-S2 450 310 0.69 2308 2.25 9

3
J. Rashmi Nayak et al. Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128550

Fig. 2. Testing: a) with Novikov’s cone apparatus, b) with modified Graf Kaufman apparatus.

Fig. 3. Air content in: a) cement-sand fiber mortars, b) cement-lime fiber mortars, c) APA cement fiber mortars.

mixture was mixed for 30 s to distribute the fibers properly, and then the duration of water curing is 7 days, and it is further cured in a humidity
required amount of water was added. Samples of cement mortar (C), chamber at a temperature of 20 ± 2 ◦ C and a relative humidity up to 60
lime cement mortar (CL), APA mortar (CA) were first tested for air %. The composition of samples with and without fibers is shown in
content, consistency, and then the samples were formed for the tests of Table 4.
flexural strength, compressive strength, and drying shrinkage. Before
testing, the specimen was demoulded at 24 h and then cured with water
for 2, 7, 28, 56, and 90 days. The CL sample with and without fibers, the

4
J. Rashmi Nayak et al. Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128550

Terminology:

CM Cement-sand mortar CL-J1 Cement-lime Jute 1% mortar

CL Cement-lime mortar CL-J2 Cement-lime Jute 2% mortar
CA APA Cement-sand mortar CL-S1 Cement-lime Sisal 1% mortar
C-P1 Cement-sand Plastic 1% mortar CL-S2 Cement-lime Sisal 2% mortar
C-P2 Cement-sand Plastic 2% mortar CA-J1 APA Cement-sand Jute 1% mortar
C-J1 Cement-sand Jute 1% mortar CA-J2 APA Cement-sand Jute 2% mortar
C-J2 Cement-sand Jute 2% mortar CA-S1 APA Cement-sand Sisal 1% mortar
C-S1 Cement-sand Sisal 1% mortar CA-S2 APA Cement-sand Sisal 2% mortar
C-S2 Cement-sand Sisal 2% mortar APA Air entraining plasticizer admixture

2.4. Test methods The excess mortar was then cut off by dragging the straight edge of a
trowel across the top of the mould in a sawing motion.5 mm, 25 times in
To investigate the properties of mortar difference sample and 15 s. The length is measured with a Vernier scale in two directions to
methods prepared, following are the properties chosen for testing: determine the flow diameter presented in Fig. 5.

2.4.1. Consistency test 2.4.2. Air content test

Consistency was measured with two different methods: Novikov’s
cone, used mostly in practical application on the construction site, and
flow table analysis, basic method for measuring consistency in the lab­
oratory testing. For both methods, the test result was a mean of 3
measurements. The experiment was performed using a Novikov’s cone
instrument (Fig. 2a) and was done as per standard EN 1015–4:2000
[55]. Three layers of mortar mix were placed in a conical vase, and each
layer is tampered with using a tamping rod; the upper layer of mortar is
smoothened, and then the needle cone shaped plunger of set weight is
dropped, made to fall from the top set height, and then the reading depth
of cone penetration on the scale is measured.
Consistency by flow table test was performed analysis according to
the standard EN 1015–3:2000 [56]. The sample was placed in two layers
in a round cylindrical dish and compacted in each layer to remove voids.
The measurement of air content was done by pressure method ac­
cording to PN-EN 413–2:2016–11 [57] using a standard porosimeter.
The device consists of one liter container in which the mortar is placed in
two layer and each layer is compacted to the tamping rod. The air
content derives from the average of three samples.
2.4.3. Compressive strength and flexural strength test
Compressive and flexural strength of the mortars were determined
using standard test EN 1015–11:2001 [58]. The prismatic specimens
were demoulded after 24 h and then cured in water for 2, 7, 28, 56 and
90 days. For the CL sample with and without fibers, the duration of
water curing was 7 days, and it was then moved to humidity chamber
where it was kept at the temperature of 20 ± 2◦C and 50–60 % relative
humidity, due to the lime addition which requires dry environment. For

Fig. 4. Consistency in: a) cement-sand fiber mortars, b) cement-lime fiber mortars, c) APA cement fiber mortars.

