➔ Can be studied by observing changes in

BIOLOGICAL APPROACH gray matter in the brain using MRI

scanners. Grey matter in the brain
1: NEUROPLASTICITY consists of cell bodies, dendrites and
synapses. The more gray matter, the
more synaptic connections and neural
Neuroplasticity
networks.
➔ Refers to the brain’s ability to restructure
or rewire itself when it recognizes the
Neural Networks
need for adaptation. In other words, it
➔ A technique for simulating the neuronal
can continue developing and changing
changes in the brain that underpin
throughout life.
cognition and perception that involves
➔ The rewiring of the brain is a result of
connecting a large number of basic
neuroplasticity which includes two
hypothetical neural units.
things: Neurogenesis (the growth of new
➔ A “neural network” is a series of
neurons) and Synaptogenesis (new
connected neurons. Information travels
connections between neurons)
along these networks that enable us to
➔ Occurs at the beginning of life when
do things.
immature brain organizes itself
➔ Neurons have dendrites, which are the
➔ Occurs in cases of brain injury, to
branch-like things that connect with
compensate for lost functions or to
other neurons. The connection between
maximize remaining functions
two dendrites is called a synapse and
➔ Also occurs throughout adulthood,
the connections between the synapses
whenever something new is learned or
is how information travels around our
memorized
brain

Neural Pruning
Studies for Neuroplasticity and Neural
➔ Synaptic (neural) pruning is the process
Networks
whereby unused synapses of neurons
that communicate frequently with each
1. Maguire et al (2000)
other strengthen, thus increasing
functionality
Aim: To see whether there are structural
➔ A natural process in which the brain
changes in the brain of people with
eliminates extra synapses as a result of
extensive experience of spatial navigation
the removal of dendritic branches
or to investigate whether changes could be
➔ Happens when we lose these synaptic
detected in the brains of London taxi
connections because we do not need
drivers.
them.
➔ Unused synapses are pruned, which
Participants: 16 healthy right-handed
increases the effectiveness of the more
licensed taxi drivers and 50 healthy men
commonly used neural circuits.
with no taxi experiences
➔ This is how synaptic pruning helps the
formation and connections of other more
Procedure: MRI scans were obtained from
commonly used neural networks.
16 right-handed London taxi drivers who
have been driving for more than 1.5 years
and 50 healthy right-handed males who do
not drive taxis with age group that did not
differ between the two groups
Results: Increased amounts of gray matter
was found in the brains of taxi drivers
compared to those that never drove taxis.
When comparing the left and right
hippocampus of the participants, it was
found that the posterior hippocampus
increased in volume
Conclusion: The results showed that there
are evidences of structural differences
between the hippocampus of the taxi drivers
and those who have no taxi driving
experiences, which suggests that extensive
practice with spatial navigation affects the
hippocampus
Strengths: The study was able to show
evidences of the structural changes of the
hippocampus of london taxi drivers and
examining how the amount time spent as a
taxi driver correlates to the volume of the
hippocampi and suggests that a mental map
of London is located in the posterior
hippocampus.
Limitations: The limitation is that the study
only studied taxi drivers with specific
characteristics such as gender, age, and
people that are left hand dominant are
excluded.
Ethical Considerations: They were able to
obtain informed consent from the
participants and kept the identity of the
participants a secret.
Studies for Neuroplasticity, Neural
Networks and Neural Pruning
1. Draganski et al (2004)
Aim: To prove the theory of neural pruning
by finding out whether the
human brain can change structure in
response to environmental
demands
Participants: 24 non jugglers (21 females
and 3 males) had structural MRI scans
Procedure: First, each participant had an
MRI scan at the beginning of the study in
order to see the structure of the brain prior
to the experiment. Following this, the
participants were randomly allocated to one
of two
conditions: the jugglers and non-jugglers.
Those that were in the juggling condition
were taught a three-ball cascade juggling
routine. They were asked to practice this
routine and to notify the researchers when
they had mastered it. At that point, the
jugglers had a second MRI scan. After the
scan, they were told not to juggle anymore
and then a third and final scan was carried
out three months later. The non-juggling
group served as a control group for the
duration of the study.
Results: Using voxel based morphometry,
the researchers measured the density of the
gray matter in the brains of jugglers and non
jugglers The jugglers showed a significantly
larger amount of gray matter in the mid
temporal area in both hemispheres (this
area was associated with visual memory)
Three months later following the complete
stop of juggling, the amount of gray matter
in these parts of the brain decreased
Conclusion: Neuroplasticity and neural
pruning are shown, because neural
networks were created when a new skill
was being learned and neural pruning
happened when the information wasn't
necessary anymore so those neurons were
no longer activated, thus the synapses were
eliminated as the amount of dendritic
branches were removed from the lack of
using it so it does that to make room for
more useful information
Strengths: The study was experimental,
thus helping to argue for a cause and effect
relationship. No researcher bias since it was
random sampling. It is easily replicable.
