2 Exercise Set 2 - Geodesics

2.1 1.) Christoffel symbols

2.1.1 1.) Calculation
Prompt: Problem 1. (Problem 8.2 in Hartle) In usual spherical coordinates, the metric
on a two-dimensional sphere is
ds2 = a2 dθ2 + sin2 θdϕ2
where a is a constant. a) Calculate the Christoffel symbols “by hand”. b) Show that
a great circle is a solution of the geodesic equation. (Hint: Make use of the freedom to
orient the coordinates so the equation of a great circle is simple.)
Solution: A Christoffel symbol is denoted as Γαµν . To calculate one, use the formula,
1
Γαµν = g αβ (∂µ gβν + ∂ν gβµ − ∂β gµν
2
Note: we usually see the g with the subscript terms, the g with a superscript is the inverse.
Now, from the provided metric,
 
2 1 0
gαβ = a
0 sin2 θ
Matrix inversion has many steps, refresh one’s linear algebra; however a (diagonal) matrix
inversion is easy, just take the inverse of each of the terms. Do this to the above, and get
 
αβ −2 1 0
g =a
0 sin12 θ
With two dimensions (θ andϕ), there are eight Christoffel symbols:
Γθθθ , Γθθϕ , Γθϕθ , Γθϕϕ , Γϕθθ , Γϕθϕ , Γϕϕθ , Γϕϕϕ
Now calculate them one by one,
1 1
Γθθθ = g θθ (∂θ gθθ + ∂θ gθθ − ∂θ gθθ ) + g θϕ (∂θ gϕθ + ∂θ gϕθ − ∂ϕ gθθ )
2 2
1 1
Γθθθ = g θθ (∂θ (1) + ∂θ (1) − ∂θ (1)) + (0)(∂θ gϕθ + ∂θ gϕθ − ∂ϕ gθθ )
2 2
1 1
Γθθθ = g θθ (0 + 0 − 0) + (0)
2 2
θ
Γθθ = 0

Γθθϕ =

Γθϕϕ =

Γϕϕθ =

Γϕθθ =

Γϕϕϕ =

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2.1.2 2.) Great circles as solutions of geodesics
Have memorized and start with,
duµ
+ Γµαβ uα uβ = 0
dσ
In this case of two dimensions, the general equation takes 6 particular forms:

4 of them are not insightful ( 0 = 0 ) The 2 remaining are,

duθ
+ Γθϕϕ uϕ uϕ + Γθθθ uθ uθ = 0
dσ
Why no mixing of the theta and phi terms?
duθ
+ (−sinθ)(cosθ)(uϕ )(uϕ ) + 0 = 0
dσ
and
duϕ
+ Γϕϕϕ uϕ uϕ + Γθθθ uθ uθ = 0
dσ
More terms above?
duϕ
+ 2cotθ(uθ )(uϕ ) = 0
dσ
For optimal simplicity, orient the coordinates such that θ = π/2. Then,
d d
(θ) = (π/2) = 0
dθ dθ
d
But note that the definition of dθ
= uθ , so

uθ = 0

Substitute
duϕ
+ 2cotθ · (0) · uϕ = 0
dσ
duϕ
+ (0) = 0
dσ
duϕ
=0
dσ
Integrate both sides
uϕ = constant = P
Also,
dϕ
uϕ =
dτ
So,
dϕ
=P
dτ
dϕ = P dτ
ϕ = Pτ + C

