BSB 122

Electrostatics

Continuous Assessment (CA):

• Theory Tests 50% + Online quizzes 10% + Laboratory Reports 20% + Laboratory Tests 20% = 100%

No end of semester exam!!!

• Test One: Week 7 - April 25th
• Test Two: Week 13 – June 06th

https://eduhub.buan.ac.bw/
See course outline!!!
 https://eduhub.buan.ac.bw/
Objectives
Student should be able to;
1. Describe the types of charge and the attraction and repulsion of charges.
2. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the force on a positive or negative charge due to other
specified point charges
3. Describe and calculate the electric field of a single point charge
4. Calculate the electrical work done on a charge or use conservation of energy to determine the
speed of a charge that moves through a specified potential difference
5. Calculate the electrostatic potential energy of a system of two or more point charges, and
calculate how much work is required to establish the charge system.
Electrostatics
• Electrostatics is the study of stationary charge.
• Materials become electrically charged when they attract each other.
• For example, after rubbing a balloon on your hair on a dry day the balloon attracts bits of paper. The
attractive force is often strong enough to suspend the paper from the balloon.
Properties of electric charge
• Electric charge can be negative (electron), zero (neutron), or positive (proton).
• Unit of electric charge is a Coulomb, C.
• Charge (𝑞) is quantized. That is, it exists as discrete ‘packets’ which are integer (𝑁) multiples of the
elementary charge, 𝒆
𝑞 = 𝑁𝑒
• Charge is conserved, not created but only transferred.
• Electrons are the ones transferred between material.
• Protons are in the nucleus.
• Unlike charges attract and like charges repel.
Materials are divided into three categories
• Conductors - the outermost electrons in the atoms are so loosely bound to their atoms that they are free
to travel around eg metals (copper, silver etc)
• Semi-conductors – conduct at certain conditions eg silicon conductivity increases with increase in
temperature
• Insulators - the electrons are much more tightly bound to the atoms, and are not free to flow eg rubber,
wood, plastic

DIFFERENT WAYS OF CHARGING MATERIALS

i) Charging by friction - useful for charging insulators.
• Electrons transferred from one material to the other
by friction.
Example: rubbing glass rod with silk, gives the rod
a positive charge as electrons are transferred from the
rod to silk. What happens when polythene is rubbed with cloth?
ii) Charging by conduction - useful for charging metals / conductors.
• When charged object touches a neutral conductor, some charge is transferred between the
object and the conductor.
• Conductor will have same sign as the charge on the object.
iii) Charging by induction - useful for charging conductors but …….
• A charged object is brought close to the conductor but does not touch it.
• If the conductor is connected to ground, electrons will either flow on to it or away from it.
• When the ground connection is removed , the conductor will have a charge opposite in sign to that of the
charged object.
❖The net amount of electric charge produced in any process is ZERO (no net charge can
be created or destroyed but only transfered) ---- Law of conservation of charge
Before attraction, there is induction!!
Coulomb’s Law
• Electric (electrostatic) forces exist between all charged bodies
• The direction of the force is along the line joining the charged particles.
• These forces can be attractive or repulsive depending on the types of charges involved.
• These electrostatic forces are conservative, that is, the work done by these forces
depends only on the initial and final conditions and not on the path taken by the
objects.
• Coulomb’s Law states that " The magnitude of the electric force that a charge exerts on
another charge is directly proportional to the product of their charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance (r) between them.“
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘
𝑟2
• 𝒌 is called the Coulomb constant (𝑘 = 8.9976 𝑥 109 𝑁𝑚2 /𝐶 2 )
• The smallest unit of free charge e has a magnitude: 𝑒 = 1.60218 𝑥 10−19 𝐶. The charge on an electron
and proton are −𝑒 and +𝑒 respectively.
• When the charges have the same sign, the electrostatic force is positive (repulsive) and when the charges
are of opposite sign the electrostatic force is negative (attractive)
• However the magnitude of the force is always positive.
• General notation:
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝟏 𝒆𝒙𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝟐
Charges and masses of Electron, Proton and Neutron

Example 1: Calculate the number of charged particles present in one 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 (1𝐶) of charge.

