CELLS AND TISSUES

CELLS

 Basic living unit of all organisms

 Highly organized unit
 Within cells are specialized structures called
 ORGANELLES to perform specific
functions
CELLS
3 Main Regions

1. Nucleus
2. Cytoplasm
3. Plasma membrane
The Nucleus
 Headquarters or control center
 Gene containing nucleus
 DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid
 Needed for cell reproduction

 3 Regions/Structures
 Nuclear envelope
 Nucleoli
 chromatin
Nuclear Envelope
 Aka nuclear membrane
 Nuclear pores
 Selectively permeable

 Nucleoplasm
 Jelly-like fluid
Nucleoli
 One or more dark-staining, essentially round
bodies
 Sites where ribosomes are assembled
Chromatin
 When cell is not dividing,
its DNA is combined with
protein and forms a loose
network of bumpy threads
called chromatin.
 When cell is dividing, the
chromatin threads coil and
condense to form dense,
rod-like bodies called chromosomes.
The Plasma Membrane
 Fragile, transparent barrier that contains
the cell contents and separates them from
the surrounding environment.
 More than a passive envelope or “baggie”
Specializations of the Plasma
Membrane
 MICROVILLI
 Tiny finger-like projections that greatly increase the cell’s
absorption so that the process occurs more quickly.

 MEMBRANE JUNCTIONS
 1. Tight junctions- impermeable junctions that bind cells
together
 2. Desmosomes- anchoring junctions that prevent cells
subjected to mechanical stress from being pulled apart.
 3. Gap junctions- allow communication
The Cytoplasm
 Cellular material outside the nucleus and
inside the plasma membrane.
 Factory area of the cell
 3 Major Elements
 1. cytosol
 2. organelles
 3. inclusions
 Cytosol
 Semitransparent fluid that suspends the other
elements
 Largely water, nutrients and variety of other
solutes

 Organelles
 Metabolic machinery of the cell
 Specialized to carry out specific function

 Inclusions
 Not a functioning unit but a chemical substance
 Stored nutrients or cell products

Cytoplasmic Organelles
 “Little organs”
 Performing its own job to maintain the life of
the cell
Mitochondria
 Tiny threadlike or sausage-shaped
organelles
 Supply the most of the ATP of the cell
 Powerhouse of the cell

 ADENOTRIPHOSPHATE
Ribosomes
 Tiny, bilobed, dark bodies made of proteins
and one variety of RNA called ribosomal RNA
 Actual sites of protein synthesis in the cell

Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Network within the cytoplasm
 System of fluid-filled cisterns that coil and
twist through the cytoplasm
 Minicirculatory system of the cell
 Rough ER
 Studded with ribosomes
 All of the building materials of the cell membrane
are formed either in it or on it.
 Cell membrane’s factory
 Especially abundant in cells that export protein
products

 Smooth ER
 No role in protein synthesis
 Functions in cholesterol and fat synthesis and
breakdown

Golgi Apparatus
 Principal “traffic director” for cellular proteins
 Major function is to modify and package
proteins sent by the rough ER
Lysosomes
 “breakdown bodies”
 Membranous “bags” containing powerful
digestive enzymes
 Function as the demolition sites
 Abundant in WBC that engulf bacteria and
other harmful substances
CELL MEMBRANE
 EXTRACELLULAR SUBSTANCES
Substances outside the cell.
Na+, Ca+2, Cl- are extracellular ions
 INTRACELLULAR SUBSTANCES
 Substances found inside the cell.
Glycogen, enzymes, K+ are intracellular ions

Peroxisomes
 Powerful sacs containing oxidase enzymes that
use oxygen to detoxify number of harmful or
poisonous substances including alcohol and
formaldehyde.
 Most important function is to “disarm”
dangerous free radicals
 It converts free radicals (normal cell byproduct)
to hydrogen peroxide
 Numerous in liver and kidneys

Cytoskeleton
 Acts as cell’s bones and muscles
 Internal framework that determines cell
shape, supports, and movement
Centrioles
 Lie close to the nucleus
 Made of fine microtubules
 During cell division, centrioles direct the
formation of the mitotic spindle (composed of
thin microtubules)
 Cell Diversity

 Trillions of cells in the body are made up

of 200 different cell types that vary greatly
in size, shape and function.
Cells that connect body parts:
 Fibroblast
 Erythrocytes (RBC)
 Cells that covers and lines body organs: 
Epithelial cell
 Cells that move organs and body parts:
 Skeletal muscle and smooth muscle cells 
Cell that stores nutrients:
 Fat cells
 Cells that fight disease:
 Macrophage (phagocytic cell)
 Cells that gather information and controls
body function:
 Nerve cell (neuron)
 Cells of reproduction
 Oocyte (female)
 Sperm (male)

Cell Physiology
 Cells internal parts is designed to perform
specific function for the cell.

