See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/370265051

On the Unification of the Planck & Gravitational Constants and the

Equivalence of Mass, Space, & Time

Preprint · April 2023

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.16035.73768/14

CITATIONS READS

0 330

1 author:

Paul McKay Easter

Fractal Source Research, Incorporated
7 PUBLICATIONS   0 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Paul McKay Easter on 01 May 2023.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 FSR
Article
On the Unification of the Planck & Gravitational Constants
and the Equivalence of Mass, Space, & Time
Paul McKay Easter 1*
Received: 4/24/2023
Revised: 4/27/2023
Published: 4/25/2023
Open Access: Submitted for open
access publication under the terms
and conditions of the Creative
Commons Attribution (CC BY)
license
(https://creativecommons.org/license
s/by/4.0/).
Physics - General Audience 2023 | http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.16035.73768/14
1 Fractal Source Research; info@fractalsource.org
* Correspondence: paul.easter@fractalsource.org; Tel.:907-328-9949
Abstract: The gravitational constant (G) was first measured by Henry Cavendish in 1798. Caven-
dish's experiment, known as the Cavendish experiment, involved a torsion balance to measure the
very small gravitational force between two masses. One hundred years later, in 1900, Max Planck
introduced the Planck constant (h). Planck derived the constant as part of his groundbreaking work
in quantum theory. The gravitational constant is used extensively within Albert Einstein's theory of
general relativity, while the Planck constant is of foundational importance in quantum mechanics.
However, these two fields of physics are fundamentally incompatible, and a coherent theory to
unify the two has been the Holy Grail of physics for nearly a century. Here, we show that the grav-
itational and Planck constants can be unified with the introduction of a new term, the energy stream
constant (ψ). As a result, the exact values of both constants can now be calculated using equations
𝜓 3𝜓
based on this term; for the gravitational constant (𝐺 = ), and the Planck constant (ℎ = ). Prior
𝑀𝑐𝑎 2 2𝑐
to the derivation of these equations, the value of both constants could only be realized through direct
measurement. Furthermore, the energy stream constant demonstrates that mass, space, and time
have energy equivalence. Just as mass can be represented as energy (𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 ), so can space and
time. The energy stream constant and its supporting equations represent the first concrete step to-
wards unifying general relativity and quantum mechanics.
Keywords: Physics; Theoretical Physics; Quantum Physics; General Relativity; Astrophysics, Uni-
fied Theory; Gravity; Planck Constant; Gravitational Constant
Introduction
Since their introduction, the values of gravitational and Planck constants have been
derived solely through direct measurement. While there are existing equations that can
be used to calculate their values, the terms used in these equations require direct meas-
urement or are themselves derived from the constants they are being used to calculate.
𝑔𝑟 2
For example, the gravitational constant can be calculated using the equation 𝐺 = 𝑚 ,
where m is the mass of Earth, r is the radius of Earth, and g is the acceleration of gravity
of the Earth. However, all of these terms require direct measurement or were calculated
using the gravitational constant. Furthermore, none of these terms carry a high-precision
2𝜋𝑒 2
value. In addition, the Planck constant can be calculated using the equation ℎ = 𝑘𝑒 ∙ 𝛼𝑐 ,
where 𝑘𝑒 is the Coulomb constant, e is the elementary charge, α is the fine structure con-
stant, and c is the speed of light. Here, the values of the elementary charge and the fine
structure constant are themselves derived using the Planck constant.
These definitions and equations seem to suggest that there is no direct connection
between the gravitational and Planck constants. Furthermore, the gravitational constant
does not appear to have any relationship or direct link with electric charge (e). However,
this paper will demonstrate that not only are these constants linked, but that the gravita-
tional constant can be calculated using terms related to electric charge. This will be ac-
complished using the energy stream constant (ψ). This paper will also discuss, in detail,
each step required for the derivation of the energy stream constant as well as present a
https://fractalsource.org/research
Physics – General Audience 2023 | Article | http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.16035.73768/14 2

coherent theory on what this constant represents. This includes the derivation of the en-
ergy equivalence of mass, space, and time.

