▪ Direct FM

▪ Carrier frequency is directly varied by the message through

voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO)
▪ VCO: output frequency changes linearly with input voltage

▪ A simple VCO: implemented by variable capacitor

▪ Capacitor Microphone FM generator
▪ Direct method is simple, low cost, but lack of high stability & accuracy,
low power application, unstable at the carrier frequency

Capacitance changes with LC oscillator frequency:

the applied voltage: 1 1
fi (t ) = =
C (t ) = C0 + Cm(t ) 2 LC 2 LC0 + LCm(t )
1  C 
= 1 − m (t )  + O (t 2
)
2 LC0  2C0 
f 0 C
 f0 − m(t )
2C0
▪ Modern VCOs are usually implemented as PLL IC
= f 0 − f m(t )
▪ Why VCO generates FM signal?
▪ Generate NBFM first, then NBFM is frequency multiplied for
targeted Δf.
▪ Good for the requirement of stable carrier frequency
▪ Commercial-level FM broadcasting equipment all use indirect FM
▪ A typical indirect FM implementation: Armstrong FM
▪ Block diagram of indirect FM
▪ First, generate NBFM signal with a very small β1

v(t ) = Ac cos(2 f1t ) − 1 Ac sin(2 f1t ) sin(2

m(t)  f mt )
▪ Then, apply frequency multiplier to magnify β
▪ Instantaneous frequency is multiplied by n
▪ So do carrier frequency, Δf, and β
▪ What about bandwidth?

fi right
= n fi left
 
1. Input: v(t ) = Ac cos 2 f1t + 2 k f  m( )d  ,
t

 0 
max | k f m(t ) |
where fi (t ) = f1 + k f m(t ),  = 1
W
2. Nonlinear device outputs frequencies: nf1 + nk f m(t )
vo (t ) = a1v(t ) + a2v 2 (t ) + + an v n (t ) +

3. Bandpass filter select new carrier f c = nf1


s(t ) = Ac cos 2 nf1t + 2 nk f  m( ) d 
t

 0 
max | nk f m(t ) |
where new fi (t ) = nf1 + nk f m(t ),  =
W
▪ Invented by E. Armstrong, an indirect FM
▪ A popular implementation of commercial level FM
▪ Parameter: message W=15 kHz, FM s(t): Δf=74.65 kHz.
▪ Can you find the Δf at (a)-(d)?

Solution:
(a) f = 14.4 Hz. (b) f = 72 14.4 = 1.036 kHz.
(c) f = 1.036 kHz. (d) f = 72 1.036 = 74.65 kHz.
▪ Four primary methods
▪ Differentiator with envelope detector/Slope
detector
▪ FM to AM conversion
▪ Phase-shift discriminator/Ratio detector
▪ Approximates the differentiator
▪ Zero-crossing detector
▪ Frequency feedback
▪ Phase lock loops (PLL)
▪ Principle: use slope detector (slope circuit) as frequency
discriminator, which implements frequency to voltage
conversion (FVC)
▪ Slope circuit: output voltage is proportional to the input frequency.
Example: filters, differentiator

freqency in s(t) voltage in x(t)

10 Hz j 20
20 Hz j 40
 ▪ Block diagram of direct method (slope detector = slope circuit
+ envelope detector)

s(t ) = Ac cos 2 f ct + 2 k f  m( )d  , where fi (t ) = f c + k f m(t )

 t

 0 
Let the slope circuit be simply differentiator:

s1 (t ) = − Ac  2 f c + 2 k f m(t )  sin 2 f ct + 2 k f  m( ) d 

 t

 0 
so (t )  − Ac  2 f c + 2 k f m(t ) 
so(t) linear with m(t)
Magnitude frequency
response of
transformer BPF.
▪ A device that imposes hard limiting on a signal and contains a filter
that suppresses the unwanted products (harmonics) of the limiting
process.

▪ Input Signal

t
vi (t ) = A(t ) cos (t ) = A(t ) cos(wct + k f  m(a)da)
▪ Output of bandpass limiter −

▪ Bandpass filter 4 1 1 
vo (t ) =  cos (t ) − cos 3 (t ) + cos 5 (t ) 
 3 5 
▪ Remove the amplitude variations
4 t
eo (t ) = cos(wct + k f  m(a)da)
 −
▪ Phase-locked loop (PLL)
▪ A closed-loop feedback control circuit, make a signal in
fixed phase (and frequency) relation to a reference
signal
▪ Track frequency (or phase) variation of inputs
▪ Or, change frequency (or phase) according to inputs

▪ PLL can be used for both FM modulator and

demodulator
▪ Just as Balanced Modulator IC can be used for most amplitude modulations and
demodulations
▪ Remember the following relations
▪ Si=Acos(wct+1(t)), Sv=Avcos(wct+c(t))
▪ Sp=0.5AAv[sin(2wct+1+c)+sin(1-c)]
▪ So=0.5AAvsin(1-c)=AAv(1-c)
▪ Radio receiver’s main function
▪ Demodulation → get message signal
▪ Carrier frequency tuning → select station
▪ Filtering → remove noise/interference
▪ Amplification → combat transmission power loss

▪ Superheterodyne receiver
▪ Heterodyne: mixing two signals for new frequency
▪ Superheterodyne receiver: heterodyne RF signals with local tuner,
convert to common IF
▪ Invented by E. Armstrong in 1918.
▪ A signal block (of circuit) can hardly achieve all: selectivity,
signal quality, and power amplification
▪ Superheterodyne receiver deals them with different blocks
▪ RF blocks: selectivity only
▪ IF blocks: filter for high signal quality, and amplification, use
circuits that work in only a constant IF, not a large band
▪ The frequency of an FM broadcast station is usually an exact multiple
of 100 kHz from 87.5 to 108.5 MHz . In most of the Americas and
Caribbean only odd multiples are used.
▪ fm=15KHz, f=75KHz, =5, B=2(fm+f)=180kHz
▪ Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis
▪ Random noise has a 'triangular' spectral distribution in an FM system, with
the effect that noise occurs predominantly at the highest frequencies within
the baseband. This can be offset, to a limited extent, by boosting the high
frequencies before transmission and reducing them by a corresponding
amount in the receiver.
▪ Block diagram and spectrum
▪ Relation of stereo transmission and monophonic transmission