Limitations: Sample size was very small
therefore the data is not reliable. Low
ecological validity. Participant bias due to
self-selection.
2: HORMONES & PHEROMONES
Hormones
- Body’s chemical messenger. They travel
in your bloodstream to tissues or
organs. They work slowly, over time and
affect many different processes,
including: growth and development,
metabolism, sexual function,
reproduction and mood
- Hormones are chemicals that regulate
body functions
- Released by the endocrine glands
Studies for Hormones
1. Romero et al (2014)
Aim: To demonstrate that oxytocin
promotes social bonds in mammals
Participants: 16 dogs (older than 1 year,
different breeds, living in human houses, 6
were genetically related, al had a
relationship lasting over 1 year with the
owners and the partner dogs) and their
owners
Procedure: 16 dogs sprayed intra-nasally
with oxytocin or a placebo. Placed in a room
with their owner and another dog (owner sat
quietly in a chair and moved it every 10
minutes but did not interact with/talk to the
dog. Dog's behavior towards owner and
other dog was recorded from around one
hour
Results:Dogs with oxytocin showed higher
affiliation towards their owner (more
following, licking, nuzzling etc). Similar
results were observed for other dogs in the
room.
Conclusion: Conclusion was that oxytocin
facilitates the maintenance of close social
bonds in mammals
Strengths: This research can be replicated
with human subjects - as it has been.
Provides a comparison between human and
animal studies to see to what extent human
behavior is like animal behavior. This
comparison, together with evolutionary
theories of behavior, can help us
understand humans better, e.g. oxytocin in
the animal world has very straightforward
effects: you can observe how social
behavior is also affected by a number of
social norms. Control group used
Limitations: Ethical considerations, small
sample size, limited generalisability
2. Baumgartner et al (2008)
Aim: To investigate the role of oxytocin in
creating trust
Participants: 49 participants
Procedure: Participants were placed in an
fMRI scanner. They received either oxytocin
or a placebo via a nasal spray. Participants
were then told to act as investors in several
rounds of a trust game involving financial
risk with different trustees. They were also
told that they were to engage in a risk
game, which is the same as a trust game in
terms of financial risk but its is played
against a computer instead of a human
partner. The feedback given to the
participants after they had engaged in both
game indicated that about 50% of their
decisions resulted in poor investment
because their trust was broken
Results: The researchers saw that the
feedback had different results. Participants
who had received a placebo before they
started playing were more likely to decrease
their rate of trust after they had been briefed
that their trust had been broken.
Participants who had received oxytocin in
the nasal spray continued to invest at
similar rates. Apparently, it did not matter to
them that their partner had broken their
trust. The researchers could also see
different brain areas were active in the two
groups. Participants in the oxytocin group
showed decreases in responses in the
amygdala and caudate nucleus.
Conclusion: Oxytocin appears to decrease
fear reactions that may arise as a
consequence of human betrayal. Therefore,
it decreases our ability to learn from
mistakes made in trusting people
Strengths: The study was a highly
controlled experiment. The use of a placebo
allows the researcher to infer a cause and
effect relationship between the level of
oxytocin and the level of trust. The use of
the fMRI allows the researcher to observe
and document activity in the brain during the
study. The data can then be verified by
other researchers. For an MRI study, 49
participants is a high number
Limitations: The fMRI is an artificial
environment and thus affects the ecological
validity of the study. Using a nasal spray to
increase oxytocin does not reflect natural
physiological processes and may not predict
what actually happens in a relationship.
3: GENES & BEHAVIOR
The Nature of Genes
➔ Genes are sections of deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA)
➔ The purpose of genes is to instruct cells
what to become and how to behave
through the creation of proteins
➔ DNA is made up of nucleotides. These
nucleotides all have one of four
nitrogenous bases of adenine (A),
guanine (G), cytosine (C) or thymine (T)
Epigenetics
- The study of how environment affects
gene expression
Gene Expression
- The process whereby a gene initiates
the process of protein formation and
therefore 'activates' the cell according to
the protein that the genetic blueprint (the
gene) creates.
Behaviorism
➔ A theory of learning based on the idea
that all behaviors are acquired through
conditioning, and conditioning occurs
through interaction with the environment
➔ Believe that our actions are shaped by
environmental stimuli
➔ Methodological behaviorism
● states that observable behavior should
be studied scientifically and that mental
states and cognitive processes don’t
add to the understanding of behavior
➔ Radical behaviorism
● is rooted in the theory that behavior can
be understood by looking at one’s past
and present environment and the
reinforcements within it, thereby
influencing behavior either positively or
negatively
Effects of genes in Behavior
- According to the third principle of the
biological level of analysis (BLA),
behavior is innate and inherited because
it is genetically based. Genes are
considered responsible for the
development of behavioral
characteristics.
- It is thought that what is inherited is the
gene that can lead to the development
of the specific behavior, not the behavior
itself.
