GROUP 2

LEAR N I N G
 Understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and
preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals, and
some machines. There is strategy that we can use to understand and
monitor our skills in learning. Learning is a change in behavior or in
potential behavior that occurs as a result of experience.

THREE MAJOR TYPES OF LEARNING

 Classical Conditioning
 Operant Conditioning
 Observational Learning
Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
 Ivan Pavlov’s research on the digestive system of dogs unexpectedly led to
his discovery of the learning process now known as classical conditioning.
Pavlov (1927) observed that the dogs began to salivate not only at the taste
of food, but also at the sight of food, at the sight of an empty food bowl,
and even at the sound of the laboratory assistants' footsteps. Salivating to
food in the mouth is reflexive, so no learning is involved.
CONDITIONED EMOTIONAL REPONSE
 can be used to describe either a particular learned behavior or a method
frequently employed in Pavlovian or classical conditioning studies. It can
also be referred to as "conditioned fear response" or "conditioned
suppression.”
Cognitive psychologists explain the classical conditioning as the process of
learning a behavior in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an
unrelated unconditioned stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus will eventually
elicit the same response from the neutral stimulus.

 The discovery of classical conditioning happened by chance. When

studying dog digestion, Pavlov noticed that the dogs' physical responses to
food gradually changed over time. The dogs initially only slobbered when
their food was presented to them. Later, however, prior to receiving their
food, they slightly salivated. Pavlov noticed that they were drooling in
response to sounds that were always present before the food arrived, such
as the sound of an approaching food cart.
THORNDIKE and OPERANT CONDITIONING
 Shortly before Pavlov’s research, Edward L. Thorndike (1911/1970), a
Harvard graduate student, began training cats in a basement. Saying that
earlier experiments had dealt only with animal intelligence, not animal
stupidity, he sought a simple behaviorist explanation of learning. He put
cats into puzzle boxes from which they could escape by pressing a lever,
pulling a string, or tilting a pole.
GROUP 3 The Atkinson and Shiffrin modal model of memory was first developed by
Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968. Atkinson and Shiffrin believed that
MEMORY
once information enters the brain, it must be either stored or maintained and that
WHAT IS MEMORY? the information which is stored goes into three distinct memory systems:

- the ability to take in, solidify, store, and use information; also the store of what
has been learned and remembered.
THREE STAGES OF MEMORY
1. ENCODING
 consist of placing a fact in memory.
 the process by which the brain attends to takes in and integrates new
information.
 is a verbal material, the dominant long-term memory representation is
neither acoustic nor visual; instead, it is based on the meaning of item.
2. STORAGE
 the facts are retained in memory
3. RETRIEVAL 1. SENSORY STORE MEMORY

 occurs when the fact is recovered  perceived and retains information that is received via the five senses for a
 is the process of getting information out of memory. very short number of time/ few seconds.
 Many cases loss forgetting from long-term memory result from loss access  Every sense has sensory register, but the only two that researchers have
to the information rather than from loss of the information itself. studied well are echoic memory (hearing) and iconic memory (visual)

EVIDENCE FOR RETRIEVAL FAILURE 2. SHORT - TERM MEMORY

 is where the information is in long term memory but cannot be accessed.  also called ‘’working memory’’
Such information is said to be available (i.e. it is still stored) but not  temporary stores a limited amount of information before it is either
accessible (i.e. it cannot be retrieved). transferred to long-term storage or forgotten (2 to 20 seconds)

Example: 3. LONG-TERM MEMORY

 having a word or name at the tip of the tongue but not being able to recall
it is an example of retrieval failure.
 has the capacity to store a vast amount of information for as little seconds
and as long as a lifetime. It is involved when information has to be
retained for interval as brief as a few minutes (such as a point made earlier
in a conversation) or as long as a lifetime (such as an adult's childhood
memories).
TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY
IMPLICIT MEMORY
 often referred to as nondeclarative memory, does not require the conscious
or explicit recollection of past events or information, and the individual is
unaware that remembering has occurred
 A kind of memory made up of knowledge based on previous experience,
such as skills that we perform automatically once we have mastered them.
PROCEDURAL MEMORY-
 a kind of memory made up of implicit knowledge for almost any behavior
or physical skills we have learned. SPERLING'S EXPERIMRNTS: THE PARTIAL-REPORT EXPERIMENT
In 1960, George Sperling published a seminal paper based on his Harvard
doctoral dissertation. Sperling began with the observation that when people were
CONCEPTUAL IMPLICIT MEMORY briefly presented with the large amount of information - say 12 digits typically
could only report about 4 or 5 of the digits. This amount, known as the span of
 demonstrated when, in the absence of explicit retrieval, performance on a
apprehension, had been known for almost a century and was assumed to represent
task requiring conceptual processing benefits more from prior conceptual
the maximum amount of information a person could acquire from such an
encoding than from prior nonconceptual encoding.
informational array. The first was that they were able to see more than they could
IMPLICIT MEMORY IN NORMAL INDIVIDUALS report but that they quickly forgot it. "By the time we are able to write down 4 or 5
digits’, they complain, 'we can't remember the rest of the display anymore". The
 studies using normal individuals also suggest that there are separated second intuition was that the image of the display appeared to persist longer than
system for explicit memories. the display itself.
EXPLICIT OR DECLARATIVE MEMORY
 conscious recall or facts and events.
SENMANTIC MEMORY
 a form of memory that recalls facts ang general knowledge, such as what
we learn in school
EPISODIC MEMORY
 the form of memory that recalls the experiences we have.
 CURRENT CONCEPTIONS OF WORKING MEMORY
 The existence of both phonological and visual codes led researchers to
argue that working memory consists of several distinct workspace of
buffers.
 One system is for storing and operating upon information and one acoustic
code. Information in this system may be rapidly forgotten but may be
maintained indefinitely through the process of rehearsal.
 A second is referred to as the visual-spatial sketchpad, which holds and
operates upon visual or spatial information.
 For example, try to figure out whether each object in the left or does not
match each of the right panel counterparts, that is whether the two objects
are identical or are mirror images of one another.

WORKING MEMORY
ENCODING

❖ Phonological Coding

 When information is encoded into memory it is entered in a certain code or

representation.
For example, when you look up a phone number and retain it until you have dialed
it, in what form do you represent the digits? is the representation visual- a mental
feature of the digits? is it phonological- the sounds of the names of the digits?
Research indicates that we can use both of these possibilities to encode
information into working memory, although we favor phonological code when we
are trying to keep the information active through rehearsal that is, by repeating an
item over and over.
❖ FORGETTING
Rehearsal is a particularly popular strategy when the information consists of
verbal items such as digits letters or words.  Information in working memory may simply decay as time passes. We
may think of the representation of an item as a trace that fades within a
❖ Visual Coding matter of seconds.
 The visual code in working memory, then is something short of a  One of the best pieces of evidence for this hypothesis is that our working
photograph. This makes complete sense when we think back about how memory span holds fewer words when the words take longer to say;
the retina of the eye is organized. The higher resolution central fovea
allows detailed perception only of the Central area of the scene.
  for example, the span is this for long words such as "harpoon" and
"cyclone" then for shorter words such as "cat" and "pen" try saying the
words to yourself to see the difference in duration.
 Presumably this effect arises because as the words are presented we say
them to ourselves, and the longer it takes to do this the more likely it is
that some of the words will have that faded before they can be recalled
(Braddeley Thompson and Buchanan 1975).