The Planck Function

The Planck constant (h) links frequency (f) to energy (E) with the equation 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓.
Another way to describe this relationship is to say that the Planck constant converts fre-
quency to Energy. In other words, it is a function, as opposed to a fundamental constant
of the universe, such as the speed of light (c). This paper will show that the Planck constant
is a merely function that is the product of the energy stream constant (ψ) and an “oscillation
algorithm” defined as 𝜎 = (2⁄3 𝑐)−1 :
−1 3𝜓
ℎ = 𝜓 ∙ (2⁄3 𝑐) =
2𝑐
The Energy Stream Constant
The energy stream constant, denoted by the Greek letter psi (ψ), represents the en-
ergy unit density of electric charge. That is, it represents the energy ratio of the mass,
length (volume), and time units used to express electric charge. It is defined as the product
of the mass charge constant (𝑄𝑚 ) and the vacuum charge constant (𝑄𝑣 ) and has the units
𝑀∙𝐿3
of 2 . It is called the energy stream constant because its units express energy of/for one
𝑇
dimension (𝐸 ∙ 𝐿).
𝜓 = 𝑄𝑚 ∙ 𝑄𝑣
Alternatively, the value of the energy stream constant can be calculated using the
2𝜋𝑒 2
existing terms used to calculate the Planck constant (ℎ = 𝑘𝑒 ∙ 𝛼𝑐 ), as well as the equation
3𝜓
for the Planck function (ℎ = ). The results of these calculations will be used to verify the
2𝑐
derived values of the mass and vacuum charge constants.
4𝜋𝑒 2
𝜓 = 𝑘𝑒 ∙ = 1.32429723928062 ∙ 10−25 (𝑆𝐼 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
3𝛼
2ℎ𝑐
𝜓= = 1.32429723809933 ∙ 10−25 (𝑆𝐼 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
3
2ℎ𝑐
Interestingly, and to our knowledge, the term group ( ) has never been identified
3
or defined as representing any constant/term within physics, despite the fact that it is
2
simply the product of the Planck constant and the speed of light (and ); and as the above
3
equations demonstrate, this term group represents the energy stream constant. Further-
more, this value is equal to the energy of a photon with a wavelength of 1.5 units of length
ℎ𝑐
(𝐸 = ).
𝜆
The variance of these two calculated values (~0.0000000892%) is caused by a meas-
urement error in the fine structure constant (α). The exact value of the fine structure con-
stant can be calculated as follows:
𝛼 = (0.125215939 ∙ 3−1 )2 ∙ 4𝜋 ∙ 3−1
The Mass & Vacuum Charge Constants
The mass charge constant is defined as the energy ratio of the unit of mass to the unit
of time. Similarly, the vacuum charge constant is defined as the energy ratio of the volume
unit (defined as the cube of the length unit) to the time unit. These ratios are calculated
using the mass constant (𝑀𝑐𝑎 ), the length constant (𝐿𝑐𝑎 ), and the time constant (𝑇𝑐𝑎 ).
𝑀𝑐𝑎𝑠 𝐿𝑐𝑎𝑠 3
𝑄𝑚 = 𝑄𝑣 =
𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑠 𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑠
In order to calculate the value of these three constants, a set of units will be defined
that create a value of exactly 1 (one) for the energy stream constant (ψ). This set will consist
of one length unit, one mass unit, and one time unit. These units are part of a physics
framework called the Core Ant System (CAS). This system is very similar in both structure
and definition to the International System of Units (SI).
Physics – General Audience 2023 | Article | http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.16035.73768/14 3

The Core Ant System

The Core Ant System (CAS) is a high-precision physics framework which utilizes
balanced energy units. That is, the energy ratio of the mass/volume units to the time unit
is equal to exactly 1 (one). This is accomplished by setting the energy stream constant to 1
(one) and then deriving the units required to create that value. This paper will only define
and discuss the necessary constants and units of the CAS that are needed to derive the
energy stream constant (and its dependent constants).
The Light Element Ratio & the Speed of Light
The light element ratio (∝𝑙𝑒 ) is a fundamental dimensionless constant used through-
out the CAS. For example, it is used to derive the CAS speed of light (𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑠 ). The light ele-
ment ratio and the speed of light values are defined as follows:
𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = ∝𝑙𝑒 = 9 ∙ (2.87𝜋)−1
1⁄
𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑠 = ∝𝑙𝑒 ∙ ((4.5 ∙ 1015 )3 ∙ 10) 3