- This means that an individual may have
a genetic predisposition to a behavior
but without appropriate environmental
stimuli, the behavior will not be
manifested
Twin Studies
➔ There are two types of twins, with
different levels of genetic similarity
➔ Monozygotic twins (MZ twins) share
100% of their genes, as they come from
the same egg
➔ Dizygotic twins (DZ twins), which share
50% of their genes, the same level of
genetic similarity that exists between
any non-twin siblings
➔ Twin studies measure the concordance
rates of a particular trait across the two
different types of twins (and perhaps
across other family relationships as well)
➔ The concordance rate refers to the
chance that one twin will have a
particular traits, given that the other twin
has it
Limitations of Twin Studies
1. MZ and DZ twins may not grow up in
equally similar environments
➔ Twin studies are based on the “equal
environments assumption” - that twins
(both MZ and DZ) share roughly the
same environment. But that is probably
not true. Because MZ twins share 100%
of their genes in common, they tend to
look almost exactly the same. DZ twins
may look quite different and in fact may
even be of different genders
2. Genes and the environment affect each
other
➔ Most twin studies operate on the
assumption that genes and the
environment are two separate sets of
factors. However, an increasing body of
research suggests that genes and the
environment influence each other
Studies for Epigenetics
1. Waterland and Jirtle (2003)
Aim: To investigate the role of nutrition
in epigenetic processes.
Participants: Infant mice that were the
offspring of over 200 generations of agouti
mice breeding.
Procedure: At 8 weeks of age, the mice
were randomly assigned into two conditions:
the control condition and the experimental
condition. The control condition was fed a
normal diet of mouse food in pellet form,
while the experimental condition was fed a
normal diet of mouse pellets as well as
pellets supplemented with vitamin B12, folic
acid, choline chloride and anhydrous
betaine all known to be incredibly high in
methyl groups. This methyl-enriched diet
was provided for 2 weeks prior to mating
with other agouti males as well as during
pregnancy and lactation.
Results: The agouti mothers gave birth to
brown mice who, when monitored into
adulthood, maintained normal weight and
lifespan in contrast to mice with an
expressed agouti genes who die
prematurely due to their obesity.
Conclusion: Genetic expression could be
altered simply by a change in diet.
Strengths: Strong support for epigenetics
in action. Potential to spark future research
into developing epigenetic interventions in
order to treat diseases.
Limitations: Unfortunately, creating
methyl-rich diets in order to silence genes
detrimental to our existence is not so easy.
Studies for Twin Studies
1. Bouchard and McGue et al (1981)
Aim: To investigate the extent to which
heritability plays a role in intelligence.
Participants: 111 twin studies on heritability
of IQ of MZ and DZ twins and siblings who
were reared together or apart from around
the world
Procedure: Researchers gave them
approximately 50 hours of psychological
and physiological testing. Researchers
selected the studies based on a number of
criteria, and calculated median correlations
between IQ scores
Results: MZ reared together (100%) = 0.85
median IQ correlation, MZ apart (100%) =
0.67, DZ together (50%) = 0.58, Siblings
together (50%) = 0.45
Conclusion: IQ is inherited to a large
extent of 54% but is not completely
inherited. The more genetically similar the
siblings, the more similar their IQ
Strengths: Large samples of participants
were chosen which increases population
and ecological validity. Very reliable due to
the high amount of researches that serve as
proof for this theory
Limitations: They used media coverage as
a sample recruitment which reduces
reliability. The amount of contact between
the participants prior to the experiment is
not controlled. There is an assumption that
those reared together face the same
environment
Studies for Evolutionary Approach
1. Curtis, Aunger and Rabie et al (2004)
Aim: To determine if disgust was an
evolutionary behavior that evolved as a
survival instinct.
Participants: Volunteers who completed a
survey online. The total sample was over
77,000 people from 165 countries
Procedure: Data was gathered in a survey
placed on the BBC Science website. First,
participants were asked a series of
demographic questions, such as age and
country of origin. Then they were asked to
rate 20 photographs for disgust on a scale
from 1 to 5. These photographs were similar
pairs of digitally manipulated stimuli - on of
the photographs in the pair was disease -
salient and the other one less salient.
Results: Ratings of disgust in response to
disease salient stimuli were higher than
ratings of disgust towards similar stimuli that
were digitally manipulated to be less
disease salient. For example, a plate of
organic looking fluid that looked chemical
Conclusion: Results of the study supported
the evolutionary explanation: disgust is a
biologically based response to disease
salient stimuli that reduced the risk of
disease.