❖ RETRIEVAL

 A requires a search of working memory in which the items are examined

one at a time. This search presumably operates at a rate of 40 milli-seconds
per item, which is too fast for people to be aware of it (Sternberg, 1966).
 However, thinking of working memory assist of activation leads to a
different interpretation of their results. Retrieval of an item and working
memory may depend on the activation of that item reaching a critical level.
 That is one decides that a probe is in working memory if it is above a
critical level of activation and the more items there are in working
memory, the less activation there is for any one of them. (Monsell 1979)
WORKING MEMORY AND THOUGHT
 Working memory place and important role in thought. When consciously
trying to solve a problem, we often use working memory to store parts of
the problem as well as information accessed from long-term memory that
is relevant to the problem.
 It’s also crucial for language processes like following a conversation or
reading a text when reading a text. When reading for understanding, often
we must consciously relate new sentences to some prior material in the
text.
 This relating of new to old seems to occur working memory because
people you have more working memory capacity score higher than the
other on reading comprehensions test (Daneman and Carpenter, 1980; Just
and Carpenter, 1992)
DIVISION OF BRAIN LABOR BETWEEN WORKING
MEMORY AND LONG TERN MEMORY
 It has been known for some time that working memory and long-term
memory are implemented by somewhat different brain structures.
 The hippocampus a structure located near the middle of the brain beneath
the cortex, is critical for long term memory but not for working memory.
Much of the relevant evidence comes from experiments with monkeys and
other non-human species.
 Experiment with the hippocampus and surrounding brain areas support a
qualitative distinction between working memory and long-term memory.
INTERFERENCE
 is a memory phenomenon in which some memories interfere with the
retrieval of other memories.
FORGETTING: LOSS OF INFORMATION FROM STORAGE
 forgetting can be described as the loss of information that is already stored
in an individual's long-term memory. This process can happen immediately
or over the course of time and results in the inability to recall old
memories from where they are stored.
INTERACTION BETWEEN ENCOURAGING AND RETRIEVAL
 in describing the encoding stage, we noted the operation carried out
during, such as elaboration make retrieval easier.
Two Factors Increase Chance of Successful Retrieval
(a). Organizing the information of the time of encoding.
(b). Ensuring the context in which information is encode is similar to that in which
it will be retrieved.
FIVE DISTINCT OF EMOTIONAL FACTORS IN FORGETTING
REHEARSAL
 the simplest idea is that we tend to think about emotionally charge
situation, negative as well as positive.
RETRIEVAL INTERFERENCE VIA ANXIETY
 The cases in which negative emotion hinder retrieval, which bring us to
the third way emotion can affect memory
AMNESIA
 refers to the loss of memories, including facts, information and
experiences.
MEMORY IN AMNESIA
 Much of what is known about implicit memory has been learned from
people who suffers amnesia, or partial loss memory.
 Amnesia may result from very different causes, including accidental
injuries to the brain, stroke, encephalitis, alcoholism, electroconvulsive
shock, and surgical procedures.
SECONDARY SYMPTOMS OF AMNESIA
 is ability to remember events that occurred prior to the injury of disease.

FLASHBULB MEMORY SKILLS AND PRIMARY

 a vivid, enduring memory associated with a personally significant and -STRIKING

emotional event, often including such details as where the individual was
 aspect of amnesia is that not all kind of memory are disrupted
or what he or she was doing at the time of the event.
CHILDHOOD AMNESIA
REPRESSION
 One of the most stinking aspects of human memory is what everyone
 Which emotion can influence memory rely on principle already discussed.
suffers from a particular kind of amnesia.
CONTEXT EFFECTS
CONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY
 Emotion may also affect memory through a context effect.
 a type of recollection characterized by the utilization of basic insights
retained in the memory to build a more thorough and intricate report of an
experience of occurrence.
CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS AT THE TIME OF MEMORY ENCODING
 Memory encoding refers to process that occurred at the time that the long-
term memory representation of some event is being established.
TWO TYPES OF ENCODING
❖ INITIAL PERCEPTION
 (transfer of information into short term memory) and then whether process
are entailed in the transfer of information from short-term memory in to
long-term memory.
❖ CONSTRUCTIVE PERCEPTION,
 is the theory of perception in which the perceiver uses sensory information
and other sources of information to construct a cognitive understanding of
a stimulus.
Perceptual interference
 emerged when proper mapping between analogically matching objects was
incoherent with their perceptual features.
Generation of interference
 as we have pointed-out, perception is not sufficient to form a lasting
memory of some event.
POST-EVENT MEMORY RECONSTRUCTION
 Post-event Information Reconstructive theories of memory also claim that
people rely on information obtained after the event to reconstruct their
past. Information obtained after an event is known as postevent
information. Internally generated inference - in which people can make
inference which they incorporate into their memory.
Schemas
 a term used to refer to a mental representation of a class of people, object,
event, or situation.
Stereotypes
 on which we will focus momentarily, are kind of schema because they
present class of people (for example women and athlete's).
 Internally provided suggestions
Post-event reconstruction
 may also occur as a result of information provided by others.
CONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY AND LEGAL SYSTEM
Constructive memory
 is particularly important in the legal system where cases are frequently
won or lost, and defendant are or are not meted out punishment ranging
from prison sentence to death on the basis of a witness's memory of what
did or did not happen.
Confidence and accuracy
 A scientist studying memory in the scientific laboratory has the luxury of
knowing whether a particular's memory is correct and incorrect.
SUGGESTIVE INFORMATION AND CHILDHOOD MEMORIES
 Young children appear to be particularly susceptible to suggestive
information, particularly while they are being interviewed, Ceci and Bruck
(1993) describe of variety of studies demonstrating kind of suggestibility.
Force Confession's
 A growing body of work has demonstrated that interrogation technique
carried out by police and other investigation have been able to produce
genuinely false memories of crime that the suspect can be objectively
shown not to have committed.
Memory error and normal memory
 As the previous section, illustrates, memory is often far from accurate
recently psychologist and neurologist and neuroscientist have begun an
attempt to delineate the various mechanism.
IMPROVING MEMORY
CHUNKING AND MEMORY SPAN
 Chunking describes the process by which individual pieces of information
are broken down and grouped together.
 Also related to another aspect of memory known as memory span or digit
span (the latter term derives from tests that measure memory span by
asking people to repeat back a list of digits that increase incrementally).
 Although we cannot increase capacity of working memory, we can use
recording schemes to enlarge the size of a chunk and thereby increase
memory span.
IMAGERY AND ENCODING
 We can improve the recall of unrelated items by adding meaningful
connections between them at the time of encoding, for these connections
will facilitate later retrieval. Mental images have been found to be
particularly useful for connecting pairs of unrelated items, and for this
reasons imagery is the major ingredient in many mnemonic systems, or
systems for aiding memory.
ORGANIZATION
 Organization during encoding improves subsequent retrieval. These
principles can be put to great practical use. We are capable of storing and
retrieving a massive amount of information if we organize it appropriately.
 Other way to improve encoding (and subsequent retrieval) are to elaborate
the meaning of the items and to organize the material during encoding
(hierarchical organization seems preferable).
PRACTICING RETRIEVAL
 Another way to improve retrieval is to practice it - that is to ask yourself
questions about what you are trying to learn.
Practicing Retrieval may be useful in implicit memory situations. The procedure,
referred to as mental practice, consists of imagining the rehearsals of a perceptual
motor skill without moving any part of the body.
Example:
You might imagine yourself swinging at a tennis ball, making mental connections
when the imagined swing seems faulty, without moving your arm.

