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17th-century Crisis

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This article is a moral and intellectual assertion of the Author, no part of it can be reproduced or
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Developments in Europe 17th centuries, owing to the weakening and

17th Century decline of colonial powers such as Spain and

Debate
Portugal as well as cultural centers such as

Italy. Therefore, there was a shift from the

Historiographical Trends
Mediterranean to the Atlantic.

However, for this transition and the

i
sh
subsequent changes in Europe, a number of

factors have played a crucial role. Further, it

cannot be denied that the Mediterannean

Jo itself was a site of socio-cultural exchange

in the renaissance. Due to the uncertain

nature of this period in European history, it

na
has been broadly treated as an era of crisis

and confusion. However, there are majorly

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three approaches to the form of crisis, the

first is the economic basis of the crisis with

Ap

a shift in commercial activity and a

loosening of state control along with the rise

of interest groups and guilds that protected

Introduction the right of the manufacturers and the

There was a considerable shift in the global
workers. Secondly, the political approach
paradigm of power between the 16th and the
saw the 17th century as a phase of political
This article is a moral and intellectual assertion of the Author, no part of it can be reproduced or
transmitted in any form without her prior permission

unrest and civil war. Lastly, it was seen as a argued that in the middle of the 17th century

phase of a general crisis. there was a large-scale economic and

political breakdown that led to a

Within the Marxist historians, there are two

distinct types of scholars, one group restructuring. In this phase of general crisis,

propounds the theory of general crisis based Roper argued that the English Civil War and

on the declining condition of the economy, the French Frondes played a pivotal role in

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that includes Eric J Hobsbawm in his two the regional assertion and characterization of

essays titled “seventeenth Century Crisis crisis. Further, the breakdown of Spain and

and ‘General Crisis of the European Portugal saw them divide into court and

Economy in the 17th century” points to the

fact that the economic and social structure

that had survived to that point in till the end

Jo country factions based on religious lines.

Soviet Historian AD Lublinskya asserts that

the relative heterogeneity of the economic

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of the 16th century had a number of feudal structure across Europe along with what

elements that were then in decline or Merriman terms the multiplicity of crises,
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eliminated. cannot be said that the crisis of the 17th

century swept across Europe.

In the context of England, a political
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revolution removed the obstacles in the path Cipolla however contends that this period

of rapid changes. This view was also shared was the silver age of England, if not the

by Ferdinand Braudel, JI Israel, anAad golden age.

Domenico Sella. However, the support for

Jan de Vries, argues that the monetary
Hobsbawm's theory was challenged on factors are long term he however does not
regional grounds. Further, HR Trevor Roper subscribe to the view that this was a phase
This article is a moral and intellectual assertion of the Author, no part of it can be reproduced or
transmitted in any form without her prior permission

of collective highs and lows but rather a set adopted by Spain. Peter Kriedte points out

of disjointed events that tended to interrupt that epidemics and famines in the regions of

metal flow across Europe. He used the rise Scandinavia, stability fluctuated 20%, and

of the Sun Kings in France and the French further, the thirty Year War impacted the

Frondes to substantiate this claim of dual demographic growth by 35-40% not merely

actions. The Thirty Years' war further added in the Malthusian sense. Further, wars and

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to this duality as it gave rise to a new type of famines led to effective depopulation for 20

governance structure in an otherwise to 25 years. Wrigley points out that birth

absolutist state formation. Boris Porchev control led to an increase in the rate of real

equated the French Frondes and English

Revolution as similar. Further, JH Elliot,

however, moved away from this uniform

Jo income.

While Neils Steengard highlights a fall in

the growth of the European economy.

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form and pointed to the fact that there were Cipolla further points out that despite the
regional factors that developed the decline in the birth rate in favor of a moral
resistance seen in the 17th century.
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attitude, demographic changes however

were not uniform.

Causes
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Climatic and Natural Causes

Demographic Causes
Historian John Lynch points out that some Annales Scholars also pointed out the

regions reached a stage of stagnation or climatic changes that impacted Europe in the

economic growth declined from 70,68,000 17th century. The long-term impact or the

to 50,25,000 between 1587 to 1650. Natural conjectured impact of the climatic

factors along with specific policies were

This article is a moral and intellectual assertion of the Author, no part of it can be reproduced or
transmitted in any form without her prior permission

conditions is collectively termed the that impact the geological conditions on

marauder's Minimum. Earth itself.