𝑞 = 𝑁𝑒
𝑞
𝑁=
𝑒
1𝐶 18 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
= = 6.24 𝑥 10
1.60218 𝑥 10−19 𝐶
Example 2. Consider three point charges located at the corners of a right triangle as shown where
𝑞1 = 𝑞3 = 5 𝑥10−6 𝐶, and 𝑞2 = −2 𝑥 10−6 𝐶. Find the magnitude (and direction) of
resultant force exerted on 𝑞3 due to other charges.

SOLUTION

𝑞2 𝑞3 8.9976 𝑥 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2 2 𝑥 10−6 𝐶 5 𝑥 10−6 𝐶

𝐹23 = 𝑘 = = 0.022494 𝑁
𝑟23 2 (2𝑚)2
𝑞1 𝑞3 8.9976 𝑥 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2 5 𝑥 10−6 𝐶 5 𝑥 10−6 𝐶
𝐹13 = 𝑘 = = 0.0281175 𝑁
𝑟13 2 ( 8𝑚)2
𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 = ෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹13 𝑐𝑜𝑠450 + 𝐹23 𝑐𝑜𝑠1800 = −0.00261 𝑁

𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 = σ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹13 𝑠𝑖𝑛450 + 𝐹23 𝑠𝑖𝑛1800 = 0.01988 𝑁

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹Ԧ = −0.00261𝒊𝑵

Ƹ + 0.0𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟖𝒋𝑵
Ƹ
Magnitude, 𝐹Ԧ = ( −0.00261 2 + 0.01988)2 = 0.020𝑁

σ 𝐹𝑦 0.01988
Direction, ϴ = 1800 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (σ ) = 1800 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 97.480
𝐹𝑥 −0.00261
Electric Field (strength) ,𝑬
• An electric field is said to exist in the region of space around a charged object, the source charge. The presence of the
electric field can be detected by placing a test charge in the field and noting the electric force on it.
• A small positive test charge placed at point near an object carrying a much larger positive charge (source charge)
experiences an electric field at point established by the source charge q.
• The arrow shows the direction of the force the positive test charge experiences when
placed in the field due to source charge.
• The electric field 𝑬 at some point in space is defined as the electric force 𝐹Ԧ that acts on a small positive test charge
placed at that point divided by the magnitude 𝑞0 of the test charge:
𝐹Ԧ
𝐸= (Units for electric field are 𝑁Τ𝐶)
𝑞0
• When a particle with charge q is placed in an electric field 𝑬, it experiences an electric force given by:
𝐹Ԧ = 𝑞𝐸
• For a single point charge q, the magnitude of the electric field a distance r from a point charge q is given by:
𝐹Ԧ 𝑞 𝑞0 1
𝐸= =𝑘 2 𝑟Ƹ
𝑞0 𝑟 𝑞0
𝑞
𝐸 = 𝑘 2 𝑟Ƹ field due to point charge q
𝑟
• 𝒂 and 𝒄 : when a test charge 𝑞0 is placed near a source charge 𝑞, the test charge experiences a force 𝑭𝒆
• 𝒃 and 𝒅 : at point P near the source charge 𝑞, there exists an electric field 𝑬
• The electric field and the electric force are in the same direction.
• Electric field always points away from the positive charge and towards to negative charge.
• The electric and field at point P due to a group of source charges can be expressed as the vector sum and
is given by;
𝒒𝒊
𝑬 = 𝒌 σ𝒊 𝒓ො 𝑬 = 𝑬𝟏 + 𝑬𝟐 + 𝑬𝟑 + ⋯ (superposition principle)
𝒓𝒊 𝟐 𝒊
• where 𝑟𝑖 is the distance from the 𝑖th source charge 𝑞𝑖 to the point P and 𝒓ො 𝒊 is a unit vector directed from
𝑞𝑖 toward P.