5
J. Rashmi Nayak et al.
Fig. 5. Consistency with flow table in: a) cement-sand fiber mortars, b) cement-lime fiber mortars, c) APA cement-sand fiber mortars.
both methods, the test result was a mean of 3 measurements.
2.4.4. Shrinkage test
Drying shrinkage was measured according to the standard PN-EN
12617–4:2004 [59]. The sample with a size of 40x40x160 mm was
demolded after 24 h and cured in a climatic chamber at a temperature of
20 ± 10 ◦ C and at 50–60 % relative humidity. Data collection was car­
ried out after 3, 7, 21, and 28 days after preparing the sample. Earlier
testing was impossible for CL mortars because of their low strength in
the first days. The change in length of the sample was measured using
modified Graf Kaufman Apparatus (Fig. 2b). The samples were kept in
the apparatus in horizontal position for the whole measurement (from
day 1 to day 28 of measurement), to avoid problems connected with
moving the samples. In case of original apparatus, the process of
inserting and removing the sample from apparatus could cause damage
to the early age samples, which are often characterized by low
compressive and flexural strength.
2.4.5. MIP and SEM tests
The microstructure and nature of the specimen were analyzed and
observed at the age of 28 days using mercury intrusion porosimetry
(MIP) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), showing the effect of
the fibers on the mortar matrix. The Autopore IV 9500 apparatus was
used to perform mercury intrusion porosimetry within the pore size
range of 6–4500 nm. The parameters tested were calculated using the
following constants: contact angle mercury/sample – 140, surface ten­
sion mercury – 0.485 Nm-1 and density mercury – 13.54 g/cm3. The MIP
method reveals open pores with entrances inside them, such as capil­
laries, that are accessible to mercury. In addition to pore distribution,
the following characteristics were measured: pore surface area,
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Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128550
dominant pore diameter, tortuosity of the pores, open porosity, apparent
and real density. Scanning analyzes (SEM) were performed on the
electron microscope TESCAN, Mira3 Oxford Instruments model for
morphology observation and chemical element composition. The ana­
lyzes were performed on fracture surfaces which were sprayed with a
conductive layer of carbon.
3. Results and discussion
In the following sub-sections, results addressing the properties of
fresh mortars and hardened mortars are presented and discussed.
Cement-sand mortars were tested with different types of fibers, both
natural and synthetic. Mortars with lime or APA addition were tested
only with natural fibers, jute a sisal. The reason for this is that there are
no beneficial mechanical results for mortars with polypropylene fibers.
Application of this fiber in mortars with weaker binder containing lime
or APA plasticizer could decrease mechanical properties more. A similar
effect was observed in the case of a higher dose of sisal fiber. According
to other experiences, the strength properties of mortars with fibers
depend on the geometry of the fibers, their quantity, and the surface
treatment [16].
3.1. Air content results
The results of the air content tests are presented in Fig. 3. As can be
seen, the air content of cement and cement - lime mortars is significantly
lower than that of using APA, which was expected due to the effects of
the admixture. It should also be noted that cement–lime mortars were
characterized by a lower air content than cement mortars. This effect
can be attributed in part to lower water content in cement-lime mortars
J. Rashmi Nayak et al.
Fig. 6. Compressive strength results: a) cement-sand fiber samples, b) cement-lime fiber samples, c) APA cement-sand fiber mortars.
and a possible filler effect of fine lime particles of lime [60]. The addi­
tion of jute and polypropylene fibers did not significantly affect the air
content of most of the tested mortars. Lack of effect of polypropylene
fibers on the air content is consistent with results of tests on cement
mortars [61,62]. Only in the case of jute fiber added to mortar with APA,
a slight decrease could be observed. On the other hand, sisal fibers had a
significant effect on the air content in the case of cement mortars and
cement-lime mortars, increasing the air content even up to four times;
however, in the case of APA mortars, no effect of adding sisal fibers
could be observed. This would indicate an aerating effect of sisal fibers
on mortar. This effect was observed also by Boshoff et al. [63], the exact
mechanism is not yet understood; however, it may be related to the high
content of cellulose in its composition, which hydrophilic characteristics
can adsorb water, increasing the viscosity of fresh mortar [64]. This in
turn would lead to decreased ability of the mortar to naturally deaerate
during mixing and handling, leading to increased air content. In the case
of mortars with APA, the difference in the effect of fibers on the air
content in relation to cement mortar and cement lime-mortar may be an
indication that fibers, to some extend decrease the effectiveness of the