Strengths: Large sample
Limitations: Self reported studies -
questionnaire online is not best way to gain
valid responses not effective way of
measuring disgust
4: ANIMAL RESEARCH
Reasons for doing Animal Research
1. For comparative psychologists, their
main reason is their concern and / or
interest in animals. they either focus on
a particular species ot compare this
species to humans
2. Another group of researchers also do
this because they advocate the study of
animals as models of human beings and
the expectation is that the findings will
be universal and generalizable
3. Another possibility is that there are
researchers that use animal studies to
understand particular human conditions
such as diseases
Advantages for doing Animal research
1. Ease of conducting research
2. Less ethical concerns
3. Ability to study behavior over the
lifespan
4. Ease of carefully controlling variables
5. Genetic similarity between rats and
humans
Disadvantages for doing Animal research
1. Animals and humans are never exactly
the same
2. Even if humans and animals are similar
in some aspect biologically, they can still
differ psychologically
3. Results from mouse models / animal
models are never directly applied to
humans. Even if mouse models are
successful, it still needs to be tested with
the use of larger animals (”pyramid of
generalization”)
4. Animals are tested in strict controlled
laboratory environments, so they maybe
in a lot of stress (ecological validity
issue)
5. Although humans and animals are
similar in many ways, they are still
essentially different
Studies for animal research
1. Merzenich et al (1984)
Aim: To investigate whether or not there will
be a change in the somatosensory cortex in
relation to extreme stimulus such as the the
removal of portions of the body

Participants: 8 adult owl monkeys
Procedure: The monkeys are anesthetized.
Sensory inputs from the finger are mapped
in the cortex. Electrodes are inserted into
the cortical area, which is commonly known
to be responsible for sensation from the
hand. Then researchers stimulate various
areas of the fingers to be able to compare
the difference of functions in the sensory
cortex. The middle finger on the monkey’s
hand is then amputated. 62 days later a
remapping of the cortical area is done to
observe changes, as it is responsible for the
sensitivity of the hand.
Results: It was determined in the first
mapping that there were 5 distinct areas in
the brain each responsible for one finger,
after amputating a finger, the adjacent areas
spread and occupied the parts of the now
unused area. It was concluded that cortical
remapping of sensory inputs from the hands
occurs within 62 days in owl monkeys.
Conclusion: There is evidence that digit
amputation causes expansion of the cortical
representation of the adjacent digits.
Sensory cortex of adult owl monkeys adapt
to injury by cortical remapping.
Strengths: This provides evidence towards
neuroplasticity as there was an apparent
shift of functions from one brain region to
another in response to the loss of a specific
sensory area. Shown through the loss of
portions of the finger through amputation.
Limitations: There is a limitation on its
generalization on humans as it is an animal
experiment. Although the conclusions drawn
by the experiment are valid, they need to be
done in a larger sample size to reinforce the
results. Only one species of monkey was
utilized. Different monkey species may have
varying brain structures.
Ethical Considerations: Animal cruelty,
amputated an owl monkey causing
permanent physical harm. Similarities drawn
between human beings and monkeys
should also concede the sentience afforded
to monkeys, therefore, they experience pain
the same way humans do.
COGNITIVE APPROACH
1: MEMORY
The Multi-Store Memory Model
- Memory is a cognitive process that is
used to encode, store and retrieve
information
Strengths of the Multi-Store Memory Model:
➔ Strong support from researches
➔ Gives us a good understanding of the
structure and process of the STM
➔ Many memory studies provide evidence
to support the distinction between STM
and LTM (in terms of encoding, duration
and capacity). The model can account
for primacy and recency effects
Limitations of the Multi-Store Memory
Model:
➔ The WMM provides an explanation for
parallel processing (i.e. where
processes involved in a cognitive task
occur at once), unlike Atkinson and
Shiffrin’s MSM.
➔ Focus on structure rather than process
➔ The model was developed based on
evidence from laboratory experiments,
 so confounding variables could be
carefully controlled to produce reliable
results (that can be replicated).
Working Memory Model
STM Working Memory
➔ The small amount of information that
can be held in the mind and used in the
execution of cognitive tasks (cowan,
2013)
➔ The info we hold & manipulate in our
conscious attention
➔ Consciously processing thinking about -
at any one time
➔ Examples: Problem solving, navigating,
music and reading
Studies for the MSM:
1. Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)
Aim: Examine whether the position of
words influences recall (primacy & recency
effects) and see if there are two separate
stores of memory (STM & LTM)
Participants: 240 US Army enlisted males
Procedure: The participants were
presented lists of words one at a time. They
were asked to recall the words and could do
so in any order (free recall). Condition 1:
Half of the participants were asked to recall
the words immediately after memorizing
them (immediate recall). Condition 2: The
other half of the participants counted
backwards for 30 seconds before recalling
the words. However, the participants were
not randomly allocated to the conditions
above
Results: Delaying recall by 30 seconds
destroys the recency effect causing recall of
later words to be similar to ones in the
middle, however it does not influence
primacy effect. Participants had a higher
probability of recall on items that were near
the start of the list (i.e. early serial position),
called the primacy effect. Participants had a
higher probability of recall on items that
were near the end of the list (i.e. late serial
position), called the recency effect
Conclusion: When there are too many
words for them all to be remembered, the
primacy effect results in the first words
being recalled and the recency effect results
in the last words being recalled. According
to Glanzer & Cunitz, the primacy effect
occurs because words remembered from
the beginning of the list have already been
stored in LTM, while the words at the end of
the list are still in STM and so are easily
recalled. The distractor task reduces
recency effects as it interferes with STM
Strengths: The experiment offers evidence
for two separate stores of memory (STM &
LTM) thus supporting the multi-store
memory model
Limitations: High control but low ecological
validity - memorizing list of random words
(artificial). This is a controlled laboratory
study with highly controlled variables, but
there is no random allocation of participants
to experimental conditions so it is not a true
experiment
Studies for WMM
1. Warrington and Shallice (1970)
Aim: To investigate the relationship
between short-term memory and long-term
memory when short-term memory has been
impaired
Participants: Patient KF had experienced
brain damage after a motorcycle accident.