The CAS Time Unit

The time unit used within the CAS is the tick (denoted t) and is defined by the fre-
quency of the “hydrogen line”, which is the electromagnetic radiation spectral line that is
created by a change in the energy state of neutral hydrogen atoms. The hydrogen line
frequency and the tick are defined as follows:
1⁄
ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝜆𝐻𝐼−𝑐𝑎𝑠 ) = (1011 ) 6

ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (∆𝑣𝐻𝐼−𝑐𝑎𝑠 ) = 𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑠 ∙ (𝜆𝐻𝐼−𝑐𝑎𝑠 )−1

𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 (𝑡) → ∆𝑣𝐻𝐼−𝑐𝑎𝑠

The CAS Length & Mass Units
The length unit used within the CAS is the core ant (denoted ca). Its value is defined
by the CAS speed of light (the units of the CAS speed of light value are 𝑐𝑎⁄𝑡). The mass
unit used within the CAS is the core tenna (denoted ct), and its value is defined by the
3
Planck constant (ℎ = 2𝑐 ). The values of the core ant and core tenna are defined as follows:
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑐𝑎) → 𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑠
−1
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 (𝑐𝑡) → ℎ = (2⁄3 𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑠 )
Although this paper does not focus on the full details of the CAS, it is important to
point out the non-arbitrary nature of their units and unit definitions; coupled with the fact
that these units create an energy unit density of 1 (one). I.e., the energy stream constant.
Furthermore, the CAS creates a value of exactly 1 (one) for the gravitational constant. In
addition, these equations can be used to reduce and/or simplify other equations that uti-
lize these constants. For example, when the energy stream constant (ψ) is equal to 1 (one),
as is the case within the CAS, the equation for energy from wavelength is reduced to 𝐸 =
(2⁄3 𝜆)−1 .

The Mass, Length, and Time Constants

The SI mass, length, and time constants are defined as the SI unit ratios to these newly
defined CAS units. For example, the SI length constant (𝐿𝑐𝑎𝑠 ) is defined as the ratio of the
meter to the core ant. In addition, the SI mass constant (𝑀𝑐𝑎𝑠 ) is defined as the ratio of the
kilogram to the core tenna, and the SI time constant (𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑠 ) is defined as the ratio of the
second to the tick.
First, the time constant is calculated using the SI and CAS hydrogen line frequency
values (∆𝑣𝐻𝐼 ). Next, the length constant is calculated. There are several different methods
for calculating the length constant. This paper will use the SI and CAS speed of light (c)
and the time constant to calculate the length constant. Finally, the mass constant is
Physics – General Audience 2023 | Article | http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.16035.73768/14 4

calculated using the SI and CAS Planck constant values (h) as well as the length and time
constant. The calculations and values are as follows:
∆𝑣𝐻𝐼−𝑐𝑎𝑠
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑠 ) = = 1.00002551671048 ∙ 105 𝑠
∆𝑣𝐻𝐼−𝑆𝐼
𝑐𝑆𝐼
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝐿𝑐𝑎𝑠 ) = ∙ 𝑇 = 3.09795565912096 ∙ 10−3 𝑚
𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑠
ℎ𝑆𝐼
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑀𝑐𝑎𝑠 ) = ∙ 𝐿 −2 ∙ 𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑠 = 4.45432646731351 ∙ 10−8 𝑘𝑔
ℎ𝑐𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑠
The Calculations
With the unit constants defined, the mass charge, vacuum charge, and energy stream
constants can be calculated for the SI units:
𝑀𝑐𝑎𝑠
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑄𝑚 ) = = 4.45421281045481 ∙ 10−13
𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑠
𝐿𝑐𝑎𝑠 3
𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑄𝑣 ) = = 2.97313418656373 ∙ 10−13
𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑠

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝜓) = 𝑄𝑚 ∙ 𝑄𝑣 = 1.32429723809933 ∙ 10−25

This calculated value for the energy stream constant (using the mass and vacuum
charge constants) is exactly equal to the value calculated using the elementary charge and
the fine structure constant. And now that the value for the energy stream constant has
been derived and verified, the Planck and gravitational constants can be calculated:
3𝜓
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (ℎ) = = 6.62607015 ∙ 10−34
2𝑐
𝜓
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝐺) = = 6.67454068692981 ∙ 10−11
𝑀𝑐𝑎𝑠 2
The defined SI value of the Planck constant (h) is 6.62607015 ∙ 10−34 , which is exactly
equal to the calculated value. The current recommended CODATA value for the gravita-
tional constant (G) is equal to 6.67430(15) ∙ 10−11 , which varies from the calculated value
by ~.0036%. Note that the value for the gravitational constant of the CAS is equal to ex-
actly 1 (one).