7
Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128550
aerating effect of the APA. This may be due to their spatial presence, as
their presence may affect the formation of air bubbles in the fresh
mortar.
3.2. Consistency measured with Novikov’s cone
The consistency of fresh mortars determined by cone penetrometer
(Novikov’s cone) is presented in Fig. 4. The consistency of the reference
samples is the same, 8 cm ± 0.5 cm, as was set – it was on the basis of
obtaining the same consistency that amount of water in the mortar
composition was set. After setting the amount of water in the reference
mortar, it was not changed for the mortars with fibers. Adding jute fiber
to the mortar resulted in a decrease in consistency. Similar effect of jute
fibers has been described by Chakraborty [65], and negative effect of
fibers on consistency is due to their spatial orientation and increased
friction [66].On the other hand, addition of sisal fibers to mortars yields
different results. The consistency of cement mortar with sisal fibers is
higher than in case of reference sample. Similar result is observed in the
consistency of mortars with APA with 2 % of sisal fibers. In the case of
J. Rashmi Nayak et al.
Fig. 6. (continued).
cement-lime mortar, the decrease in consistency for samples with sisal
fibers is lower than that of mortars with jute fibers. This effect may be
due to the high water absorption on the surface of the fibers [64].While
this effect may increase viscosity, it may at the same time decrease the
effects of increased friction in the fresh mortar. The effect was more
visible with the increase of consistency in cement mortars and cement-
lime mortars with sisal fiber content.
3.3. Consistency measured with flow table
The results of the consistency of the fresh mortar measured with the
flow table with and without fibers are shown in Fig. 5. It should be noted
that while the consistency of the reference samples is not the same, as
was in case of measurement by Novikov’s cone and flow diameter. This
effect is due to the differences in the way the measurement applies forces
to the mix, and has been analyzed in [67]. It is observed that the flow
values of cement mortar and APA cement mortar are nearly similar,
there is a decrease in the flow value with cement lime mortar due to its
increases in porosity [68]. The addition of jute fibers reduces the con­
sistency due to the rough surface, porous texture, and irregular stripes of
the fibers [69]. However, the consistency of mortars with APA and sisal
fiber samples shows better flow value due to increases in water ab­
sorption characteristics. Ramakrishna [70] reported that increasing the
amount of sisal fibers in the cement resulted in a decrease in consistency;
however, it improves the cohesion of the cement-based composite. The
addition of jute fibers to cement and cement lime shows decreases in
flow value as well, as expected, but less than in the case of jute fibers. In
case of CL mortars with 2 % sisal fibers, a greater increase in the flow
table value was observed. Polypropylene fibers had the same effect as
jute fiber, with 1 % and 2 % respectively, indicating a lower flow value
than the control mix.
3.4. Compressive strength results
The results of the compressive strength of the mortar specimens are
presented in Fig. 6. As for the reference samples, their strength increases
at all stages. Cement mortars and cement-lime mortar are characterized
by comparable compressive strengths on all testing dates. On the other
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Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128550
hand, cement mortar with APA admixture has significantly lower
compressive strength than cement mortar and cement-lime mortar,
which can be attributed to the very high air content caused by the use of
the admixture (Fig. 3c). With the addition of fibers, the early compres­
sive strength of the three types of mortars is, in most cases, comparable
to or greater than that of the reference mortars. The one exception is the
use of a large amount of sisal fiber, in the first seven days, the strength
was so low that it was not possible to conduct the measurements. A
similar effect was described by Okeola et al. [71]. This effect can be
attributed to the increased water absorption in presence of sisal fibers,
the increase in w/c ratio, and the change in the pore structure intro­
ducing pores of higher diameter than in case of reference mortars or
mortars with jute fibers. It was confirmed in the MIP analysis, which
showed the number of pores with large diameters of 1 – 100 μm in the
amount of 80 % in the mortar C-S2 (Fig. 9c). In case of a lower amount of
sisal fibers, the results show an increase in strength in 2 and 7 days
compared to the control cement mortar up to 38 % and 20 % respec­
tively, later increased or decreased depending on the type of mortar CL
or CA. As the amount increased to 2 % of sisal fibers, the samples showed
poor results in compressive strength, which can be attributed to higher
air. This effect was observed in air content measurements, especially for
sisal fiber content (Fig. 3a, b). The increase in air content and water
