Chapter 4

MEMORY
What is memory?
Memory is like a storehouse of our experiences. It helps us:-
 to learn new things as what is learned is remembered, and vice versa;
 to relate our new knowledge with the old one (gives continuity to our experiences);
 to bring past events into consciousness us for problem solving;
Memory Processes/ Elements of Memory
These are mental activities we perform to put information into memory, to keep it there,
and to make use of it whenever necessary.
They are:
a. Encoding is the reception and formation of information in the mind by transforming
sensory inputs in puts into symbolic codes for further processing.
b. Storage: is placement and saving of information in the mind, persistently.
This is the process of maintaining memories once they are encoded.
c. Retrieval: is the bringing out of the needed information for use (problem solving). This
is done by locating the information, bringing them into awareness, and then use of them
as needed.
Structures/ Stages/ Forms of Memory
These are the nature of memory storage: how information is represented in memory, how
long it lasts and how it organized. Memory is not a single faculty; it rather covers a complex
collection of abilities and processes. Library, computer, dictionary, video/ audio recorder,
etc., could be analogies on the works of the brain. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
1. Sensory Register (SR):- is the entry way to memory. It acts as a holding bin, retaining
information until we can select items for attention. These items of information stay for a
very brief period, for very few seconds, in the sensory register. In the SR store, patterns of
figures; faces, odors, numbers, etc are recognized (only at recognition level).
In this store, information is mainly received through the eyes and the ears. The eyes receive
iconic images while the ears receive echoic sounds. Icons usually stay for less than a
second whereas echoes go a little bit beyond a second in the SR store. For any sensory
input to pass to the next store, it must he give attention while information that does not
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 have the opportunity to be attended decays. The information that is stored in the SR is
fairly accurate representation of the environmental information but in an unprocessed
(raw) form.
2 Short-term Memory (STM):- this is the second memory stage in human recording system.
It is said to be the working memory where what we are conscious of at a given moment is
stored. Other terms for it are immediate memory and active memory. STM is important in a
variety of tasks such as thinking, reading, speaking, and problem solving. It is therefore
said that STM compared to SR is “more enduring and more selective” The storage capacity
of this store is described by G. Miller (1956) to be 7+2 items. The items here could be
words, phrases, letters or digits that do have meaningful sense. This range of storage may
reduce to about 2-3 items when we are in a state of tension or when we are less interested
towards the subject.
Equivalent to the relevance of attention in the SR, rehearsal is important in STM.
“Rehearsal roughly refers to keeping information at the center of attention, perhaps by
repeating it over and over to (oneself)” items of information needs to be rehearsed so that
they could be stored in the STM, and also pass to the next store. Information rehearsal
may be done either silently or aloud.
There are two Methods of Rehearsal
Maintenance Rehearsal: - this is the mere going over of materials to be remembered.
Since it is rote, the information here may not pass to the next store.
a. Elaborative Rehearsal: - as its name indicates, it is giving meaning and organization to
the material. Since this one is “active rehearsal process,” information will pass to the
next store in most cases.
To overcome the problem of material loss in the STM, the method of chunking is
recommended. Chunking is giving classification to the to-be remembered material.
3. Long- term Memory (LTM):- entertains a vast network or information. This network
involves complex yet interdependent ideas, views, words, sentences, concepts, events in
life, etc. All of these are meaningfully set in this store, the time span of this storage system
is indefinite, and may last for days, weeks, months, years to lifetime. Items of information
in the LTM have organized placement. This shows that information is organized in the
mind in the proper manner and we can withdraw (retrieve) whatever we want when
necessary.

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 Content of LTM
1. Declarative/Explicit Memory: is conscious recollection of information that can be verbally
communicated.
a. Semantic Memory- semantic memory is the storage of items of information in their
meaningful order. This meaningful storage of materials is used in language use, and in
meanings of words and concepts, and ability to do calculations. Generally, semantic
memory is the internal representation of the world.
b. Episodic memory:- as the word implies, episode means a certain event that happens in
life, mostly incidentally. In this memory package, events that happened to us at a
particular time in a certain place are stored. These memory episodes are chronological
and have biographical reference. Therefore, they are internal representations of
personally experienced events.
2. Implicit/Non-declarative Memory: refers to a variety of phenomena of memory in which
behavior is affected by prior experience, without that experience being consciously
recollected. One of the most important kinds of implicit memory is procedural memory, it is
the ‘how to’ knowledge of procedures of skills that involve on/little thinking. E.g. typing,
bike/horse riding, driving, combing hair, using a pencil, etc.

FORGETTING
Forgetting is “the apparent loss of information from memory that has already been stored.”
F=L-R (Forgetting = Learning – Retention)
Why do people lose information from their LTM?
Possible reasons for forgetting:-
A. Decay Theories of Forgetting:
In this case; Forgetting = f(time laps) memory traces, called engrams (traces that are)
“printed” on the nervous system), fade with passage of time, gradually. This is because,
what we learned gets weaker and weaker in our memory as time passes by this happens
especially when what is learned is never used and so it disappears with time.
B. Interference Theory of Forgetting
According to this theory, forgetting occurs because similar items of information interfere
one another in either storage or retrieval. The information may get into memory, but
becomes confused with other information. There are two kinds of interference that
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 influence forgetting: proactive and retroactive. In proactive interference information
learned earlier interference with recall of newer materials. If new information interferes
with the ability to remember old information, the interference is called retroactive
interference.
C. Motivated Forgetting
S. Freud who says that we forget things that are anxiety- provoking and displeasing.
Unpleasant events are mostly repressed in the unconscious, and do not have free
expression. So, such events are said to be forgotten. But clinically, through free
association and hypnosis, emotionally threatening experiences in life could be brought
into the surface.
D. Cue Dependent Forgetting (Organization & Retrieval Problems):
Some scientists argue that three is not true forgetting. They say that once items
information were stored in the LTM, they will not be lost. But we may not retrieve them
when needed because there may be organizational problem. When any information was
not stored in the proper manner, it may not be accessible and would not be retrieved.
On the other hand, when there are not retrieval cues, or if the existing cues are not
appropriate, or if the person is searching in the wrong parts of the LTM, then retrieval
will fail and it means that forgetting results.
This type of memory failure may be most common type of all. Cues that were present
when you learned a new fact are apt to be especially useful later as retrieval aids. That
may explain why remembering is often easier when you are in the same physical
environment as you were when an event occurred: Cues in the present context match
form the past. Your mental or physical state may also act as a retrieval cue, evoking a
state dependent memory. For example, if your emotional arousal is specially high or low
at the time of an event, you may remember that event best when your are once again in
the same emotional state.
Possible Solutions for Forgetting:-
- using the information continuously
- taking a gap between information’s
- associate the information with different things
- learn again and again
- see the information in different angles