His LTM was intact but his STM showed
impairment.
Procedure: Researchers directly observed
his behavior and administered memory
recall tests during which they asked him to
recall lists of words and numbers as well as
learning tasks.
Results: It was found that KF quickly forgot
numbers and words when they were
presented to him orally, but was able to
remember them when they were presented
to him visually. His impairment was mainly
for verbal information and not for visual
information
Conclusion: This implies that there are two
separate memory stores for verbal/oral
information and visual information, which
supports the WMM.
Strengths: This study had carefully
designed experiments on a person's case
study. Triangulation was used because
Shallice and Warrington analyzed this case
study through various different experimental
techniques. Variables such as the materials
and K.F.'s comprehension and expressive
language expression were carefully isolated
and controlled.
Limitations: There is no analysis of why
number recalling is better than verbal, and
there is no alternative explanation of how
auditory material is transferred into LTM if
STM is so impaired. Since this study is a
case study, there is no causation.
2: SCHEMA THEORY
Schema
➔ A cluster of related pieces of
information, knowledge, or memory that
are stored in the mind (mind not brain)
➔ They’re also called cognitive frameworks
as they are a system for categorizing
and organizing information and memory
➔ Schema being a framework of ideas and
pattern of beliefs is used to comprehend
new information and seek to make
sense of it.
➔ There are many types of schema that
help us organize the world: social
schema, trait schema, role schema,
script schema and many more.
Schema Theory
➔ A theory attempting to explain how our
minds organize information, knowledge
and memory
➔ A central claim of schema theory is:
➔ that our knowledge of the world is
organized and categorized
➔ this can influence our cognition and
behavior
The Role of Schema
➔ Are used to guide instruction in schools,
to understand gender roles, to explain
causes and possible solutions to
disorders like depression, to understand
stereotyping and how it happens, and
there is a wide body of research out
there investigating the role that schemas
play in memory.
➔ It turns out that memory is a relatively
active process. Schemas are part of that
because two individuals can experience
the exact same situation but remember
it in different ways, because of how their
schemas are processing and organizing
the incoming information. Just because
two people have had the same
 experience it does not mean they will
remember it in the same way.
➔ The important thing is that because they
are mediating processes, schemas play
a key role in the construction of memory,
or more precisely, in the reconstruction
of memory. No matter how much
memory might seem to flash back like
so many episodes recorded on a
camera, it is really not that reliable.
Memory is prone to all sort of distortions,
and schemas are part of the reason for
that.
Memory
➔ The multi-store and working memory
models focus on how memory is
encoded, stored and retrieved through
various stages and memory stores, but
neither model says much about what
memories are actually made of.
➔ The structure of long-term memory is
theorized to consist of categories,
prototypes, and schemas
➔ Categories are groups or networks
of memories that are associated with
each other and have features in
common
➔ Prototypes are the ‘most typical’
members of a category, representing
its defining features
➔ Schemas are a particular kind of
mental category
➔ Although they are not the only cognitive
structure involved in memory and other
cognitive processes like thinking or
decision-making, schemas are almost
like the framework for the structure of
long-term memory – memories are built
from schemas.
➔ Schemas and memory have a
bidirectional relationship, meaning that
they influence each other. new
experiences and memories result in new
schemas, which in turn affect the
encoding, storage and retrieval of new
memories.
Schemas Processing
➔ The way schemas are processed is
considered automatic and
non-conscious: people are cognitive
misers and schemas save cognitive
energy, making the processes of
thinking and memory a whole lot easier.
➔ Most of the time, schemas appear to be
operating outside of conscious
awareness, shaping an individual's
behavior, thinking and social interactions
in the background. Schemas mediate
incoming sensory information, but they
also mediate outgoing behavior.
Schemas are processed in a variety of
ways, including:
➔ Top-down processing – sensory inputs
are processed through existing mental
representations (the opposite process is
bottom-up processing, which focuses on
the features of the sensory inputs, not
related cognitions).