 Imagery is also used in the key - word method for learning words in a Mental practice
foreign language.  can improve performance of the skill, particularly if the mental practice is
interspersed with actual physical practice ( Swets and Bjork, 1990).
 one way to improve encoding and retrieval is to use imagery, which is the
basic principle underlying mnemonic system such as the method of loci
and the keyword method.
ELABORATION AND ENCODING
 The more elaborate items, the more can subsequently recall or recognize
them. This phenomenon arises because the more connections we establish
between items, the larger the member of retrieval possibilities.
CONTEXT AND ENCODING
 Context is a powerful retrieval cue; we can improve our memory by
restoring the context in which the learning took place.
GROUP 4
Cognition: thinking, intelligence and language
Cognition
 Cognition refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring, processing,
storing, and using information. It encompasses a wide range of mental
activities, including perception, attention, memory, reasoning, problem-
solving, decision-making, and language comprehension. Cognitive
psychology is the branch of psychology that studies cognition.
THINKING
 Thinking is a process of mental activity that involves the manipulation of
mental representations, such as concepts, images, and symbols. It includes
processes like perception, memory, attention, and problem-solving. The
study of thinking is often integrated with the study of cognition.
 Thinking, or cognition (from a Latin word meaning “to know”), can be
defined as mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is
processing information—organizing it, understanding it, and
communicating it to others. Thinking includes memory, but it is much
more. When people think, they are not only aware of the information in the
brain but also are making decisions about it, comparing it to other
information, and using it to solve problems.
 Thinking also includes more than just a kind of verbal “stream of
consciousness.” When people think, they often have images as well as
words in their minds.
HOW PEOPLE THINK?
MENTAL IMAGES
 Mental images are representation for objects or events used in mental
activities
 (Representations that stand in for objects or events and have a picture like
quality) are one of several tools used in the thought process.
Concept
 Concepts are ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or
activities.
 People use concepts to think about objects or events without having to
think about all the specific examples of the category.
 Concepts not only contain the important features of the objects or events
people want to think about, but also they allow the identification of new
objects and events that may fit the concept.
For example, dogs come in all shapes, sizes, colors, and lengths of fur. Yet most
people have no trouble recognizing dogs as dogs, even though they may never
before have seen that particular breed of dog. Friends of the author have a dog
called a briard, which is a kind of sheepdog. In spite of the fact that this dog is
easily the size of a small pony, the author had no trouble recognizing it as a dog,
albeit a huge and extremely shaggy one.
PROBLEM-SOLVING AND DECISION-MAKING STRATEGIES
 Problem solving occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and
behaving in certain ways. Problems range from figuring out how to cut a
recipe in half to understanding complex mathematical proofs to deciding
what to major in at college. Problem solving is one aspect of decision
making, or identifying, evaluating, and choosing among several
alternatives.
Several different ways in which people can think in order to solve problems.
Trial and Error (Mechanical Solutions)
 Trial and error refer to trying one solution after another until finding one
that works.
Algorithms
 Algorithms are specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types
of problems. Algorithms will always result in a correct solution, if there is
a correct solution to be found, and you have enough time to find it.
Heuristics Three of the most common barriers to successful problem solving
 A heuristic, or “rule of thumb,” is a simple rule that is intended to apply to Functional Fixedness
many situations. Whereas an algorithm is very specific and will always
 One problem-solving difficulty involves thinking about objects only in
lead to a solution, a heuristic is an educated guess based on prior
terms of their typical uses, which is a phenomenon called functional
experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem.
fixedness (literally, “fixed on the function”).
Representativeness Heuristic
Mental Sets
 a representativeness heuristic is used for categorizing objects and simply
 Functional fixedness is a kind of mental set, which is defined as the
assumes that any object (or person) that shares characteristics with the
tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have
members of a particular category is also a member of that category. The
worked for them in the past. Solutions that have worked in the past tend to
representativeness heuristic can cause errors due to ignoring base rates, the
be the ones people try first, and people are often hesitant or even unable to
actual probability of a given event.
think of other possibilities.
Availability Heuristic
Confirmation Bias
 Another heuristic that can have undesired outcomes is the availability
 Another barrier to effective decision making or problem solving is
heuristic, which is based on our estimation of the frequency or likelihood
confirmation bias, the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s
of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from
beliefs while ignoring any evidence to the contrary.
memory or how easy it is for us to think of related examples
CREATIVITY
Working Backward
 Not every problem can be answered by using information already at hand
 A useful heuristic that does work much of the time is to work backward
and the rules of logic in applying that information. Sometimes a problem
from the goal.
requires coming up with entirely new ways of looking at the problem or
Subgoals unusual, inventive solutions. This kind of thinking is called creativity:
solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways
 Sometimes it’s better to break a goal down into subgoals, so that as each
subgoal is achieved, the final solution is that much closer. CONVERGENT THINKING
Insight  The logical method for problem solving that has been discussed so far is
based on a type of thinking called convergent thinking. In convergent
 When the solution to a problem seems to come suddenly to mind, it is
thinking, a problem is seen as having only one answer and all lines of
called insight.
thinking will eventually lead to (converge on) that single answer by using
In summary, thinking is a complex process involving the use of mental previous knowledge and logic
imagery and various types of concepts to organize the events of daily life. Problem
DIVERGENT THINKING
solving is a special type of thinking that involves the use of many tools, such as
trial-and-error thinking, algorithms, and heuristics, to solve different types of  Divergent thinking is the reverse of convergent thinking. Here a person
problems starts at one point and comes up with many different, or divergent, ideas or
possibilities based on that point

INTELLIGENCE
 The psychologists define "intelligence" as the ability to learn from one's
experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting
to new situations or solving problems.
Charles Spearman
 saw intelligence as two different abilities. G Factor (general intelligence)
is the ability to reason and solve problems while S Factor (specific
intelligence) is the task- specific abilities in certain areas such as music,
business or art.
HOWARD GARDNER
 Is one of the later theorists to propose the existence of several kins of
intelligence. He originally listed seven different kinds of intelligence but
later added an eighth type and then a tentative ninth.
GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
ROBERT STERNBERG
 He is the one who is theorized that there are three kinds of intelligence.
Called the TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE, this theory
includes analytical, creative, and practical intelligence
STERNBERG’s triarchic theory of intelligence
ANALYTICAL INTELLIGENCE
 Refers to the ability to break problems down into component parts, or
analysis, for problem solving. This is the type of intelligence that is
measured by intelligence tests and academic achievement tests, or “book
smarts” as some people like to call it.
CREATIVE INTELLIGENCE
The ability to deal with new different concepts and to come up with new ways of
solving problems. It is also referring to the ability to automatically process certain
aspects of information, which frees up cognitive resources to deal with novelty.
PRACTICAL INTELLIGENCE
The ability to use information to get along in life. People with a high degree of
practical intelligence know how to be tactful, how to manipulate situations to their
advantage, and how to use inside information to increase their odds of success.
MEASURING INTELLIGENCE
Alfred Binet (BEE NAY)
He was a French psychologist who is credited with inventing the first
reliable intelligence test. Binet is routinely considered one of the most
influential psychologists in history, largely as a result of his pioneering work in
measuring intelligence.
BINET’S MENTAL ABILITY TEST
Binet's work on intelligence began in 1904 when the French
government commissioned him to develop a test that would identify learning
disabilities and other academic weaknesses in grade-school students. At the
time, many students in the French education system showed signs of needing
additional help with their studies. Binet, with the help of a colleague named
Theodore Simon, took up the daunting task of trying to measure the mental
abilities of students
By 1905, Binet and Simon developed their first in a series of tests
designed to measure intelligence. It was simply called the Binet-Simon Scale.
The scale included 30 tasks that were progressive in their difficulty. Some of
the easiest tasks required students to follow commands or repeat simple
sentences. More difficult tasks included constructing sentences from given
words or drawing images from memory. This test was given to students in
Paris and acted as the reference point for future versions of the intelligence
test.
They noticed that the fast learners seemed to give answers to
questions that older children might give, whereas the slow learners gave
answers that were more typical of a younger child. Binet decided that the key
element to be tested was a child’s mental age, or the average age at which
children could successfully answer a particular level of questions
Age-Appropriate Scales
In 1908, Binet and Simon revised their intelligence scale so that it
considered the age of the person being tested. This revision was a significant
step forward in their ability to accurately measure intelligence. It was based
upon new evidence that a person's intelligence increased with age. The new
revision of the test was organized according to age levels ranging from 3-13.
The new version of the test included a variety of tasks they thought
represented a child's abilities at various ages. For example, it was considered
age-appropriate for a 5-year-old child to explain how a fork is used or a 12-
year-old to solve a particular mathematical problem. The child would then be
given an age-specific version of the test that also included easier and more
difficult tasks, indicative of younger and older children's abilities. If an 8-year-
old boy, for example, passed all of the tasks for his age but none of the more
advanced tasks, he would be considered average.
Mental Age
Based upon the test results, a child had both a chronological age (in
our example, eight years of age) and what Binet called the mental age, which
was a way of expressing the age at which the child was performing
intellectually. If that same child was able to achieve tasks that were age-
appropriate for a 10-year-old, then the mental age would be 10.
The reference points of chronological and mental age established by
Binet would eventually go on to be central in the development of intelligence
quotients or IQ tests in later years. This simple formula for determining a
child's IQ was to divide the mental age by the chronological age and then
multiply that figure by 100. For example, 10 divided by 8 equals 1.25. Multiply
1.25 by 100, and it gives you an IQ score of 125. The average IQ is considered
to be 100, so a child with an IQ of 125 would be considered above normal.
Binet and Simon made two more revisions of their intelligence test
before Binet died in 1911. In 1916, Lewis Terman of Stanford University
incorporated the concept of IQ into the test, and it was renamed the Stanford-
Binet Intelligence Scale. It formed the basis for the modern intelligence tests
used today.
Lewis Terman (1916), a researcher at Stanford University, adopted
German psychologist William Stern’s method for comparing mental age and
chronological age (number of years since birth) for use with the translated
and revised Binet test. Stern’s (1912) formula was to divide the mental age
(MA) by the chronological age (CA) and multiply the result by 100 to get rid of
any decimal points. The resulting score is called an intelligence quotient, or IQ.
(A quotient is a number that results from dividing one number by another.)
IQ = MA/CA × 100
For example, if a child who is 10 years old takes the test and scores a mental
age of 15 (is able to answer the level of questions typical of a 15-year-old), the
IQ would look like this:
IQ = 15/10 × 100 = 150
The quotient has the advantage of allowing testers to compare the intelligence
levels of people of different age groups. While this method works well for
children, it produces IQ scores that start to become meaningless as the
person’s chronological age passes 16 years.