absorption, as mentioned above, could be due to distribution of the fi­
bers and the change of structure of the hardened mortar. Increase in air
content in presence of fibers has been also noted by Małek et al [72]. In
the case of the cement-sand mortar sample with polypropylene fibers
containing 1 % and 2 % cement weight, the compressive strength is
lower compared to the control sample. This effect might be due to an
increase in porosity. In the case of natural jute fibers, the C-J1 mortar
shows maximum compressive strength in strength at 2 and 7 days, which
are 48 % and 31 % higher compared to the reference sample. This effect
could be due to the good bonding of fibers in the mortar mix. The
strength of jute fibers for 1 % and 2 % is 18 % and 10 % respectively at
28 days compare to reference sample, further it remain constant as the
days increase. Similar results are observed in cement-lime mortars, in
CL-J1 samples the strength increased to 25 % and 10 % at 7 and 28 days
respectively. The sample with APA shows lower strength as a result of
the excessive presence of voids and high water absorption. In the case of
J. Rashmi Nayak et al.
Fig. 7. Flexural strength results: a) cement-sand fiber samples, b) cement-lime fiber samples, c) APA cement-sand fiber mortars.
CA-S1 and CA-S2 mortars, the addition of APA introduces pores at all
stages, affecting the sample by increasing air voids, resulting in sample
breaking under load. It also weakens the bond between fibers and
mortar mixture. According to the experiences of other researchers, the
bond strength can be improved by surface treatment of the fibers [16].
Better performance is exhibited in CA-J1 and CA-J2 mortars with jute
fibers with increase up to 15 % and 8.5 % of the compressive strength,
which exhibit higher resistance, comparable to the reference CA sample
at 28 days and later. The cement-lime sample with fibers shows that 1 %
jute fibers increase strength at each stage and as the amount increases,
the strength decreases with sample CL-J2. Similarly, CL-S1 and CL-S2
show significantly lower strength than the control sample at 28 days
and later. As both lime and sisal exhibit plastic properties when mixed,
which is the reason for the decrease in strength.
3.5. Flexural strength results
In Fig. 7 the test results for the flexural strength of the mortars are
presented. The flexural strength of all the reference mortars is similar at
2 days of curing. However, in the case of APA mortars, the flexural
9
Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128550
strength does not increase significantly after 7 days of curing. This may
be attributed to the very porous structure of the sample. The typical
porosity of the APA cement-sand mortars after 28 days was measured
with the value of 25.1 % (CA), 25.7 % (CA-J2) and 24.5 % (CA-S2),
respectively. It can be seen that jute sample (C-J1 and C-J2) shows the
maximum result at 28 days which are 18 % and 10 % more than the
control respectively. Similar results can be seen with cement-lime
mortar with the rise in 10 % and 13 % respectively. The addition of 1
% polypropylene fiber reduces the flexural strength by 20 % when
compared to control mortar. However, the strength increases with an
addition of up to 2 % polypropylene fiber up to 15 % because the
maximum amount leads to an increase in bond between fibers and paste,
resulting in an increase in strength. In turn, the addition of sisal fiber
with any percentage decreases flexural strength. This may be due to the
high air content, as can be seen in Fig. 3, which leads to a reduction in
strength, and it may also be due to effects due to production procedure
[19]. To summaries it can be concluded that mortars with a 1 % dose of
jute fibers have higher flexural strength than a reference cement mortar
sample. It is confirmed by other observations and studies, which found
that the addition of 0.5 % to 2 % fibers shows an increase in flexural
J. Rashmi Nayak et al.
Fig. 7. (continued).
strength [18,65]. However, a higher volume of jute fibers weakened the
mortar performance, both in cement and cement-lime mortars. It
probably occurs because a more decrease in the contact area between
the fibers and cementitious matrix, which leads to a high void ratio. A
similar result was observed for sisal fibers but with a greater decrease of
strength. Polypropylene fibers were found to give less strength in com­
parison to natural fibers. Jute fibers with a dose of 1 % found to be of the
most beneficial for flexural strength.
3.6. Shrinkage results
Fig. 8 shows the results of the shrinkage of mortar samples with and
without fibers in the first 28 days. Average values of two samples were
taken into account for verification. The cement-lime reference mortar
has the highest shrinkage rate among the reference samples. This is due
to the fact that lime in mortar exhibits an increase in dry shrinkage due
to the porous nature of lime at the microstructural level, which creates a
path for moisture transfer in the matrix, contributing to dry shrinkage.
Interestingly, the shrinkage of cement mortars and mortars with APA
addition was found to be the same. It is likely that the air content did not