 Most cells have the ability to metabolize,

digest foods, dispose of waste, reproduce,
grow, move, and respond to stimulus.
Membrane Transport
 Solution
 Homogenous mixture of 2 or more components.
(air we breath, salt water, rubbing alcohol)
 Solvent
 Dissolving medium (water)
 Solute
 Components or substances present in smaller
amounts
 Intracellular fluid
 Collectively, nucleoplasm and cytosol
 Solution containing small amounts of gases (oxygen
& carbon dioxide), nutrients and salts dissolved in
water.
 Interstitial fluid
 Fluid that continuously bathes the exterior of the
cells.
 Rich, nutritious and rather unusual “soup”.
Plasma membrane
 Selectively permeable barrier
 Movement of substances through the plasma
membrane happens in basically 2 ways –
 1. Passive transport processes - substances are
transported across the membrane without any
energy input from the cell.

 2. Active transport processes – the cell provides

metabolic energy (ATP) that drives transport
process.

PASSIVE TRANSPORT PROCESS

 Diffusion
 molecules tend to scatter themselves
throughout the available space.
 All molecules possess kinetic energy
 Molecules move away from a region where they
are more concentrated to a region where they
are less concentrated.
Diffusion

Facilitated Diffusion
• Provides passage for certain needed substances (glucose) that
are both lipid insoluble and too large to pass through the
membrane pores.
Osmosis
 Diffusion of water through a plasma membrane
Filtration
 Water and solutes
are forced through a
membrane by
fluid or hydrostatic
pressure

 It is usually exerted
by blood.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT PROCESSES
 Whenever a cell uses some of its ATP supply
to move substances across the membrane,
the process is called active.
 Substances moved actively are usually unable
to pass in the desired direction by diffusion.
Solute Pumping
 Similar to facilitated diffusion (uses kinetic
energy) but it uses ATP to energize its protein
 carriers which called solute pumps (amino
acids, some sugars and most ions).
 These substances move against
concentration gradients.
 PISO
 No pump – No Transport

Bulk Transport
 Substances that cannot get through the
plasma membrane in a any other way are
 transported with the help of ATP out or into
the cells.

 EXOCYTOSIS – out of the cell

 cells actively secrete hormones, mucus &
other cells
Cell Division

 Cell life cycle - series of changes a cell goes

through from the time it is formed until it
divides

 2 Major Periods
1. Interphase/metabolic phase – cell grows and
carries on its usual metabolic activities.
2. Cell Division – reproduces itself.
Preparation: DNA Replication
Events of Cell Division
2 events

1. Mitosis – division of the nucleus, occurs

first.

2. Cytokinesis – division of the cytoplasm,

begins when mitosis is nearly completed.
Stages of Mitosis
 Prophase
 As cell division begins, chromatin threads coil
and shorten so that chromosomes appear.
 Because DNA replication has been occurred,
each chromosome is made up of 2 strands
called chromatid held together by a small
button-like body called centromere.
 Directs the assembly of a mitotic spindle (thin
microtubules)
 Metaphase
 In this short stage, chromosomes cluster
and become aligned at the mataphase
plate (center of the spindle midway) so
that a straight line of chromosomes is seen.
 Anaphase
 The centromeres that have held the
chromatids together split. The chromatids now
called chromosomes now, begin to move
slowly apart toward opposites ends of the cell
 Telophase
 Essentially prophase in reverse.
 The chromosomes at opposite ends of the
cell uncoil to become threadlike
chromatin again
 Cytokinesis
 Division of the cytoplasm, completes during
telophase
 Cleavage furrow appears over the midline of
the spindle and eventually squeezes into 2
parts.
BODY TISSUES
 Group of cells that are similar in structure
and function.
 4 primary tissue parts
1. Epithelium (covering)
2. Connective tissue (support)
3. Nervous tissue (control)
4. Muscle tissue (movement)
Epithelial Tissue
 Lining, covering, and glandular tissue f the
body.

 Absorption (kidneys)
 Filtration (kidneys)
 Protection (bacterial & chemical damage & lining
of respi tract)
 Secretion (respiration, oil, enzymes & mucus)
Classification of epithelium
 Simple Epithelium – layer of cells

 Stratified Epithelium – More than 1

layer
 Squamous – flattened like fish scales

 Cuboidal – cube-shaped like dice

 Columnar – shaped like columns

Pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium
Transitional Epithelium
Glandular Epithelium
Connective Tissue
 Well vascularized (good vascularized)
 Tendons & Ligaments (avascular)
 Given a choice, one would rather have a
broken bone than a torn ligament.
 Extracellular matrix
 Produced by connective tissue cells and then
secreted to their exterior.
 Serves as glue that allows cells to attach
themselves.
  Forms internal skeleton of soft organs

Types of Connective
Tissue k
Bone
Hyaline cartilage
Fibrocartilage
Dense Fibrous
Areolar
Adipose
Reticular
Blood
Skeletal Muscle
Cardiac Muscle
Smooth Muscle
Nervous Tissue