STANFORD-Binet INTELLIGENCE TEST
It is a cognitive-ability and intelligence test that is used to diagnose
developmental or intellectual deficiencies in young children. The test
measures five weighted factors and consists of both verbal and nonverbal
subtests. The five factors being tested are knowledge, quantitative reasoning,
visual-spatial processing, working memory, and fluid reasoning.
The Wechsler tests
An intelligence test that measures a child's intellectual ability and 5
cognitive domains that impact performance
David Wechsler (Wechsler, 2002, 2003, 2008) was the first to devise a
series of tests designed for specific age groups. Originally dissatisfied with the
fact that the Stanford-Binet was designed for children but being administered
to adults, he developed an IQ test specifically for adults. He later designed
tests specifically for older school-age children and preschool children, as well
as those in the early grades. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV),
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV), and the Wechsler
Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-IV) are the three versions
of this test, and in the United States these tests are now used more frequently
than the Stanford-Binet. In earlier editions, another way these tests differed
from the Stanford-Binet was by having both a verbal and performance
(nonverbal) scale, as well as providing an overall score of intelligence (the
original Stanford-Binet was composed predominantly of verbal items). While
still using both verbal and nonverbal items, the WISC-IV and WAIS-IV organize
items into four index scales that provide an overall score of intelligence and
index scores related to four specific cognitive domains—verbal
comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing
speed. Table 7.4 has sample items for each of the four index scales from the
WAIS-IV
Test Construction: Good Test, Bad Test?
All tests are not equally good tests. Some tests may fail to give the
same results on different occasions for the same person when that person has
not changed—making the test useless. These would be considered unreliable
tests.
Reliability of a test refers to the test producing consistent results each time it
is given to the same individual or group of people. For example, if Nicholas
takes a personality test today and then again in a month or so, the results
should be very similar if the personality test is reliable. Other tests might be
easy to use and even reliable, but if they don’t actually measure what they are
supposed to measure, they are also useless. These tests are thought of as
“invalid” (untrue) tests.
Validity is the degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to
measure. Another aspect of validity is the extent that an obtained score
accurately reflects the intended skill or outcome in real-life situations, or
ecological validity, not just validity for the testing or assessment situation. For
example, we hope that someone who passes his or her test for a driver’s
license will also be able to safely operate a motor vehicle when they are
actually on the road. When evaluating a test, consider what a specific test
score means and to what, or to whom, it is compared. Take the hypothetical
example of Professor Stumpwater, who—for reasons best known only to him
—believes that intelligence is related to a person’s golf scores. Let’s say that he
develops an adult intelligence test based on golf scores. What do we need to
look at to determine if his test is a good one?
Standardization of Tests
Standardization refers to the process of giving the test to a large group
of people that represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed.
One aspect of standardization is in the establishment of consistent and EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE
standard methods of test administration. All test subjects would take the test
Another use of IQ tests is to help identify people who differ from those of
under the same conditions. In the professor’s case, this would mean that he
average intelligence by a great degree
would have his sample members play the same number of rounds of golf on
the same course under the same weather conditions, and so on. Another Individual differences
aspect addresses the comparison group whose scores will be used to compare
individual test results. Standardization groups are chosen randomly from the  intellectual disability
population for whom the test is intended and, like all samples, must be  giftedness
representative of that population.  emotional intelligence

Norms Intellectual disability

The scores from the standardization group would be called the norms,  formerly known as Intellectual developmental disorder, mental
the standards against which all others who take the test would be compared. retardation or developmentally delayed
Most tests of intelligence follow a normal curve, or a distribution in which the  is a term used when there are limits to a person's ability to learn at an
scores are the most frequent around the mean, or average, and become less expected level and function in daily life.
and less frequent the further from the mean they occur.
DIAGNOSIS
Diagnosis of intellectual disability is based on deficits in intellectual
functioning, determined by standardized tests of intelligence and clinical
assessment, which impact adaptive functioning across three domains:
conceptual, social, and practical.
CAUSES