The Structure of the Gravitational Constant

The Coulomb constant (𝑘𝑒 ), as used within the SI system, is a constant of unit con-
version and can be described as the ratio of the energy stream constant to the square of
electric charge (the Coulomb (C)). The gravitational constant has the same unit structure
as the Coulomb constant and can be defined as the ratio of the energy stream constant to
the square of the mass constant (𝑀𝑐𝑎𝑠 ):
𝑀 ∙ 𝐿3 𝑀 ∙ 𝐿3
𝐺= 𝑇 ⁄
2
𝑘𝑒 = 𝑇 ⁄𝐶 2
2
𝑀𝑐𝑎𝑠 2
Both of these constants define a relationship with electric charge (specifically, the
square of electric charge). Therefore, because the energy stream constant is an expression
of electric charge, then the gravitational constant describes a relationship between electric
charge and mass. However, this does not necessarily show that gravity is the result of
electromagnetic interaction, just that electric charge is a component of its effects.

Energy Unit Ratios & Energy Equivalence

We propose that the energy stream constant represents the energy ratio of the units
used to express electric charge (and subsequently energy). These ratios are defined by the
mass charge constant and the vacuum charge constant, and their units express a ratio of
mass to time (𝑀 ∙ 𝑇 −1 ) and volume to time (𝐿3 ∙ 𝑇 −1 ), respectively. As expressions of energy
ratios, these equations show that mass, space, and time must all have energy equivalence.
Physics – General Audience 2023 | Article | http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.16035.73768/14 5

It is this equivalence that allows electric charge to be expressed exclusively in terms of

mass and time as well as volume and time. Without it, the mass charge constant and the
1 3
vacuum charge constant would both need to be expressed in the units of 𝑀2 ∙ 𝐿2 ∙ 𝑇 −1 ,
which are the same dimensions as the statcoulomb unit of charge (statC).
This equivalence also allows space and time to be treated as mass in equations that
quantify energy (i.e., 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 ). This requires the introduction of an additional constant,
the vacuum density (𝜌𝑣 ), which is defined by the mass and length constants.
𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝜌𝑣 = 𝑀𝑐𝑎𝑠 ∙ 𝐿𝑐𝑎𝑠 −3
The vacuum density constant is the proportionality constant of mass to space. This
constant effectively converts space to mass. The equations for energy and frequency of
time use the mass charge constant (𝑄𝑚 ) as its proportionality constant. The relativistic
equations for deriving the energy equivalence (𝐸) and frequency (𝑓) of space and time are
as follows:
𝐸𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑙 3 𝜌𝑣 𝑐 2 ∙ 𝛾 𝐸𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑡𝑄𝑚 𝑐 2 ∙ 𝛾

2𝑙 3 𝜌𝑣 𝑐 3 2𝑡𝑄𝑚 𝑐 3
𝑓𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 = ∙𝛾 𝑓𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = ∙𝛾
3𝜓 3𝜓
Where 𝑙 3 is the volume of space, 𝑡 is time, 𝜌𝑣 is the vacuum density constant, 𝑄𝑚 is the
mass charge constant, 𝜓 is the energy stream constant, and 𝛾 is the Lorentz factor. The
non-relativistic equations for energy and frequency are identical to these, except the Lo-
rentz factor term is omitted.
In addition to energy, space (and time) can also be represented as momentum. The
properties of such vacuum momentum become interesting when considering the observed
effects of so-called dark matter (as a consequence of this momentum). Furthermore, vac-
uum momentum creates negative force when space expands near mass. That is, time dila-
tion created by the presence of mass slows the relative rate of expansion of space (relative
to the space expanding at a further distance away from the mass). This “compresses” the
space around the mass. This compression appears to be the force known as gravity.

Conclusion
Within this paper, we have shown that the Planck constant is not a fundamental con-
stant, but rather a function of energy density (of units) and the speed of light (c). Further-
more, we have shown that not only can the value of Planck constant be derived from an
equation using the energy stream constant (ψ) and the speed of light, but the gravitational
constant can be calculated using the same energy stream constant. In addition, the results
of these calculations carry an unprecedented level of precision.
Finally, the equivalence of mass, space, and time can be logically derived from the
strucutre and value of these constants and equations. The implications of this equivalence
are far reaching and groundbreaking. For example, if space and time can be represented
as energy, then space and time can also be quantized. The energy stream constant repre-
sents a breakthrough in physics on a scale not seen since the introduction of special rela-
tivity (𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 ).