According to the Annales historians, the Economic Causes

rate of soil fertility, technology, agricultural

It is difficult to present an exact picture of
produce, and climate change are primary
European agriculture in the intermittent
determining factors in the development and

i
period between the 16th and the 17th

sh
rate of population explosion.
century, due to a lack of records. Abel points

Some historians from this group placed an to a shift in this dynamic at the end of the
emphasis on the Little Ice Age as a

determining factor in the fall of the fertility

rate by around 80-90% across Northern and

Central Europe.
Jo 1600s, a soil deficiency was seen in hilly

tracts of northern Europe, this

substantiated by Braudel’s understanding of

is
na
poor land quality and soil fertility. A fall in

WK Jordan suggests that the Little Ice Age population density led to an increase in real

also caused an increase in the rate of incomes, however, this led to unprecedented
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mortality due to an increase in the spread of inflation.

illnesses and a drop in productivity in Peter Kriedt highlights, in his index of grain
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Agriculture. prices from France and Poland, he highlights

Geoffrey Parker, however, draws attention a 50% and 13% decline in grain cultivation

away from the climatic conditions respectively. In Germany, this index fell a

arguments and places the crisis in the further 47% as a result of the 30 years war.

neo-scientific study of external processes To Jan De Vries, the rate of increase in

This article is a moral and intellectual assertion of the Author, no part of it can be reproduced or
transmitted in any form without her prior permission
taxation on the peasantry was a further
threat to agricultural growth. Especially in
France, the shrinking size of the agricultural
class and the rise of Taille led to the French
Revolution. In the region of England, on the
other hand, crop production specialization
led to the commercialization of agricultural
produce.
The systematic collapse of agriculture as an
industry in 17th century Europe called for
the aid of the economy in industrial
production. It has been argued that the
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northern European transition
industrialization in the region of England
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and the Netherlands began with the textile
industry in this period.
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The first product to be mass-produced was
the draperies and heavy silk textiles in
Northern Europe. This was based on
exported fabrics from the region of the
Levant and West Asia.
This also saw the development of new
industrial centers such as Craebeckx, Ghent,
and Leiden. There was thus, a shift away
from the traditional centers of Spain,
Portugal, and the Americas. Pierre Chaunu
opines the role of the shift from the
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sh
Mediterranean to the Atlantic in the
economic decline of Europe. The influx of
bullion and its temporary interruption led to
Jo the debasement of the currency and a case of
inflation. EJ Hamilton argues that it was the
influx of bullion that caused the monetary
to crisis of the 17th century. It was when silver
imports from the Americas rose
indiscriminately that the monetary crisis
began. This Monetary and fiscal crisis was
further impeded by the Political conditions
that ensued and led to the development of a
distinct political culture across Europe.
This article is a moral and intellectual assertion of the Author, no part of it can be reproduced or
transmitted in any form without her prior permission

Political Causes JH Elliot opposes this view and is of the

opinion that wars and internal conflict

The rise of large and militarily advanced
played a more crucial role as compared to
empires instead of Spain and Portugal or
the state’s nature. They, however, fail to
those competing with them for resources,
identify two other views on the Political
led to the gradual decline of these early
nature of the 17th-century crisis.

i
mercantile states, especially as emphasized

sh
by JH Elliot. Further, M Cipolla and Henry R Mousinier, argues that the crisis was a

Kamen, argue that it was an economic and class struggle between the crown and the

developmental stagnation that led to the

defeat and eventual decline of Spain and

Portugal. To Christopher Hill and TH

Jo ruling elite and peasantry as an outcome of

agricultural conditions and the impact of the

Frondes and the English Revolution.

Polinsky points out that the international

na
Ashton, the European Crisis of the 17th

century were politico-economic in nature crisis confronted absolutism and other forms

either uniform or region-centric. of governance. Therefore, the structure itself

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was a factor in the 17th-century crisis.

Trevor Roper, however, argues that the

magnitude of the crisis differed from region The examples of the Oliviers of France to
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to region. He goes on to assert that the crisis Neils Stiensgard are the epitome of

of the 17th century is the result of the opposition to the thesis of Absolutist

parasitic nature of the absolutist state. He, monarchy and its role in the Crisis of the

therefore, relies on the interpretation of the 17th century. He further argues in favor of

absolutist state as an outcome of the crisis. their inactive involvement, citing the works

of Mousinier, who points out that, taxation

This article is a moral and intellectual assertion of the Author, no part of it can be reproduced or
transmitted in any form without her prior permission

played a role in the crisis of the 17th century Ferdinand's declaration proclaimed the idea

rather than the bourgeoise. Voltaire argues of sovereignty.

that the influence of the non-European

It is generally accepted that the thirty years
powers such as the power of the Sultans in
war was a direct outcome of high taxation
West Asia, India, and China led to the crisis
and a dense population that affected the
of te 17th century in abid to claim ore

i
Holy Roman Empire in the region of

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power.
Bohemia this was further highlighted by the

According to Historian Richard Bonney, the inefficiency and profitable mining promoted

Thirty years' war was a direct outcome of

the religious conflict in the European

continent, the conflict between

Protestants and the Hapsburg Empire, spread

the
Jo by the German diet. which led to the

Bohemian brotherhood and the protestant

Lutherans clashing in a series of dynastic

religious was that was a continuation of

na
across the region of Austro-Hungary, religious conflicts between the protestants

Central Europe. and the Catholics these were the religious

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wars of the 16th century that it swept across