 biological causes of intellectual disability are: Down syndrome, fetal

alcohol syndrome, and fragile X syndrome.
 Fetal alcohol syndrome is a condition that results from exposing a
developing embryo to alcohol,
Unhealthy living conditions can affect brain development. Lack of oxygen
birth, damage to the fetus in the womb from diseases, infections, or drug used
by the mother, and even diseases and accidents during childhood can lead to
intellectual disability.
GIFTEDNESS
 Giftedness is often merely based on intelligence and IQ scores, as it is
expressed that one could speak of giftedness when someone has an IQ
score higher than 130.
  Intellectual giftedness is an intellectual ability significantly higher than
average. It is a characteristic of children, variously defined, that
motivates differences in school programming. It is thought to persist
as a trait into adult life, with various consequences studied in
longitudinal studies of giftedness over the last century.
The various definitions of intellectual giftedness include either general
high ability or specific abilities. For example, by some definitions, an
intellectually gifted person may have a striking talent for mathematics without
equally strong language skills. In particular, the relationship between artistic
ability or musical ability and the high academic ability usually associated with
high IQ scores is still being explored, with some authors referring to all of
those forms of high ability as "giftedness", while other authors distinguish
"giftedness" from "talent". There is still much controversy and much research
on the topic of how adult performance unfolds from trait differences in
childhood, and what educational and other supports best help the
development of adult giftedness.
Giftedness refers to children who have an IQ of 130 or higher (Lally &
Valentine-French, 2015). Having extremely high IQ is clearly less of a problem
than having extremely low IQ, but there may also be challenges to being
particularly smart. It is often assumed that schoolchildren who are labeled as
“gifted” may have adjustment problems that make it more difficult for them to
create social relationships. To study gifted children, Lewis Terman and his
colleagues (Terman & Oden, 1959) selected about 1,500 high school students
who scored in the top 1% on the Stanford-Binet and similar IQ tests (i.e., who
had IQs of about 135 or higher), and tracked them for more than seven
decades (the children became known as the “termites” and are still being
studied today). This study found that these students were not unhealthy or
poorly adjusted, but rather were above average in physical health and were
taller and heavier than individuals in the general population. The students
also had above average social relationships and were less likely to divorce
than the average person (Seagoe, 1975).
Emotional intelligence
 Defined as the ability to understand and manage your own emotions,
as well as recognize and influence the emotions of those around you.
Signs of Emotional Intelligence
Some key signs and examples of emotional intelligence include
 An ability to identify and describe what people are feeling
 An awareness of personal strengths and limitations
 Self-confidence and self-acceptance
 The ability to let go of mistakes
 An ability to accept and embrace change
 A strong sense of curiosity, particularly about other people
 Feelings of empathy and concern for others
 Showing sensitivity to the feelings of other people
 Accepting responsibility for mistakes
 The ability to manage emotions in difficult situations
How Emotional Intelligence Is Measured
A number of different assessments have emerged to measure levels of
emotional intelligence. Such tests generally fall into one of two types: self-
report tests and ability tests.
Self-report tests are the most common because they are the easiest to
administer and score. On such tests, respondents respond to questions or
statements by rating their own behaviors. For example, on a statement such as
"I often feel that I understand how others are feeling," a test-taker might
describe the statement as disagree, somewhat disagree, agree, or strongly
agree.
Ability tests, on the other hand, involve having people respond to situations
and then assessing their skills. Such tests often require people to demonstrate
their abilities, which are then rated by a third party.
If you are taking an emotional intelligence test administered by a
mental health professional, here are two measures that might be used:
 Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) is an
ability-based test that measures the four branches of Mayer and
Salovey's EI model. Test-takers perform tasks designed to assess their
ability to perceive, identify, understand, and manage emotions.
  Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (ESCI) is based on an
older instrument known as the Self-Assessment Questionnaire and
involves having people who know the individual offer ratings of that
person’s abilities in several different emotional competencies. The test
is designed to evaluate the social and emotional abilities that help
distinguish people as strong leaders.
There are also plenty of more informal online resources, many of them free, to
investigate your emotional intelligence.
Components of Emotional Intelligence
Researchers suggest that there are four different levels of emotional
intelligence including emotional perception, the ability to reason using
emotions, the ability to understand emotions, and the ability to manage
emotions.
 Perceiving emotions: The first step in understanding emotions is to
perceive them accurately. In many cases, this might involve
understanding nonverbal signals such as body language and facial
expressions.
 Reasoning with emotions: The next step involves using emotions to
promote thinking and cognitive activity. Emotions help prioritize what
we pay attention and react to; we respond emotionally to things that
garner our attention.
 Understanding emotions: The emotions that we perceive can carry a
wide variety of meanings. If someone is expressing angry emotions,
the observer must interpret the cause of the person's anger and what
it could mean. For example, if your boss is acting angry, it might mean
that they are dissatisfied with your work, or it could be because they
got a speeding ticket on their way to work that morning or that they've
been fighting with their partner.
 Managing emotions: The ability to manage emotions effectively is a
crucial part of emotional intelligence and the highest level. Regulating
emotions and responding appropriately as well as responding to the
emotions of others are all important aspects of emotional
management.
The four branches of this model are arranged by complexity with the
more basic processes at the lower levels and the more advanced processes at
the higher levels. For example, the lowest levels involve perceiving and
expressing emotion, while higher levels require greater conscious involvement
and involve regulating emotions.
Impact of Emotional Intelligence
Interest in teaching and learning social and emotional intelligence has
grown in recent years. Social and emotional learning (SEL) programs have
become a standard part of the curriculum for many schools.
The goal of these initiatives is not only to improve health and well-
being but also to help students succeed academically and prevent bullying.
There are many examples of how emotional intelligence can play a role in
daily life.
Thinking Before Reacting
Emotionally intelligent people know that emotions can be powerful,
but also temporary. When a highly charged emotional event happens, such as
becoming angry with a co-worker, the emotionally intelligent response would
be to take some time before responding. This allows everyone to calm their
emotions and think more rationally about all the factors surrounding the
argument.
Greater Self-Awareness
Emotionally intelligent people are not only good at thinking about how
other people might feel but they are also adept at understanding their own
feelings. Self-awareness allows people to consider the many different factors
that contribute to their emotions.
Empathy for Others
A large part of emotional intelligence is being able to think about and
empathize with how other people are feeling. This often involves considering
how you would respond if you were in the same situation.
People who have strong emotional intelligence are able to consider the
perspectives, experiences, and emotions of other people and use this
information to explain why people behave the way that they do.
How to Use Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence can be used in many different ways in your daily life.
Some different ways to practice emotional intelligence include:
1. Being able to accept criticism and responsibility
2. Being able to move on after making a mistake
3. Being able to say no when you need to
4. Being able to share your feelings with others
5. Being able to solve problems in ways that work for everyone
6. Having empathy for other people
7. Having great listening skills
8. Knowing why you do the things you do
9. Not being judge mental of others
“Emotional intelligence is essential for good interpersonal
communication. Some experts believe that this ability is more important in
determining life success than IQ alone. Fortunately, there are things that
you can do to strengthen your own social and emotional intelligence.”
Understanding emotions can be the key to better relationships,
improved well-being, and stronger communication skills.
Tips for Improving EI
While some people might come by their emotional skills naturally,
some evidence suggests that this is an ability you can develop and improve.
For example, a 2019 randomized controlled trial found that emotional
intelligence training could improve emotional abilities in workplace settings.3
Being emotionally intelligent is important, but what steps can you take to
improve your own social and emotional skills? Here are some tips.
Listen
 If you want to understand what other people are feeling, the first step
is to pay attention. Take the time to listen to what people are trying to
tell you, both verbally and non-verbally. Body language can carry a
great deal of meaning. When you sense that someone is feeling a
certain way, consider the different factors that might be contributing
to that emotion.
Empathize
 Picking up on emotions is critical, but you also need to be able to put
yourself into someone else's shoes in order to truly understand their
point of view. Practice empathizing with other people. Imagine how
you would feel in their situation. Such activities can help you build an
emotional understanding of a specific situation as well as develop
stronger emotional skills in the long-term.
Reflect
 The ability to reason with emotions is an important part of emotional
intelligence. Consider how your own emotions influence your
decisions and behaviors. When you are thinking about how other
people respond, assess the role that their emotions play.
Why is this person feeling this way? Are there any unseen factors that might
be contributing to these feelings? How to your emotions differ from theirs? As
you explore such questions, you may find that it becomes easier to understand
the role that emotions play in how people think and behave
Potential Pitfalls
Having lower emotional intelligence skills can lead to a number of
potential pitfalls that can affect multiple areas of life including work and
relationships.
People who have fewer emotional skills tend to get in more arguments,
have lower quality relationships, and have poor emotional coping skills.
Being low on emotional intelligence can have a number of drawbacks,
but having a very high level of emotional skills can also come with challenges.
For example:
Research suggests that people with high emotional intelligence may
actually be less creative and innovative.
 Highly emotionally intelligent people may have a hard time delivering
negative feedback for fear of hurting other people's feelings.
Research has found that high EQ can sometimes be used for
manipulative and deceptive purposes.
History of Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence as a term didn't come into our vernacular until
around 1990. Despite being a relatively new term, interest in the concept has
grown tremendously since then.
Some researchers suggest that emotional intelligence can be learned and
strengthened; others claim it's an inborn characteristic.
In 1990, psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer published their
landmark article, "Emotional Intelligence," in the journal Imagination,
Cognition, and Personality. They defined emotional intelligence as "the ability
to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate
among them, and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions."
In 1995, the concept of emotional intelligence was popularized after
the publication of Daniel Goleman’s book "Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can
Matter More Than IQ."
The topic of emotional intelligence has continued to capture the public
interest since and has become important in fields outside of psychology
including education and business.

Early Growth
As early as the 1930s, the psychologist Edward Thorndike described
the concept of "social intelligence" as the ability to get along with other
people. During the 1940s, psychologist David Wechsler proposed that
different effective components of intelligence could play an important role in
how successful people are in life.
Later Developments
The 1950s saw the rise of the school of thought known as humanistic
psychology, and thinkers such as Abraham Maslow focused greater attention
on the different ways that people could build emotional strength.
Another important concept to emerge in the development of
emotional intelligence was the notion of multiple intelligences. This concept
was put forth in the mid-1970s by Howard Gardner, introducing the idea that
intelligence was more than just a single, general ability.

The Emergence of Emotional Intelligence

It was not until 1985 that the term "emotional intelligence" was first
used by in a doctoral dissertation by Wayne Payne. In 1987, an article
published in Mensa Magazine, Keith Beasley uses the term "emotional
quotient."