Example 3:Two point charges are separated by a distance of 10𝑐𝑚. One has a charge of −25𝜇𝐶 and the
other +50𝜇𝐶.
a) Determine the magnitude and direction of the electric field at a point between the charges that it 2𝑐𝑚
from the negative charge .
b) If an electron is placed at rest at point P, calculate its initial acceleration and direction when released
from P.
Solution
a) The electric field at point P will be the vector sum of the fields (𝐸1 and 𝐸2 ) created separately by 𝑄1 and
𝑄2 respectively.
𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 = σ 𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸1 𝑠𝑖𝑛1800 + 𝐸2 𝑠𝑖𝑛1800 = 0 𝑁/𝐶

𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 = σ 𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸1 𝑐𝑜𝑠1800 + 𝐸2 𝑐𝑜𝑠1800

𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄1 𝑄2
= 𝑘 +𝑘 ]𝐶𝑜𝑠180° =𝑘 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠180°
𝑟1 2 𝑟2 2 𝑟1 2 𝑟2 2
25 𝑥 10−6 𝐶 50 𝑥 10−6 𝐶
= − 8.9976 𝑥 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2 ( + )= −𝟔. 𝟑𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝑵Τ𝑪
(2 𝑥 10−2 )2 𝑚2 (8 𝑥 10−2 )2 𝑚2
= 𝟔. 𝟑𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝑵Τ𝑪 𝒕𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 (left)
𝐹Ԧ 𝑞𝐸 1.6 𝑥 10−19 𝐶 𝑥 (6.3 𝑥 108 𝑁Τ𝐶)
b) 𝑎= = =
𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑒 9.11 𝑥 10−31 𝑘𝑔
= 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎 𝒎Τ𝒔𝟐 towards the +ve charge (𝑄2 )
Electric Field In Conductors
• A conductor is a material that allows electrons to move relatively freely from atom to atom.
• When a conductor acquires an excess charge, the excess charge moves about and distributes itself about the
conductor in such a manner as to reduce the total amount of repulsive forces within the conductor.
• Electrostatic equilibrium is the condition established by charged conductors in which the excess charge has
optimally distanced itself so as to reduce the total amount of repulsive forces
• If an electric field exist on the surface of a conductor (and inside of it), then the electric field would exert a
force on all electrons that were present there. This net force would begin to accelerate and move these
electrons. But objects at electrostatic equilibrium have no further motion of charge about the surface.
• When the conductor is placed in a electric field (Electric field is defined as the electric force per unit charge)
the field acts on the surface of the conductor as there are no free electrons inside the conductor.
• Therefore, the electric field inside a conductor zero.

• A conductor in electrostatic equilibrium has the following properties:

1. The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor, whether the conductor is solid or hollow.
2. If the conductor is isolated and carries a charge, the excess charge resides on its surface.
3. The electric field at a point just outside a charged conductor is perpendicular to the surface of the conductor.
A conductor placed in an electric field will be polarized. Figure shows the result of
placing a neutral conductor in an originally uniform electric field. The field becomes
stronger near the conductor but entirely disappears inside it.

Excess charge on a nonuniform conductor becomes most concentrated at the location of greatest curvature.
(a) The forces between identical pairs of charges at either end of the conductor are identical, but the
components of the forces parallel to the surface are different. It is F|| that moves the charges apart once
they have reached the surface.
(b) F|| is smallest at the more pointed end, the charges are left closer together, producing the electric field
shown.
(c) An uncharged conductor in an originally uniform electric field is polarized, with the most concentrated
charge at its most pointed end.
The absence of electric force or electric field inside a conductor may be used for electrostatic shielding.
Electric Field Lines
• A convenient way of visualizing electric field patterns is to draw lines, called electric field lines.
• Electric fields are represented by electric field lines whose direction, indicated by an arrowhead, is the
same as that of the electric field vector 𝑬
• The direction of the line is that of the force on a positive charge placed in the field.
• A field line is drawn tangential to the net field at a point. Thus at any point, the tangent to the electric
field line matches the direction of the electric field at that point
Properties of field lines
1. The start point of the field lines is at the positive charge and end at the negative charge.
2. The field lines never intersect each other.
3. The field lines are perpendicular to the surface of the charge.
4. The greater the number of field lines, the greater the magnitude of charge. Both are proportional to
each other.
5. Field lines are close together where the electric field is strong and far apart where the field is weak. That
is, the denser the field lines, the stronger the field.
6. The number of field lines depends on the charge. A greater charge has a lot of field lines than a weaker
charge.
Examples of field lines
a) Point charges – the field lines move away from a positive charge move towards a negative charge
b) Electric Dipole – An electric dipole consists of two equal charges (𝑞 + 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞−) separated by distance, 𝑑.
The direction of the electric field at any point is the tangent to the field line at that point. (shown by vector
arrow 𝑬 at point P)