➔ Pattern recognition – inputs are
'matched' to existing mental
representations.
➔ Stereotyping – using a fixed mental
representation to perceive other people.
Studies for Schema theory
1. Bartlett et al (1920;1932)
Aim: To investigate how cultural schemas
can influence memory
Participants: British participants
Procedure: British participants read a
Native American folk story called "War of
the Ghosts" twice, then asked to reproduce
it from memory soon after, as well as on a
later date. (In another variation of the study,
participants told the story to someone else,
who then had to remember the story and
write it down). The content and style of the
story was unfamiliar to the British readers,
as it was not written according to the
storytelling conventions of English literature
Results: When the participants recalled the
story, the length of the story became
shorter, and the story became more
conventional. Unusual details (such as the
unfamiliar names, or the revelation that the
warriors were actually ghosts) were left out
or distorted (for instance, some participants
remembered "boats" instead of the
unfamiliar "canoes"). No matter how much
the recollection of the story differed from the
original, it remained a coherent, complete
story. This suggests that participants tried to
remember the story as a whole, rather than
trying to memorize specific details
individually
Conclusion: Participants found it difficult to
remember the "War of the Ghosts" because
the story does not fit any of our cultural
schemas. It is neither a typical horror story
or war story, and hence it is difficult to relate
to our existing knowledge of the world.
Cultural schemas can lead to memory
distortions, as we try to "fit" the new
information to our existing schemas
Strengths: This study supports the
hypothesis that schemas can lead to
distorted or false memories
Limitations: As this study took place a long
time ago (1932), the conventions of modern
Psychological research had yet to be
developed. For instance, participants were
not given standardized instructions,
suggesting that the procedure was not
carefully controlled. There is debate over
the ecological validity of this study. Some
may argue that trying to memorize a story is
an artificial task, which has questionable
relevance for real life. On the other hand,
we are often exposed to information second
hand, through the telling of family and
friends, which is not unlike trying to
remember a story.
2. Brewer and Treyen (1981)
Aim: To see whether a stereotypical
schema of an office would affect memory
(recall) of an office.
Participants: 30 university students
Procedure: Participants were taken into a
university student office and left for 35
seconds before being taken to another
room. They were asked to write down as
much as they could remember from the
office.
Results: Participants recalled things of a
“typical office” according to their schema.
They did not recall the wine and picnic
basket that were in the office.
Conclusion: Participants' schema of an
office influenced their memory of it. They did
not recall the wine and picnic basket
because it is not part of their “typical office”
schema.
Strengths: The study confirms schema
theory (and reconstructive memory).Strict
control over variables --> to determine
cause & effect relationship
Limitations: The study used deception
(participants were not told about the real
purpose of the experiment). However the
study couldn't have been done without this
so it was justified. There is sample bias.
University students were used as
participants so it may be difficult to
generalize the results.Lacks ecological
validity
3: THINKING AND DECISION-MAKING
Thinking
➔ The process of using knowledge and
information to make plans, interpret the
world, and make predictions about the
world in general
➔ Thinking produces new information. We
combine and restructure existing
knowledge to generate new knowledge
Decision-Making
➔ A cognitive process that involves
selecting one of the possible beliefs or
actions, that is making a choice between
some alternatives
System 1 Thinking
➔ Automatic, intuitive, and requires no
effort. You don't need to spend any time
carefully thinking it over - you just know.
System 2 Thinking
➔ Slower, conscious, and rational style of
thinking
➔ Thinking is deliberate and effortful,
requiring mental work and concentration
Two Systems Theory / Dual Process Model
➔ The core idea behind the two-system
view of thinking is that intuitive thinking
and rational thinking are characterized
by distinct cognitive processes
➔ Each style of thinking may draw on the
same content, but they process it
differently
The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)
➔ Aims to explain the relationship between
attitudes and behaviors when making
choices
➔ Proposed by Martin Fishbein in 1967
➔ The main idea of the theory is that an
individual’s choice of a particular
behavior is based on the expected
outcomes of that behavior
➔ If we believe that a particular behavior
will lead to a particular (desired)
outcome, this creates a predisposition
known as the behavioral intention. The
stronger the behavioral intention, the
stronger the effort we put into
implementing the plan and hence the
higher the probability that this behavior
will actually be executed.
The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
➔ These three factors lead to an intention:
your desire to perform the behaviors
1. Attitudes
➔ What do I think?
➔ Describes your individual perception of
the behavior (whether this behavior is
positive or negative)
➔ Affective Attitude (Is the behavior
enjoyable or not?)
➔ Instrumental Attitude (Is the behavior
beneficial or harmful?)
2. Subjective Norms
➔ What do others think?
➔ Subjective Norms describe the
perceived social pressure regarding this
behavior (if it is socially acceptable or
desirable to do it). Is there support given
by significant others?
➔ Injunctive norms- Others encourage the
behavior
➔ Descriptive Norms- Others do the
behavior as well
3. Perceived behavioral Control
➔ Can I do it?