How is intelligence measured, how are intelligence tests constructed, and
what role do these tests play in neuropsychology?
 The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test yields an IQ score that was once
determined by dividing the mental age of the person by the
chronological age and multiplying that quotient by 100 but now
involves comparing a person’s score to a standardized norm
 The Wechsler Intelligence Tests yield four index scores derived from
both verbal and nonverbal subtests and an overall score of
intelligence.
 Standardization, validity, and reliability are all important factors in
the construction of an intelligence test.
 Deviation IQs are based on the normal curve, defining different levels
of intelligence based on the deviation of scores from a common mean.
 IQ tests are often criticized for being culturally biased.
 Neuropsychologists play an important role in the care of individuals
with traumatic brain injury and other conditions where brain
functioning has been negatively impacted.
 Concussion, or mild traumatic brain injury, affects the lives of many
athletes and military personnel.
What is intellectual disability and what are its causes?
• Intellectual disability is a neurodevelopmental condition in which IQ falls
below 70 and adaptive behavior across conceptual, social, and practical
domains of life is severely deficient for a person of a particular chronological
age. Symptoms must also first be present during the developmental period.
•The four levels of intellectual disability are mild, moderate, severe, and
profound. These are determined by the level of adaptive functioning and level
of supports the individual needs in their daily life.
• Causes of intellectual disability include deprived environments as well as
chromosome and genetic disorders and dietary deficiencies.
What defines giftedness, and how are giftedness and emotional
intelligence related to success in life?
•Gifted persons are defined as those having IQ scores at the upper end of the
normal curve (130 or above).
•Emotional intelligence involves being able to reach goals and engage in
productive thinking through accurate awareness and effective management of
our own emotions. It also involves our ability to understand what others feel.
•Terman conducted a longitudinal study that demonstrated that gifted
children grow up to be successful adults for the most part.
• Terman’s study has been criticized for a lack of objectivity because Terman
became too involved in the lives of several of his participants, even to the point
of intervening on their behalf.
What is the influence of heredity and environment on the development
of intelligence?
• Stronger correlations are found between IQ scores as genetic
• In 1994, Herrnstein and Murray published The Bell Curve, in which they
made widely criticized claims about the heritability of intelligence
LANGUAGE
 It is a system for combining symbols (such as words) so that an
infinite number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose
of communicating with others. Language allows people not only to
communicate with one another but also to represent their own mental
activity,
Phonemes
 Language is a system for combining symbols (such as words) so that
an infinite* number of meaningful statements can be made for the
purpose of communicating with others.
 Language allows people not only to communicate with one another
but also to represent their own internal mental activity. In other
words, language is a very important part of how people think.
THE LEVELS OF LANGUAGE ANALYSIS
The structures of languages all over the world share common
characteristics. They consist of the sounds that exist within a language, word
meanings, word order, the rules for making words into other words, the
meanings of sentences and phrases, and the rules for practical communication
with others.
Grammar
Morphemes
 Grammar is the system of rules governing the structure and use of a
language. According to famed linguist Noam Chomsky (Chomsky,
2006; Chomsky et al., 2002), humans have an innate ability to
understand and produce language through a device he calls the
Syntax
language acquisition device, or LAD. He defined the LAD as an innate
“program” that contained a schema for human language. The children
matched the language they heard against this schema and, thus,
language developed in a well-researched sequence (Chomsky, 1957,
1964, 1981, 1986). While humans may learn the specific language
(English, Spanish, Mandarin, etc.) through the processes of imitation,
reinforcement, and shaping, to Learning Objectives 5.5, 5.9, and 5.12,
the complexities of the grammar of a language are, according to
Chomsky, to some degree “wired in” to the developing brain. The LAD
“listens” to the language input of the infant’s world and then begins to
produce language sounds and eventually words and sentences in a
pattern found across cultures. This pattern is discussed in greater
detail in the next chapter. to Learning Objective 8.6. Grammar includes
phonemes (the basic sounds of language), morphology (the study of
the formation of words), rules for the order of words known as syntax,
and pragmatics (the practical social expectations and uses of
language).
 Phonemes are the basic units of sound in a language. The a in the word
caris a very different phoneme from the a in the word day, even though
it is the same letter of the alphabet. The difference is in how we say the
sound of the a in each word. Phonemes are more than just the
different ways in which we pronounce single letters, too. Th, sh, and au
are also phonemes. Phonemes for different languages are also
different, and one of the biggest problems for people who are trying to
learn another language is the inability to both hear and pronounce the
phonemes of that other language. Although infants are born with the
ability to recognize all phonemes (Werker & Lalonde, 1988), after
about 9 months, that ability has deteriorated, and the infant
recognizes only the phonemes of the language to which the infant is
exposed (Boyson-Bardies et al., 1989).
 Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning within a language. For
example, the word playing consists of two morphemes, play and ing.
 Syntax is a system of rules for combining words and phrases to form
grammatically correct sentences. Syntax is quite important, as just a
simple mix-up can cause sentences to be completely misunderstood.
For example, “John kidnapped the boy” has a different meaning from
“John, the kidnapped boy,” although all four words are the same
(Lasnik, 1990). Another example of the importance of syntax can be
found in the lobby of a Moscow hotel across from a monastery: “You
are welcome to visit the cemetery where famous composers, artists,
 and writers are buried daily except Thursday.” So if people want to
watch famous composers, artists, and writers being buried, they
should not go to this monastery on Thursday.
Semantics
 Semantics are rules for determining the meaning of words and
sentences. Sentences, for example, can have the same semantic
meaning while having different syntax: “Johnny hit the ball” and “the
ball was hit by Johnny.”
Pragmatics
 The pragmatics of language has to do with the practical aspects of
communicating with others, or the social “niceties” of language. Simply
put, pragmatics involves knowing things like how to take turns in a
conversation, the use of gestures to emphasize a point or indicate a
need for more information, and the different ways in which one speaks
to different people (Yule, 1996). For example, adults speak to small
children differently than they do to other adults by using simpler
words. Both adults and children use higher pitched voices and many
repeated phrases when talking to infants; such child-directed speech
plays an important role in the development of language in children.
Part of the pragmatics of language includes knowing just what rhythm
and emphasis to use when communicating with others, called
intonation. When speaking to infants, adults and children are changing
the inflection when they use the higher pitch and stress certain words
differently than others. Some languages, such as Japanese, are highly
sensitive to intonation, meaning that changing the stress or pitch of
certain words or syllables of a particular word can change its meaning
entirely (Beckman & Pierrehumbert, 1986). For example, the Japanese
name “Yoshiko” should be pronounced with the accent or stress on the
first syllable: YO-shekoh. This pronunciation of the name means
“woman-child.” But if the stress is placed on the second syllable (yo-
SHE-ko), the name means “woman who urinates.”
 Pragmatics involves the practical aspects of communicating. This
young mother is talking and then pausing for the infant’s response. In
this way, the infant is learning about taking turns, an important aspect
of language development. What kinds of games do adults play with
infants that also aid the development of language?
Does language influence the way people think, and are animals capable
of learning language?
As with the controversy of nature versus nurture, researchers have
long debated the relationship between language and thought. Does language
actually influence thought, or does thinking influence language?
Two very influential developmental psychologists, Jean Piaget and Lev
Vygotsky often debated the relationship of language and thought (Duncan,
1995). Piaget (1926, 1962) theorized that concepts preceded and aided the
development of language. For example, a child would have to have a concept
or mental schema for “mother” before being able to learn the word “mama.” In
a sense, concepts become the “pegs” upon which words are “hung.” Piaget also
noticed that preschool children seemed to spend a great deal of time talking to
themselves—even when playing with another child. Each child would be
talking about something totally unrelated to the speech of the other, in a
process Piaget called collective monologue. Piaget believed that this kind of
nonsocial speech was very egocentric (from the child’s point of view only, with
no regard for the listener), and that as the child became more socially involved
and less egocentric, these nonsocial speech patterns would reduce.
Vygotsky, however, believed almost the opposite. He theorized that
language actually helped develop concepts and that language could also help
the child learn to control behavior—including social behavior (Vygotsky,
1962, 1978, 1987). For Vygotsky, the word helped form the concept: Once a
child had learned the word “mama,” the various elements of “mama-ness”—
warm, soft, food, safety, and so on—could come together around that word.
Vygotsky also believed that the “egocentric” speech of the preschool child was
actually a way for the child to form thoughts and control actions. This “private
speech” was a way for children to plan their behavior and organize actions so
that their goals could be obtained. Since socializing with other children would
demand much more self-control and behavioral regulation on the part of the
preschool child, Vygotsky believed that private speech would actually increase
as children became more socially active in the preschool years. This was, of
course, the opposite of Piaget’s assumption, and the evidence seems to bear
out Vygotsky’s view: Children, especially bright children, do tend to use more
private speech when learning how to socialize with other children or when
working on a difficult task (Berk, 1992; Berk & Spuhl, 1995; Bivens & Berk,
1990). Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis The hypothesis that language shapes
and influences thoughts was accepted by many theorists, with a few notable
exceptions, such as Piaget. One of the best-known versions of this view is the
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (named for the two theorists who developed it,
Edward Sapir and his student, Benjamin Lee Whorf ). This hypothesis assumes
that the thought processes and concepts within any culture are determined by
the words of the culture (Sapir, 1921; Whorf, 1956). It has come to be known
as the linguistic relativity hypothesis, meaning that thought processes and
concepts are controlled by (relative to) language. That is, the words people
use determine much of the way in which they think about the world around
them. One of the most famous examples used by Whorf to support this idea
was that of the Inuit’s, Native Americans living in the Arctic. Supposedly, the
Inuit’s have many more words for snow than do people in other cultures. One
estimate was 23 different words, whereas other estimates have ranged in the
hundreds. Unfortunately, this anecdotal evidence has turned out to be false,
being more myth than reality (Pullum, 1991). In fact, English speakers also
have many different words for snow (sleet, slush, powder, dusting, and yellow
to name a few).Is there evidence for the linguistic relativity hypothesis?
Neither Sapir nor Whorf provided any scientific studies that would support
their proposition. There has been numerous studies by other researchers,
however. For example, in one study researchers assumed that a language’s
color names would influence the ability of the people who grew up with that
language to distinguish among and perceive colors. The study found that basic
color terms did directly influence color recognition memory (Lucy & Shweder,
1979). Butan earlier series of studies of the perception of colors by Eleanor
Rosch-Heider and others (Rosch-Heider, 1972; Rosch-Heider & Olivier, 1972)
had already found just the opposite effect: Members of the Dani tribe, who
have only two names for colors, were no different in their ability to perceive
all of the colors than were the English speakers in the study. More recent