Point charges Electric Dipole

c) Unequal charges – The number of field lines around the positive charge is
twice that on the negative

d) Identical charges – field stronger at A than at B since the lines are closer
(denser).
No field at C
Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Electric Field
• When a particle of charge 𝑞 and mass 𝑚 is placed in an electric field 𝑬, the electric force exerted on the
charge is given by 𝑭 = 𝒒𝑬
• If that is the only force exerted on the particle, it must be the net force, and it causes the particle to
accelerate according to the particle under a net force model.
𝑭 𝒒𝑬
• Therefore, 𝑭 = 𝒒𝑬 = 𝒎𝒂 so that 𝒂= =
𝒎 𝒎
• If 𝑬 is uniform (that is, constant in magnitude and direction), and the particle is free to move, the electric
force on the particle will be constant.
• Uniform electric field results in constant acceleration and also parallel equi-spaced field lines.
• If the particle has a positive charge, its acceleration is in the direction of the electric field. If the particle
has a negative charge, its acceleration is in the direction opposite the electric field.
• Two parallel charged plates separated by a distance 𝒅 and connected to voltage supply 𝑽 will produce a
uniform electric field 𝑬 given by: 𝑽
𝑬= (in 𝑁Τ𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 Τ𝑚 )
𝒅
Example 4:
An electron enters the region of a uniform electric field with 𝑣𝑖 = 3 𝑥 106 𝑚/𝑠 and 𝐸 = 200 𝑁/𝐶.
The horizontal length of the plates is 𝑙 = 0.100𝑚.
a) Find the acceleration of the electron while it is in the E field.
b) Assuming the electron enters the field at time 𝑡 = 0,
find the time at which it leaves the field.
c) Assuming the vertical position of the electron as it
enters the field is 𝑦𝑖 = 0, what is its vertical position
when it leaves the field?

SOLUTIONS
a) the acceleration of the electron is downward since it is attracted to the positive plate.

𝐹 𝑒 (−𝐸) 𝟏.𝟔𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑪 (−𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑵Τ𝑪)

𝑎𝑦 = = = = −𝟑. 𝟓𝟏𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝒎Τ𝒔𝟐
𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑒 𝟗.𝟏𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝒌𝒈
b) Since this is projectile motion, we will consider motion of the particle in the horizontal direction where
the horizontal velocity is always constant.
𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 𝑙 −0 0.1 𝑚
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 𝑡= = = = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒔
𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑥 3 𝑥 106 𝑚/𝑠

c) We consider motion of the particle in the vertical direction and analyze by modeling it as a particle
under constant acceleration.
1
𝑦𝑓 = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑣𝑦𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2
2