The Peace of Augsburg was also the basis of
several parts of Europe in Germany France
the Thirty Years' War. Primarily Peace of
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and Netherlands.
Augsberg discussed three primary factors

firstly the religion of the nation would be the Scholars have also explained the emergence

religion of the ruler. of the thirty years war through the

encirclement of France thesis SH Steinberg

Secondly, the noble and priestly class would
suggests that the aggression to break into
be exempt from religious unity and thirdly
This article is a moral and intellectual assertion of the Author, no part of it can be reproduced or
transmitted in any form without her prior permission

what was a product of French efforts after approach in the long-term issues and

the conclusion of the civil war in 1598 conflicts of internal and external causation

France carried out a Swift conversion to including colonization and the factor of the

Habsburg hands of Spain and Austria in spread of Christianity in the thirty years war

Brightwell. itself lastly Gerhard Ritter asserts that in the

second half of the 16th century the modern

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JH Elliot provides similar arguments to

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anti-feudal States.
Steinberg however rejects these views

suggesting on the contrary that it was a The idea of the nation-state thus leading to

struggle for the natural frontiers of France

he cites the Habsburg struggles at the end of

the thirty years war as the German approach

as pointed out by that the war was

Jo to the thirty years war. There were many

economic and social causes that highlighted

the role of the thirty years' War the most

significant of these wars.

na
essentially a German tragedy born out of the
The breakdown of the central European
opposing factors within the German region.
economy as most of the resources from trade
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However, others such as Polisky seek to commerce and agrarian produce had to be

redress this idea by concentrating on the diverted towards the war effort that was
Ap

Origins of the initial phase of the conflict in scattered and not continuous further thirty

the Bohemia but then being spearheaded years war also led to the beginning of

solely by France and the Austro-Hungarian widespread present was the crew at the

Habsburg empire Mousinier suggests that present uprising of the 1590 and 1620 were

the thirty years war has an alternative

This article is a moral and intellectual assertion of the Author, no part of it can be reproduced or
transmitted in any form without her prior permission

followed by the Frondes and rebellions of

1639. Impact

The 17th-century crisis brought with it a

The widespread of their rebellions that tore
number of challenges and changes that
through the heart of France were political
impacted the nature of the balance of power
and anti physical rebellions however an
that was restored to an earlier form of

i
equally severe revolt in Normandy exposed

sh
northern Europe. In Demographic terms, the
the socio-political impact of the economic
crisis resulted in a high rate of mortality in
slump economic context to the point where
different parts of the continent.
there was a French equivalent to the English

Bourgeois revolution.

It also saw the rise of influential leaders and

Jo The long span of wars including the 30 years

of war spread and influenced the regions of

Scandinavia, Italy, Denmark, and Poland

na
the confluence of various revolts and
due to the plague that impeded the mortality
revolutions the stamp paper uprisings the
rate. It also led to the refeudalisation of
English Civil War and the glorious
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various parts of Europe.

Revolution along with the Russian revolts of
Demographically speaking, the burden of
1672 these events culminated in Europe with
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taxation impacted the quality of life and the

the rise of the enlightenment.
reliance on agriculture in Europe.

Further, the development of the landed

gentry gave rise to the state of

proto-industrialization. Colonial powers also

This article is a moral and intellectual assertion of the Author, no part of it can be reproduced or
transmitted in any form without her prior permission

led to the consolidation and diversification

This led to the technological stagnation, in
of demographic variables in Europe. western Europe, this was the impetus

In Elbe Germany, the gap between the labor towards capitalist development. While in

demand and the number of people who were Eastern Europe, it led to a chronic shortage

available for physical labor led to the of labor and serfdom.

shortage that was instrumental in the rise of

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Brenner further points to these conditions as

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serfdom practices. the cause of colonialism and

TK Rabb asserts that from 1662 to 1789 was empire-building outside Europe, which was

a period of the rise of the landowning

bourgeoise class, they were the sole

beneficiaries of this recent development of

the 17th century. Agriculture, demography,

Jo the guiding force behind mercantilism.

Bibliography
na
and climate along with the development of ● EUROPE IN TRANSITION From
Feudalism to Industrialization
the armies, Phillip II in Spain quintupled and ● Geoffrey parker and Lesley M.
Smith The general crisis of the
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developed in the post-crisis phase. seventeenth century ( Edited work)

● Peter Kriedte Peasant, landlords,
and Merchant capitalists.
Robert Brenner goes on to point out the role ● Hugh Traver Roper The Crisis of the
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Seventeenth Century, Religion, the

of the feudal state. It was seen as an exaction Reformation, and social change
● E. J. HOBSBAWM
and exploitation of feudal monarchies,
IN THE SEVENTEENTH
where the highest echelons of society played CENTURY IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF
a major role. CAPITALISM
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This article is a moral and intellectual assertion of the Author, no part of it can be reproduced or
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Jo
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