influence the moisture transfer of the CA mortars. However, the addition
of fibers to cement-lime mortar reduces shrinkage compared to the
reference CL sample. The APA and fiber samples showed poor bonding,
which caused the initial smashing of the mould after demoulding.
Because of this, the shrinkage measurement of CA mortars with fibers
could not be made. The results (Fig. 8b) show that cement-sand samples
with polypropylene and jute fibers exhibit minor shrinkage and about
24 % less contraction than reference mortar samples. The addition of
sisal fiber with a dose of 2 % increases the dry shrinkage of the cement
matrix by approximately 15 %. In case a dosage of 1 % of sisal fibers,
shrinkage of C-S1 mortars is lesser and similar to reference sample.
Similar shrinkage results are observed in the case of cement-lime mor­
tars strengthened with natural and polypropylene fibers (Fig. 8c). Ac­
cording to Silva et al. [73] the shrinkage of the cement matrix is related
to porosity and to the shape, size, and continuity of the capillary system
in the hydrated paste. The presence of sisal fibers increases the porosity
in the matrix, and hence the numbers of voids and cracks are more
visible in these samples when compared to reference, jute, and plastic
10
Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128550
fibers. However, according to Fapohunda et al [74] use of sisal fiber can
decrease dry shrinkage about 28 % compared to the reference mix,
which does not agree with the present study. There appears to be a
maximum expansion within 7 days of age, and the shrinkage value re­
mains constant with minor changes up to 28 days of age. Similarly,
increasing the content of fibers reverses the beneficial effects of the fi­
bers, resulting in increasing dry shrinkage. The addition of 2 % sisal
fibers to cement leads to cracking of sample. Because of the hydrophilic
nature of bio fibers, adhesion between fibers and cement matrix is poor,
but it can be improved further with a chemical treatment of the fibers, as
investigated [75,76]. According to Adesina [77] there are different pa­
rameters that determine the shrinkage of cement composites, such as
proportion, fiber modulus, and interaction, to control the shrinkage of
fiber-reinforced composites. Few studies show that incorporating 0.75
percent of fibers by mass of total solid shows shrinkage, reducing the
ability of fiber composites with polypropylene, glass, and lignin fibers
[78–80]. Similarly, other studies show that adding 0.5–3 percent fibers
to the cement matrix reduces dry shrinkage [24,81,82]. In conclusion,
mortars with jute fibers showed the least shrinkage for polypropylene
and jute fibers. Natural jute fibers proved to be comparable to poly­
propylene fibers in terms of dry shrinkage.
3.7. MIP pore structure analysis
Analyzing the results of the porosimetry analyzes, it can be
concluded that the pore structure of the reference mortars reflects their
material composition. The obtained MIP results show well seen differ­
ences in the pore structure of the all tested mortars, both without and
with fibers. Therefore, the authors decided to use the MIP method. In
cement mortar C and cement-lime mortar CL, pores with small diameters
predominate in a significant amount in the range of 0.01 – 1 µm, 85.5 %
and 95.5 %, respectively (Fig. 9a, Fig. 10a). In tern in a mortar CA with
APA admixture pores with large diameters of 1 – 60 µm are the most in
amount of 56.9 % (Fig. 11a), probably due to the air-entraining action of
the admixture. This effect could occur in fresh mortar when the
admixture in contact with water shows a foaming character. The addi­
tion of fibers influenced the mortar structure differently, depending on
the additive or admixture and the type of fiber. It was observed that the
J. Rashmi Nayak et al.
Fig. 8. Shrinkage: a) reference mortars, b) cement-sand mortars with fibers, c) cement- lime mortars with fibers.
jute fibers did not affect the pore structure of cement and cement-lime
mortars, retaining a higher proportion of narrow pores with volumes
similar to before the addition of the fibers (Fig. 9b, Fig. 10b). In the case
of cement mortars with APA admixture (Fig. 11b), jute fibers caused a
reduction in the number of large pores above 1.0 μm and the appearance
of pores with small diameters of 0.01 – 1 µm in the amount of 54 %. On
the other hand, sisal fibers influenced changes in the porous structure of
mortars in a different way. In cement mortars C, a remodeling of the
11
Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128550
pore size was observed (Fig. 9c), a decrease in the dominant range of
small pores, and a significant increase in the number of pores with large
diameters of 1 – 100 μm in the amount of 80 %. In CL mortars with the
addition of lime, sisal fibers increased the number of pores with small
diameters in the range of 0.1 – 1 μm in the amount of 77.6 % (Fig. 10c).
A similar effect occurred in mortars with an admixture of APA, where
the largest number of narrow pores with a diameter range 0.05 – 5 µm in
the amount of 52.8 % (Fig. 11c). Analyzing the parameters of physical
J. Rashmi Nayak et al. Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128550