1
𝑦𝑓 = 0 + 0 + (−3.51𝑥1013 𝑚Τ𝑠 2 ) (3.33𝑥 10−8 𝑠)2
2

𝒚𝒇 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟗𝟓𝒎 = −𝟏. 𝟗𝟓𝒄𝒎

Electric Potential Energy, 𝑼, for a point charge
• When a single charge 𝑞 is placed in an electric field 𝑬 created by some source charge distribution, it will
experience an electric force 𝑞𝐸.
• If the charge is free to move, it will do so in response to the electric force. Therefore, the electric field
will be doing work on the charge.
• For an infinitesimal displacement 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ of a point charge 𝑞 within an electric field, the work done within
the charge–field system by the electric field on the charge is
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 that is 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹Ԧ · 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ = 𝑞𝐸 · 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ
• Recall that internal work done in a system is equal to the negative of the change in the potential energy
of the system: 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑡 = −∆𝑈
Therefore, as the single charge q is displaced, the electric potential energy of the charge–field system is
changed by an amount: 𝒅𝑼 = −𝑾 = −𝒒𝑬 · 𝒅𝒔
𝒊𝒏𝒕
• The change in electric potential energy of the system after a single charge moves an infinitely small
distance from A to B is given by: 𝑩
∆𝑼 = −𝒒 න 𝑬 · 𝒅𝒔
𝑨
Example
• From the figure shown, the change in electric potential energy occurs when a
positive charge 𝑞 moves from some point 𝑎 to another point 𝑏 and is equal to
the negative of the work done by the electric force as it moves from 𝑎 to 𝑏
• When the charge is released, the electric force will do work on the charge
and accelerate it towards the negative plate.
𝑈𝑏 − 𝑈𝑎 = −𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑡 = −𝐹𝑑 = −𝑞𝐸𝑑
• The potential energy decreases (∆𝑼 is negative) as the charge accelerates from
point a to point b (charge moves towards low potential energy)
• The potential energy is converted to kinetic energy and the total energy is
conserved
• The positive charge has greater potential energy when it is closer to the positive plate.
• The reverse is true for a negative charge, its potential energy is greatest near the negative plate
Potential Energy Due to Point Charges
• The electric potential energy of a pair of point charges can be found as follows:
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑼 = 𝑭𝒅 = 𝒌 𝒓𝟏𝟐 = 𝒌 (𝑟12 is distance between charges)
𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟐
• If the charges are of the same sign, then 𝑈 is positive. Positive work must be
done by an external agent on the system to bring the two charges near each
other (because charges of the same sign repel).
• If the charges are of opposite sign, then 𝑈 is negative. Negative work is done by an external agent
against the attractive force between the charges of opposite sign as they are brought near each other
• A force must be applied opposite the displacement to prevent 𝑞2 from accelerating toward 𝑞1 .
• If the system consists of more than two charged particles, the total potential energy of the system is
calculated for every pair of charges and summing the terms algebraically.

𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟑 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟑
• Total potential energy = 𝑈 = 𝑘 ( + + )
𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟑
Electric potential, 𝑽
• The electric potential is the amount of work done needed to move a unit electric charge from a reference
point to the specific point in an electric field. That is, work done per unit charge.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑼
• 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑽= (units are 𝐽Τ𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠)
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝒒

• Electric potential is a scalar quantity

• The potential difference ∆𝑽 = 𝑽𝑩 − 𝑽𝑨 between two points 𝐴 and 𝐵 in an electric field is defined as the
change in electric potential energy of the system when a charge 𝑞 is moved between the points divided
by the charge:
∆𝑼 𝑩
∆𝑽 = 𝑽𝑩 − 𝑽𝑨 = = − ‫( 𝒔𝒅 · 𝑬 𝑨׬‬for non-uniform 𝑬 field)
𝒒

• Potential difference is also called voltage.

• When the electric force (agent) does positive work on a charge, the kinetic energy increases and the
potential energy decreases.
• If the force moves the charge from 𝐴 to 𝐵 without changing the kinetic energy of the charge, the force
performs work that changes the potential energy of the system:
𝑾 = 𝒒∆𝑽
• SI unit of both electric potential and potential difference is 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏, which is defined as a
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕, 𝑽. 𝟏 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝒕 = 𝟏 𝑱Τ𝑪

• If the electric potential is known as a function of coordinates 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧, [ 𝑖𝑒 𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ] we can obtain

the components of the electric field by taking the negative partial derivative of the electric potential with
respect to the coordinates.
• For example, the x,y and z component of the electric field is given by:
𝒅𝑽 𝒅𝑽 𝒅𝑽
𝑬𝒙 = − 𝑬𝒚 = − 𝑬𝒛 = −
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛
• In a uniform electric field, the potential difference between two points 𝐴 and 𝐵 separated by a distance
d, where the displacement 𝒔 points from 𝐴 toward 𝐵 and is parallel to the field lines is given by:
𝑩
∆𝑽 = −𝑬 ‫ = 𝒔𝒅 𝑨׬‬−𝑬𝒅
• The negative sign indicates that the electric potential at point 𝐵 is lower than at point 𝐴; that is, 𝑉𝐴 > 𝑉𝐵
• The change in the potential energy of the charge–field system is given by:
∆𝑼 = 𝒒∆𝑽 = −𝒒𝑬𝒅
• This shows that if q is positive, then ∆𝑼 is negative and vice versa.
• Therefore, in a system consisting of a positive charge and an electric field, the
electric potential energy of the system decreases when the charge moves in the
direction of the field.
• When the positive charge is released from rest in this electric field, the electric
force will cause it to accelerates downward, gaining kinetic energy.
• As the charged particle gains kinetic energy, the electric potential energy of the
charge–field system decreases by an equal amount.
• Generally, in a uniform electric field, the magnitude of the potential difference is 𝑬𝒅 and the sign can be
determined by the direction of travel (whether in direction of field or opposite the field).
Electric Potential and Potential Energy Due to Point Charges
• An isolated positive point charge q produces an electric field directed radially outward from the charge.
• The electric potential at a point located a distance r from the charge is given by:
𝒒 𝒒
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝒌 𝟏 𝟐 𝒒
𝒓𝟏𝟐
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = V= =𝒌
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝒒 𝒓
• The electric potential resulting from two or more point charges is obtained by applying the superposition
principle where the total electric potential at some point P due to several point charges is the sum of the
potentials due to the individual charges:
𝒒𝒊 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟑
𝑽 = 𝒌 σ𝒊 =𝒌( + + + ⋯)
𝒓𝒊 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟑

• Generally, the potential at infinity (r ⟶ ∞) is zero.

Example 5
i) Calculate the electrical potential due to the two charges shown
at point a) A and b) B.
ii) Find the change in potential energy of the system of two charges
plus a third charge 𝑄3 = +30μ𝐶 as the latter charge moves from
infinity to point A.

Solutions
i) Total potential at A, 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐴1 + 𝑉𝐴2
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
= 𝒌 +
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐
50 𝑥 10−6 𝐶 −40 𝑥 10−6 𝐶
= 8.9976 𝑥 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2 +
0.6𝑚 0.3𝑚

= −𝟒. 𝟓𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑽
 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
Total potential at B, 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵1 + 𝑉𝐵2 = 𝒌 +
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐
50 𝑥 10−6 𝐶 −40 𝑥 10−6 𝐶
= 8.9976 𝑥 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2 + = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑽
0.4𝑚 0.4𝑚

ii) Let 𝑈𝑖 be the initial energy for the system in which the charge 𝑄3 is at infinity ie 𝑈𝑖 = 0 at infinity
since 𝑉 = 0 at infinity.
The potential energy at A is 𝑈𝑓 = 𝑄3 𝑉𝐴
The change of energy at point A, 𝑈𝐴 = 𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖 = 𝑄3 𝑉𝐴 − 0
= [ 30 𝑥 10−6 𝐶 −4.50 𝑥 105 𝑉 ] − 0
= −𝟏𝟑. 𝟓 𝑱
Since the potential energy of the system has decreased, an external agent has to do positive work
to remove the charge 𝑄3 from point A back to infinity
Equipotential Surface
• A surface on which all points are at the same electric potential.
• The equipotential surfaces are always perpendicular to the electric field lines passing through them.

• In all above cases, the equipotential surfaces (dashed blue lines) are perpendicular to the electric field
lines at every point.
Electric Potential Due to a Charged Conductor
• When a solid conductor in equilibrium carries a net charge, the charge resides on the conductor’s outer
surface.
• The electric field just outside the conductor is perpendicular to the surface and the field inside is zero.
• The electric potential inside the conductor is not necessarily zero even though the electric field is zero
• Consider two points 𝐴 and 𝐵 on the surface of a charged conductor as shown,
along a surface path connecting these points, 𝑬 is always perpendicular to the
displacement 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ therefore, 𝑬 · 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ = 0.
• Therefore the potential difference between 𝐴 and 𝐵 is necessarily zero:
𝐵
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = − ‫𝑠 𝑑 · 𝐸 𝐴׬‬Ԧ = 0
• Hence, surface of any charged conductor in electrostatic equilibrium is an
equipotential surface. That it every point on the surface of a charged conductor in
equilibrium is at the same electric potential.
• Since the electric field is zero inside the conductor, the electric potential is constant everywhere inside
the conductor and equal to its value at the surface.
• Consider a solid metal conducting sphere of radius R and total positive charge Q as shown.

a) The excess charge on a conducting sphere of radius R is uniformly

distributed on its surface.
b) Electric potential versus distance r from the center of the charged conducting
sphere. The surface of any charged conductor in electrostatic equilibrium is
an equipotential surface.
c) Electric field magnitude versus distance r from the center of the charged
conducting sphere. The electric field is zero inside the conductor.

• No work is required to move a test charge from the interior of a charged

conductor to its surface.