➔ Perceived Behavioral Control refers to
the degree to which a person believes
that he or she can perform a given
behavior. Perceived behavioral control
involves the perception of the
individual's own ability to perform the
behavior.
Studies for Thinking and
Decision-Making
1. Alter and Oppenheimer (2007)
Aim: To investigate how font affects thinking
Participants: 40 Princeton students
Procedure: 40 Princeton students
completed the Cognitive Reflection Test
(CRT). This test was made up of 3
questions and measures whether people
use fast thinking to answer the question
(and get it wrong) or use slow thinking (and
get it right). Half the students were given the
CRT in an easy-to-read font, while the other
half were given the CRT in a difficult-to-read
font
Results: Among students given the CRT in
easy font, only 10% of participants
answered all three questions correctly, while
among the students given the CRT in
difficult font, 65% of participants were fully
correct
Conclusion: When a question is written in
a difficult-to-read font, this causes
participants to slow down, and engage in
more deliberate, effortful System 2 thinking,
resulting in answering the question
correctly. On the other hand, when the
question is written in an easy-to-read font,
participants use quick, unconscious and
automatic System 1 thinking to come up
with the obvious (but incorrect) answer
Strengths: This study provides strong
evidence for dual processing theory,
providing support for Kahneman's model of
fast System 1 and slow System 2 thinking
Limitations: The study only involved
Princeton undergraduate students, which
are clearly not representative of the general
population. Therefore, the results may not
generalize to other groups of participants.
The CRT is made up of "trick" questions,
which rarely come up in everyday life.
Therefore, the ecological validity of this
study is low, as the real-world significance
of these findings is unclear
2. Albarracin et al (2001)
Aim: To investigate predictive validity of
TPB (theory of planned behavior) for people
decision to use a condom
Method: Meta-analysis (refers to the
statistical analysis of the data from
independent primary studies focused on the
same question, which aims to generate a
quantitative estimate of the studied
phenomenon)
Procedure: 42 published + unpublished
research paper with 96 data sets. All data
sets from published research combine in a
single large data matrix. Analyzed the fit of
the model of planned behavior
Results: TPB turned out to be a successful
predictor of condom use. The correlation
between intention and behavior in this
model was 0.51. there were significant
correlations between behavioral intentions +
norms, attitudes, and perceived control.
Conclusion: It was concluded that people
are more likely to use condoms when they
have formed an intention to do so. In their
turn, these intentions are based on
attitudes, subjective norms and perceived
behavioral control. On a broader scale, the
study confirms the predictive validity of the
TPB in the specific domain of condom use.
Predictive validity: The success with
which a test predicts the behavior it is
designed to predict; it is assessed by
computing the correlation between test
scores and the criterion behavior.
Strengths: Large sample, drawn from
numerous different sources
Limitations: Alternative explanation exists:
environmental stimuli and past actions
influence decision making process as well,
one flaw of TPB
RESEARCH METHODS
1: RESEARCH METHODS
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
1. Case Studies
➔ A case study is a detailed analysis over
time of a singular area of interest (a
case) to produce in-depth,
context-dependent knowledge.
2. Naturalistic Observations
➔ Naturalistic observations are
observations of naturally occurring
behavior in a natural
setting.Observations may be participant
or non-participant observations.
3. Participant Observations
➔ In participant observations, the
researcher becomes part of the group
he or she observes.
4. Non-participant Observations
➔ Non-participant observation means that
the researcher is not part of the group
being studied.
5. Interviews
➔ These are used to gain an insight into
people’s thoughts, opinions, and
feelings from their own point of view.
➔ Unstructured interviews are
interviews where the questions are
not prearranged.
➔ Semi-structured interviews involve
the preparation of an interview guide
that lists themes that should be
explored during the interview.
➔ A focus group normally consists of
six to ten people.Members of a focus
group often have a common
characteristic that is relevant for the
topic of investigation, which is why
purposive sampling is often used.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
1. Experiments
➔ Experiments are designed with one
clear independent variable (IV) and a
dependent variable (DV).
2. Field Experiments
➔ In field experiments, the researcher
manipulates the IV but conducts the
experiment in a real-life environment.
3. Natural Experiments
➔ In natural experiments, researchers find
naturally occurring variables and study
them.
4. Correlation Research
➔ In correlations research there is a focus
on two variables, but these are not
termed independent and dependent
variables as the hypothesis is not based
on a potential cause and effect, instead
they are referred to as co-variables.
5. Surveys
➔ Quantitative surveys usually involve
tightly focused questions that can be
answered with a numbered answer
response on a scale.
2: SAMPLING METHODS
QUALITATIVE SAMPLING METHODS
1. Quota Sampling
➔ Application of quota sampling ensures
that the sample group represents certain
characteristics of the population chosen
by the researcher.