studies (Davies et al., 1998a, 1998b; Laws et al., 1995; Pinker & Bloom, 1990)
support Rosch-Heider’s findings and the idea of a cognitive universalism
(concepts are universal and influence the development of language) rather
than linguistic relativity. Other research suggests that although the linguistic
relativity hypothesis may not work for fine perceptual discriminations such as
those in the Rosch-Heider studies, it may be an appropriate explanation for
concepts of a higher level. In one study, researchers showed pictures of two
animals to preschool children (Gelman & Markman, 1986). The pictures were
of a flamingo and a bat. The children were told that the flamingo feeds its baby
mashed-up food, but the bat feeds its baby milk. Then they were shown a
picture of a blackbird (which looked more like the bat than the flamingo). Half
of the children were told that the blackbird was a bird, while the other
children were not. When asked how the blackbird fed its baby, the children
who had been given the bird label were more likely to say that it fed its baby
mashed-up food than were the children who were not given the label,
indicating that the preschoolers were making inferences about feeding habits
based on category membership rather than perceptual similarity—the word
bird helped the children who were given that label to place the blackbird in its
proper higher level category.
Research continues in the investigation of relationships between
language and thought and appears to support linguistic relativity and how
language can shape our thoughts about space, time, colors, and objects
(Boroditsky, 2001, 2009). However, researchers do not always agree, and for
some studies that offer support, there are others that reinterpret the data, fail
to replicate, or offer critiques of the original studies, so findings are
sometimes still in question ( J. Y. Chen, 2007; January & Kako, 2007).
Psychologists cannot deny the influence of language on problem
solving, cognition, and memory. Sometimes a problem can simply be worded
differently to have the solution become obvious, and memory (to Learning
Objective 6.5) is certainly stored in terms of the semantics of language.
Language can definitely influence the perception of others as well—
“computer geek” and “software engineer” might be used to describe the same
person, but one phrase is obviously less flattering, and the image brought to
mind is different for the two terms. In the end, trying to determine whether
language influences thoughts or thoughts influence language may be like
trying to determine which came first, the chicken or the egg
Animal Studies in Language
There are really two questions about animals and language. The first is
“Can animals communicate?” and the second is “Can animals use language?”
The answer to the first question is a definite “Yes.” Animals communicate in
many ways. They use sounds such as the rattle of a rattlesnake or the warning
growl of an angry dog. There are also physical behaviors, such as the “dance”
of honeybees that tells the other bees where a source of pollen is (Gould &
Gould, 1994). But the answer to the second question is more complicated,
because language is defined as the use of symbols, and symbols are things that
stand for something else. Words are symbols, and gestures can be symbols.
But the gestures used by animals are instinctual, meaning they are controlled
by the animal’s genetic makeup. The honeybee doing the “dance” is controlled
completely by instinct, as is the growling dog. In human language, symbols are
used quite deliberately and voluntarily, not by instinct, and abstract symbols
have no meaning until people assign meaning to them. (Although Chomsky’s
innate language acquisition device might lead some to think that language for
humans is instinctual, it should be noted that the infant’s production of speech
sounds becomes quite deliberate within a short period of time.) Can animals
be taught to use symbols that are abstract? There have been attempts to teach
animals (primates and dolphins) how to use sign language (as animals lack
the vocal structure to form spoken words), but many of these attempts were
simply not “good science.” The most successful of these experiments (which is
not without its critics as well) has been with Kanzi, a bonobo chimpanzee
trained to press abstract symbols on a computer keyboard (Savage-Rumbaugh
& Lewin, 1994). Kanzi actually was not the original subject of the study—his
mother, Matata, was the chimp being trained. She did not learn many of the
symbols, but Kanzi watched his mother use the keyboard and appeared to
learn how to use the symbols through that observation. At last count, Kanzi
could understand about 150 spoken English words. Trainers who speak to
him are not in his view, so he is not responding to physical cues or symbols. He
has managed to follow correctly complex instructions up to the level of a 2-
year-old child (Savage-Rumbaugh et al., 1998). The most recent studies with
Kanzi have him making sounds that seem to have consistent meaning across
different situations (Tagliatatela et al., 2003). Nearly 100 videotaped hours of
Kanzi engaged in day-to-day activities were analyzed for these sounds. The
researchers were able to identify four sounds that seemed to represent
banana, grapes, juice, and the word yes. (However, remember that four sounds
do not come close to making an entire language.)
Other studies, with dolphins (Herman et al., 1993) and with parrots
(Pepperberg, 1998, 2007), have also met with some success. Is it real
language? The answer seems to be a qualified “yes.” The qualification is that
none of the animals that have achieved success so far can compare to the level
of language development of a 3-year-old human child (Pinker, 1995). However,
linguists still debate whether these animals are truly learning language if they
are not also learning how to use syntax—combining words into grammatically
correct sentences as well as being able to understand the differences between
sentences such as “The girl kissed the boy” and “The boy kissed the girl.” As
yet, there is no conclusive evidence that any of the animals trained in language
have been able to master syntax (Demers, 1988; Johnson, 1995; Pinker, 1995).
Language
How is language defined, and what are its different elements and structure?
• Language is a system for combining symbols so that an infinite number of
meaningful statements can be created and communicated to others.
•Grammar is the system of rules by which language is governed
and includes the rules for using phonemes, morphemes, and syntax.
Pragmatics refers to practical aspects of language.
Does language influence the way people think, and are animals capable
of learning language?
• Sapir and Whorf originally proposed that language controls and helps the
development of thought processes and concepts, an idea that is known as the
linguistic relativity hypothesis.
•Other researchers have found evidence that concepts are universal and
directly influence the development of language, called the cognitive
universalism viewpoint.
• Studies with chimpanzees, parrots, and dolphins have been somewhat
successful in demonstrating that animals can develop a basic kind of language,
including some abstract ideas.
•Controversy exists over the lack of evidence that animals can learn syntax,
which some feel means that animals are not truly learning and using language.
GROUP 5
"Motivation and Emotion"
MOTIVATION
 As the process that determines the reinform cement value of an outcome.
In more everyday language, motivation is what makes you want something
more at one time and less at another.
Psychologists define human motivation as “the impetus that gives purpose
or direction to behavior and operates inhuman at a conscious or unconscious
level.” The idea is that motivation guides us to accomplish a goal and that goal-
directed behavior can be very satisfying.
Psychologist s have several theories on what forces can cause an
individual to ac t. Some of these theories are based on need, while others are based
on instinct and arousal. Motivation can rarely be narrowed down to a s ingle
driving force.
TYPES OF MOTIVATION:
INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
 Comes from within the individual. When you are intrinsically motivated,
you do something for personal gratification. You are not motivated by
external incentives and ac t s imply because you gain internal satisfaction.
Instead of expecting external rewards for your behavior, the behavior itself
is the reward.
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
 Makes you do something to get rewards or avoid punishment. In this case,
motivation comes from something out s ide of yourself, such as external
awards or a good grade. Though you can enjoy the process of achieving a
goal, extrinsic motivation means that your motives are primarily external.
External fac tor s motivates you to take action – or avoid action altogether.
INSTINCT THEORY
 Instinct is a fixed, inborn behavior pattern acting as a drive. Instinct theory
postulates that certain behavior s occurs so we can satisfy basic survival
needs. Fear is an example of an instinctual drive, which allows people to
avoid dangerous situations.
 Instinct theory of motivation, all living things are born with innate
biological tendencies that help them survive. The idea is that this approach
finds parallel s between biological instinct s and motives. It declares that
motives are natural forces found in all living creatures
WILLIAM MCDOUGALL
 Was one of the first to write about theory of motivation According to him
instinct must be unlearned, uniform in expression, and universal species
KEY ELEMENTS OF INSTINCT
 PERCEPTION
 BEHAVIOR
 EMOTION
A MODEL OF MOTIVATION
Many motivated activities begin with a need, or internal deficiency. Needs
cause a drive (an energized motivational state) to develop. The drive was hunger.
Drives activate a response (an action or series of actions) designed to attain a goal
(the “target” of motivated behavior) . Reaching a goal that satisfies the need will
end the chain of events.
Thus, a simple model of motivation can be shown in thi s way:
 Hierarchy of human needs: Abraham Maslow’s ordering of needs based on KEY ELEMENT OF THE AROUSAL AND INCENTIVES APPROACHES TO
their presumed strength and potency. MOTIVATION
3 TYPES OF NEEDS  Arousal can be mental (cognitive), emotional (affective) , or physical,
sometimes referred to as the three part s of arousal theory or the three
 BASIC NEEDS types of arousal.
 GROWTH NEEDS
 META NEEDS  Discuss how motivation can cause someone to want something, and the
BASIC NEEDS different between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as well as the arousal
theory and incentive approaches. Studied have shown that motivation
 the first four level of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy; lower needs tend to be engages with social, emotional, and biological forces that trigger different
more potent than higher needs. behaviors.
 this theory created by Abraham Maslow’s is based on how human inspired
to satisfy their needs in hierarchical orders. Starting from the bottom going THREE TYPES OF AROUSAL
upward, the five needs are the physiological, safety, love and belonging, 1.Cognitive or Intellectual Arousal- is about thinking and mental stimulation.
esteem and self-actualization. This is the state where we are exploring learning and discovering interesting
Example: Foods, clothing, shelter, water, and sleep. things. We are driven into this cognitively aroused stated by curiosity, novelty and
general interest.
GROWTH NEEDS
2.Emotional arousal- emotional responses can be define as reactions to evocative
 In Maslow’s hierarchy, he the higher needs as sociated with self - stimuli, in terms of identifying the emotional significance of a stimulus or
actualization. situation, producing an affective state, and regulating the affective state (Phillips,
 refer to people’s strivings for self -actualization, knowledge, Dravet’s, Rauch, & Lane 2003).
understanding, and beauty.
3.Physical. - Physiological arousals refer s to features of arousal reflected by
Example: emotional security, financial security, jobs, law and order, fearlessness, physiological reactions, such as escalation in blood pressure and rate of respiration
health and well-being. and lessened activity of the gastrointestinal system.
META NEEDS
 in Maslow’s hierarchy, needs associated with impulses for self -
actualization.
 in the humanistic psychology of Abraham Maslow’s, the highest level of
needs that comes into play primarily after the lower-level needs have been
met. Meta needs constitute the goal s of the actualizers.
Example: knowledge, beauty and creativity
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
Researcher s believe certain genetic differences among individual s play a
role in hunger. The brain, the digestive system, and hormones are all involved in
influencing hunger at the biological level.
 OBESITY is the excessive accumulation of body fat. Physicians calculate
a body mass index, defined as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters
squared. A ratio over 25 is considered overweight, over 30 is obese, and over 40 is
extremely obese. Obesity increases the risk of diabetes, coronary heart disease,
cancer, sleep apnea, and other diseases although each by itself has only a modest
effect. But how do those genes alter behavior?
Many overweight people eat more than they admit, maybe even more than
they admit to themselves. In one admirably simple study, researcher s collected
supermarket receipt s and found that overweight families bought more food per
person than average and especially more high- fat food. However, in addition to
consuming more energy, they al so have low energy output, including a low
metabolic rate.