Log Differential Intrusion vs Pore size

C C-J2 C-S2
0.20

0.15
Log Differential Intrusion (mL/g)

0.10

0.05

0.00
100 10 1 0.1 0.01
Pore size Diameter (µm)

Fig. 9. MIP analyzes of cement mortars: a) C mortar without additive (black), b) C-J2 mortar with jute fibers (blue), c) C-S2 mortar with sisal fibers (red). (For
interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Log Differential Intrusion vs Pore size

CL CL-J2 CL-S2
0.20

0.15
Log Differential Intrusion (mL/g)

0.10

0.05

0.00
100 10 1 0.1 0.01
Pore size Diameter (µm)

Fig. 10. MIP analyzes of cement-lime mortars: a) CL mortar without additive (black), b) CL-J2 mortar with jute fibers (blue), c) CL-S2 mortar with sisal fibers (red).
(For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

properties such as: density, porosity or microstructure parameters such
as: surface area, pore diameter median and tortuosity, it can be
concluded that they reflect the type of binder and additives. Measured
volumetric bulk densities cover the range of 1.3 – 2.0 g/cm3 depending
on the type of additives. The most decreased density is due to the
addition of APA and fibers. This translates into open porosity, lower for
C and CL mortars and higher with additives in the range of 22.4 – 28.6
%. Porosity after 28 days of reference mortars was measured with the
value of 19.7 % (CM), 18.7 % (CL), and 25.1 % (CA), respectively.
Addition of 2 % jute fibers increased the volume of pores, 22.4 % (C-J2),
24.7 % (CL-J2) and 25.7 % (CA-J2), respectively. The addition of 2 %
sisal fibers increased porosity more with values of 28.6 % (C-S2), 26.8 %
(CL-S2) and 24.5 % (CA-S2). The average pore radii correspond to the
ranges of the dominant pore diameters and depend on the additives in
the mortars. The highest values are caused by the addition of APA and
sisal fibers, 6.56 μm and 16.55 μm respectively, and other cases in the
range of 0.15 – 0.62 μm. In turn, sisal fibers have the greatest impact on
the pore surfaces in the range of 4.3–6.6 m2 /g, causing a reduction in
surface area, which results from the greater number of pores with large
diameters. The additives also affect the tortuosity of the pores, which are

12
J. Rashmi Nayak et al.
Fig. 11. MIP analyzes of cement mortars with APA: a) CA mortar without additive (black), b) CA-J2 mortar with jute fibers (blue), c) CA-S2 mortar with sisal fibers
(red). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
small below 29,0 when using APA or fibers and many times higher in the
pore total surface values in the range of 4.3–6.6 m2/g are comparable,
regardless of the type of additive.
3.8. SEM analysis results
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs were studied to
observe and analyze the microstructural surface morphology at 28 days
(Fig. 12). The first three images (Fig. 12a, b, c) show the SEM result of
the reference samples of CM, CL and CA mortars. More cracks and voids
are visible even after 28 days of hydration. The cement-lime sample
(Fig. 12b) shows fewer cracks and voids with smoother and more uni­
form surface leading to better bonding and better materials compared to
the cement-sand mortar sample (Fig. 12a). A similar result can be
observed for the APA cement-sand mortar (Fig. 12c). However, the
shrinkage result suggests that cement-lime mortar samples have more
micro cracks, which is resulted by an increase in shrinkage value. The
APA reference sample (Fig. 12c) shows large voids and that dimensions
of cracks and air voids in the mixture are larger as APA is added to in­
crease the plasticity of a mixture. As envisaged from the following im­