2. Purposive Sampling
➔ This is similar to quota sampling in the
sense that the main characteristics of
participants are defined in advance and
then researchers recruit participants
who have these characteristics.
However, the proportions and the
sample size are not defined.
3. Theoretical Sampling
➔ This is a special type of purposive
sampling that stops when the point of
data saturation is reached. Data
Saturation means that no new
information is obtained from new
participants added to the sample.
4. Snowball Sampling
➔ In this approach a small number of
participants are invited and asked to
invite other people they know who also
are of interest for the purposes of the
research.
5. Convenience Sampling
➔ The most superficial approach where
you just use the sample that is easily
available or accessible.
QUANTITATIVE SAMPLING METHODS
1. Random Sampling
➔ The process where every member in the
target population has an equal chance
of being selected
2. Convenience / Opportunity Sampling
➔ Gaining a sample of Participants that
are easily available. the process of
selecting people who are able to
participate in the study at a given time.
They may be known to the researcher or
within a place the researcher has
access to.
3. Stratified Sampling
➔ In short, Stratified random sampling
allows researchers to obtain a sample
population that best represents the
entire population being studied.
Researchers divide subjects into
subgroups called strata based on
 characteristics that they share (e.g.,
race, gender, educational attainment).
4. Self-Selected Sampling
➔ This refers to recruiting volunteers. It is
when the inclusion or exclusion of
sampling units is determined by whether
the units themselves agree or decline to
participate in the sample.
3: ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
1. Protection of participants
➔ Participants should be protected from
physical and mental harm and distress
➔ This includes humiliation, stress, injury,
etc.
➔ Participants should not be forced to
reveal personal information.
2. Consent / Informed Consent
➔ Participants must be informed of the true
aims and nature of research before
giving consent
➔ Sometimes it is not possible to give full
information about research.
➔ Participant bias: knowing the true
aims of a study may affect
participants' behavior and thus the
results of a study
➔ It is considered acceptable not to
give full informed consent if no harm
is expected
➔ A guardian or family member should
also give consent to the study if the
participants are
➔ Children under 18 years of age
➔ Adults incompetent of understanding
the true nature and aims of the study
3. Right to Withdraw
➔ Participants should be informed of their
right to withdraw their participation and
data at any time in the study (even at
the end) without penalty.
4. Confidentiality
➔ Data collected in a study should remain
confidential and anonymous to protect
participants from possible
consequences that may result from their
data
5. Deception
➔ Deception should be avoided
➔ But slight deception is considered
acceptable if:
➔ Participant bias would result from
participants knowing the true aims of the
study
➔ The research has potential significant
contribution
➔ It is unavoidable
➔ The deception does not cause any
distress to the participant, including
upon being informed of the deception
➔ If deception is involved, informed
consent is not obtained
➔ Any deception must be revealed at the
earliest opportunity
6. Debriefing
➔ Participants should leave the study
without undue stress
➔ Findings of the research should be
made available to participants as soon
as possible
➔ Any deception must be revealed and
justified
4: GENERALIZABILITY, CREDITY, ➔ Ecological validity refers to whether
BIAS a study's findings can be generalized
to additional situations or settings.

QUALITATIVE GENERALIZABILITY
Reflexivity
➔ Is based on the assumption that its
1. Sample-to-population generalization
important the researcher is aware of his
(Representational generalization)
or her own contribution of meaning in
➔ findings from qualitative research
the research process
studies can be applied to populations
➔ A process that allows the researcher to
outside the population of the study.
reflect on ways in which bias may occur

2. Case-to-case generalization (Inferential

Triangulation
generalization)
➔ The validation of data through cross
➔ Findings of the study can be applied to
verification from two or more sources
settings outside the setting of the study.
➔ Methodological Triangulation:
This is also called transferability or
different methods are used to
external validity.
research the same phenomena
➔ Theoretical triangulation: the search
3. Theoretical generalization
for evidence or approaches that
➔ Theoretical concepts derived from the
could contradict their interpretation is
study can be used to develop further
conducted through a different
theories.
theoretical lens
➔ Researcher triangulation: the use of
QUANTITATIVE GENERALIZABILITY
other researchers who would bring
different perspectives and
1. Construct Validity
experience that might challenge the
➔ Construct validity concerns the extent to
findings of the lead researcher
which your test or measure accurately
assesses what it's supposed to.
Bias
➔ Refers to human factors that may affect
2. Internal Validity
the results of the study
➔ Internal validity is a measure of how well
a study is conducted (its structure) and
A. Researcher bias
how accurately its results reflect the
➔ Researcher bias is when the researcher
studied group.
themselves influences the result of the
study because of a personal view they
3. External validity
hold.
➔ External validity relates to how
applicable the findings are in the real
B. Participant bias
world. Findings can be generalized.
➔ Participant bias is when participants act
➔ Population validity refers to whether
according to how they think the
you can generalize the research
researcher may want them to act.
outcomes to other populations or
groups.