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON EATING

Physiological mechanisms account for only part of our eating habits. Social fac tor
s are important al so. When you eat with friends, you linger over the meal. You eat
a few more bites after you thought you were done, and then a few more.
Overeating has spread in other cultures as they became, as some people put it,
“Coca-Colonized” by Western culture.
EATING TOO MUCH OR TOO LITTLE
 Obesity has become widespread but not universal. Why do some people
become obese, whereas others do not? At the other extreme, why do some
people eat too little? Abnormal eating reflects s a combination of social
and physiological influences.
 Psychologist Carrol Izard (1977, 1990) was among the first to suggest that
the face does, indeed, affect emotion. According to Izard, emotions cause innately
programmed changes in facial expression. Sensations from the face then provide
cues to the brain that help us determine our emotions. This idea is known as the
facial feedback hypothesis. Sous signan (2002), stated another way, it says that
having facial expressions and becoming aware of them is what influences our
private emotional experience. Exercise, for instance, arouses the body, but we
don’t experience this arousal as an emotion because it does not trigger emotional
expressions.
Psychologist Paul Ekman takes this idea one step further. He believes that
“making faces” can actually cause emotion. In one study, participants were guided
as they arranged their faces , mus c le by mus c le, into expres s ions of surpri se, di
sgus t, sadnes s , anger, fear, and happines s . At the same time, each per son’ s
bodily reac tions were monitored. Contrary to what you might expect, “making
faces” can affect the autonomic nervous system, as shown by changes in heart rate
and skin temperature. In addition, each facial expression produces a different
pattern of activity. An angry face, for instance, raises heart rate and skin
temperature, whereas disgust lowers both. Other studies have confirmed that posed
expressions alter emotions and bodily activity. It appears, then, that not only do
emotions influence expressions, but expressions influence emotions, as shown
here:
CONTRACTED FACIAL MUSCLES FELT EMOTION:

 FOREHEAD SURPRISE
 BROW ANGER
 MOUTH (DOWN) SADNESS
 MOUTH (SMILE) JOY

 Emotional appraisal evaluates the personal meaning of a stimulus or

situation.
 Facial feedback hypothesis States that sensations from facial expressions
help define what emotion a per son feels.
A contemporary model of emotion. The appraisal gives rise to arousal and
cognitive labeling, behavior, facial/postural expressions, and emotional feelings.
Arousal, attribution, behavior, and expressions add to emotional feelings.
Emotional feelings influence appraisal, which further affects arousal, behavior,
expressions, and feelings.