ages, the use of jute fibers with cement-sand mortar (Fig. 12e) and
cement-lime mortar (Fig. 12g) shows no significant change in micro­
structure around the fibers, compared to reference mortars. The adhe­
sion between fibers and cement matrix is strong, and hence the samples
show fewer cracks and voids, which ultimately favors an increase in
strength. The adhesion also depends on the presence of fiber ingredients
such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, which promotes water ab­
sorption and poor adhesion with the cement matrix, removing non-
cellulosic components from the fiber surface is recommended for
improved interfacial adhesion. Because of its low cost, alkaline treat­
ment is the most commonly used treatment on plant fiber composites
[83–85]. Coupling agents and compatibilizers are used to promote more
functional groups and improve interfacial adhesion between fiber and
matrix [76,86]. Researchers improve the mechanical properties of
composites by modifying the materials mentioned above. The jute
sample with APA shows different results, as the fibers seem to be pulled
out of the surface due to an increase in gaseous pores due to the presence
of APA (Fig. 12i). On the surfaces of mortars with sisal fibers it can be
observed that sisal fibers act as plasticizer agents, increasing the amount
of porosity and water absorption in the mixtures, both for cement-sand
13
Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128550
mortar (Fig. 12d) and more for cement-lime mortar (Fig. 12f). Therefore,
the sample of APA and sisal fiber shows the weaker bond between the
fibers and the cement matrix, leading to a decrease in strength due to
reason mentioned above (Fig. 12h).
3.9. Outcomes
On the basis of all the experimental and research literature studies, it
can be said that the use of natural fiber and polypropylene fibers in the
mortar mix revealed differences in their properties while also improving
them. The addition of jute fiber improves mechanical properties as
discussed in the results. Similarly, polypropylene fibers have good crack
resistance properties in mortar, which reduces shrinkage. Because nat­
ural fiber is hydrophobic in nature, treating it will be an important step
in the future. The treatment of natural fiber is critical due to the fiber’s
bonding with mortar. If sisal is untreated, as it absorb moisture, resulting
in poor fiber bonding in mortar.
4. Conclusions
The presented study evaluated the effect of mortar reinforced with
natural waste fibers (sisal and jute) compared to synthetic (poly­
propylene) in amounts 1 % and 2 % by means of different physical and
mechanical properties. In summary, the following conclusion can be
drawn.
• The polypropylene and jute fibers performed well in shrinkage and
resistance, compared to reference and sisal mortar samples. The sisal
fibers pulls out from the surface of the cement matrix due to weak
bond between mortar and fibers, forming large air voids within the
surface of mortars.
• The addition of 2 % sisal fiber and APA in cement-sand mortar shows
increases in flow value due to water absorption characteristics
leading to increase in consistency. Novikov’s cone results shows that
addition of jute and polypropylene fibers causes no changes
compared to control mortar samples and decreases in flow value can
be seen in mortars with fiber addition.
• The addition of polypropylene and jute fibers had no effect on the air
content, however APA addition increases the air content because of
J. Rashmi Nayak et al. Construction and Building Materials 347 (2022) 128550