Tables: Constant Values

Table 1. This table displays the SI constant values used within the calculations presented in this
paper.

Symbol Quantity Value

c Speed of light [1] 2.99792458 ∙ 108
h Planck constant [2] 6.62607015 ∙ 10−34
G Gravitational constant1 6.67454068692981 ∙ 10−11
G Gravitational constant2 [3] 6.67430[00000000] ∙ 10−11
e Elementary charge [4] 1.602176634 ∙ 10−19
Physics – General Audience 2023 | Article | http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.16035.73768/14 6

α Fine structure constant1 7.29735256262484 ∙ 10−3

α Fine structure constant2 [5] 7.2973525693[000] ∙ 10−3
𝑘𝑒 Coulomb constant1 8.98755178406698 ∙ 10−3
𝑘𝑒 Coulomb constant2 [6] 8.9875517923[00] ∙ 10−3
Δv𝐻𝐼 Hydrogen line frequency1 [7] 1.42040493380037 ∙ 109
𝐿𝑐𝑎𝑠 Length constant 3.09795565912096 ∙ 10−3
𝑀𝑐𝑎𝑠 Mass constant 4.45432646731351 ∙ 10−8
𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑠 Time constant 1.00002551671048 ∙ 105
𝜌𝑣 Vacuum density 1.49815397858072 ∙ 100
𝑄𝑚 Mass charge constant 4.45421281045481 ∙ 10−13
𝑄𝑣 Vacuum charge constant 2.97313418656373 ∙ 10−13
𝜓 Energy stream constant 1.32429723809933 ∙ 10−25
1 Adjusted using verified value of the energy stream constant.
2 Recommended CODATA value.

Table 2. This table displays the Core Ant System (CAS) constant values used within the calculations
presented in this paper.

Symbol Quantity Value

c Speed of light 9.67735309040617 ∙ 1015
h Planck constant 1.55001061342595 ∙ 10−16
G Gravitational constant 1
e Elementary charge 4.17386463333333 ∙ 10−2
α Fine structure constant1 7.29735256262484 ∙ 10−3
𝑘𝑒 Coulomb constant 1
Δv𝐻𝐼 Hydrogen line frequency 1.42044117786184 ∙ 1014
𝐿𝑐𝑎𝑠 Length constant 1
𝑀𝑐𝑎𝑠 Mass constant 1
𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑠 Time constant 1
𝜌𝑣 Vacuum density 1
𝑄𝑚 Mass charge constant 1
𝑄𝑣 Vacuum charge constant 1
𝜓 Energy stream constant 1
1 Adjusted using verified value of the energy stream constant.

References
[1] The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty, "2018 CODATA Value: speed of light in vacuum," NIST, 20 May 2019. [Online].

Available: https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?c. [Accessed 25 April 2023].

[2] The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty, "2018 CODATA Value: Planck constant," NIST, 20 May 2019. [Online]. Available:

https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?h. [Accessed 25 April 2023].

[3] The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty, "2018 CODATA Value: Newtonian constant of gravitation," NIST, 20 May 2019.

[Online]. Available: https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?bg. [Accessed 25 April 2023].

[4] The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty, "2018 CODATA Value: elementary charge," NIST, 20 May 2019. [Online]. Available:

https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?e. [Accessed 25 April 2023].

[5] The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty, "2018 CODATA Value: fine-structure constant," NIST, 20 May 2019. [Online].

Available: https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?alph. [Accessed 25 April 2023].

[6] The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty, "vacuum electric permittivity," NIST, 20 May 2019. [Online]. Available:

https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?ep0. [Accessed 25 April 2023].

Physics – General Audience 2023 | Article | http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.16035.73768/14 7

[7] NIST Physical Measurement Laboratory / Time and Frequency Division, "Time and Frequency from A to Z, H," NIST, 1 March 2023. [Online].

Available: https://www.nist.gov/pml/time-and-frequency-division/popular-links/time-frequency-z/time-and-frequency-z-h. [Accessed 25 April

2023].

View publication stats