Fig. 12. SEM micrographs of the fracture surface of after 28 days hydration: (a) cement-sand mortar, (b) cement-lime mortar, (c) cement -sand mortar with APA, (d)
cement-sand mortar with 2 % sisal fiber, (e) cement-sand mortar with 2 % jute fiber, (f) cement- lime mortar with 2 % sisal fiber, (g) cement- lime mortar with 2 %
jute fiber, (h) APA cement-sand mortar with 2 % sisal fiber, (i) APA cement-sand mortar with 2 % jute fiber.

its aerating properties. Sisal fibers increased air content four times
more in case of cement-sand mortars and cement-lime mortars.
• The addition of jute fibers in amount of 1 % and 2 % increases the
compressive strength to 18 % and 10 % respectively in comparison to
reference sample at 28 days. In case of polypropylene and sisal fibers,
the strength increases with 1 % addition up to 10 % each at 28 days.
The incorporation of APA with mortar fiber mixes results in a
reduction of compressive strength due to high water absorption.
• At 28 days, the flexural strength of mortars with 1 % and 2 % jute
fiber samples increased by 18 % and 10 %, respectively, in the case of

14
J. Rashmi Nayak et al.
cement-sand mortar, and by 10 % and 13 %, respectively, in the case
of cement-lime mortar, when compared to the reference sample.
Sisal fiber improves the flexural strength of cement-lime samples.
The addition of 1 % and 2 % of polypropylene fibers increases the
flexural strength at 56 days to 7.5 and 10 %, respectively.
• MIP and SEM analyzes, concluded that the addition of jute fibers
shows better bond between fibers and cement matrix. The sisal fiber
in cement-sand mortar creates poor adhesion between fibers and the
cement matrix and an increase in pores with large diameters of 1 –
100 μm in the amount of 80 % is observed. Although in the case of
cement-lime matrix, the results are better due fineness of lime.
The currently developed bio-composite may be used in non-critical
structural applications in construction due to its low cost and abun­
dant raw materials, as well as its promising environmental impact. The
study concludes that the use of natural fibers as reinforcement is
dependent on size, chemical treatment agents, and fabrication methods
[75] to improve the properties of natural fibers. The jute fiber has
numerous advantages as bio fibers application in mortar. Natural fibers
have distinct advantages over synthetic fibers and can be a great alter­
native as sustainable materials. More research into the structural ap­
plications of bio fibers is required before this product can be established
as a safe and viable alternative to natural-based materials.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
The study was carried out thanks to the financial support of the Dean
of Faculty of Civil Engineering within the statutory personal research in
2021, No. BK–251/RB3/2021.
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