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2.2 2.) Lagrangian
Prompt: Problem 2. (Problem 8.3 in Hartle) A three-dimensional spacetime has the line
element    −1
2 2M 2 2M
ds = − 1 − dt + 1 − dr2 + r2 dϕ2
r r
a) Find the explicit Lagrangian for the variational principle for geodesics in this spacetime
in these coordinates. b) Using the result of (a) write out the components of the geodesic
equation by computing them from the Lagrangian. c) Read of the nonzero Christoffel
symbols for this metric from your results in (b).
Solution: Let,
2M
f = (1 + )
r
The Lagrangian will be obtained from the proper time, which is
r
dxµ dxν
Z Z
dτ = S = dσ −gµν
dσ dσ
So,
dxµ dxν
L = −gµν = −gµν x˙µ x˙ν
dσ dσ
And the g term comes from the metric
 
f 0 0 0
 0 −f −1 0 0 
g= 
0 0 −r2 0 
2
0 0 0 −r sinθ
q
L = f ṫ2 − f −1 ṙ2 − r2 ϕ̇2
Memorized and use the Euler–Lagrange equation:
   
d ∂L ∂L
− =0
dσ ∂ ẋµ ∂xµ

Note that, in this class, ẋµ and xµ are independent, so

L = −gµν x˙µ x˙ν = f (x˙µ )

And
L ̸= f (xµ )
So,  
∂L
=0
∂xµ
The remaining portion of the E-L equation here is then
 
d ∂L
=0
dσ ∂ ẋµ

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Solve this for 3 variables: t, r, and phi
For t,    
d ∂L d ∂
= (L) = 0
dσ ∂ ṫ dσ ∂ ṫ
Substitute in for L  
d ∂
q
f ṫ2 − f −1 ṙ2 − r2 ϕ̇2 =0
dσ ∂ ṫ
Chain rule,
 −1/2 ∂  
d 1 2 −1 2 2 2 2 −1 2 2 2
− f ṫ − f ṙ − r ϕ̇ f ṫ − f ṙ − r ϕ̇ =0
dσ 2 ∂ ṫ

Notice, the middle-left part is the inverse of the original L (L−1 = (f ṫ2 −f −1 ṙ2 −r2 ϕ̇2 )−1/2 ),
so   
d 11 ∂ 2 ∂ −1 2 ∂ 2 2
− f ṫ − f ṙ − r ϕ̇ =0
dσ 2 L ∂ ṫ ∂ ṫ ∂ ṫ
  
d 1 ∂ 2
− f ṫ − 0 − 0 =0
dσ 2L ∂ ṫ
 
d 1

− f · 2ṫ = 0
dσ 2L
 
d f ṫ
− =0
dσ L
 
d f (r)ṫ
=0
dσ L
For r,  
 
d ∂L d ∂
= (L) = 0
dσ ∂ ṙ
dσ ∂ ṙ
 −1/2 ∂  
d 1 2 −1 2 2 2 2 −1 2 2 2
− f ṫ − f ṙ − r ϕ̇ f ṫ − f ṙ − r ϕ̇ =0
dσ 2 ∂ ṙ
  
d 11 ∂ 2 ∂ −1 2 ∂ 2 2
− f ṫ − f ṙ − r ϕ̇ =0
dσ 2 L ∂ ṙ ∂ ṙ ∂ ṙ
  
d 11 ∂ −1 2 ∂ 2 2
− (0) − f ṙ − r ϕ̇ =0
dσ 2L ∂ ṙ ∂ ṙ
For phi,   
d ∂L
d ∂
= (L) = 0
dσ dσ ∂ ϕ̇
∂ ϕ̇
 −1/2 ∂  
d 1 2 −1 2 2 2 2 −1 2 2 2
− f ṫ − f ṙ − r ϕ̇ f ṫ − f ṙ − r ϕ̇ =0
dσ 2 ∂ ϕ̇
  
d 11 ∂ 2 ∂ −1 2 ∂ 2 2
− f ṫ − f ṙ − r ϕ̇ =0
dσ 2 L ∂ ϕ̇ ∂ ϕ̇ ∂ ϕ̇

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2.3 3.) Constant norm of four-velocity
Prompt: Problem 3. (Problem 8.6 in Hartle) Show by direct calculation from the
geodesic equation
duα
+ Γαβγ uβ uγ = 0
dτ
that the norm of the four-velocity u · u is a constant along a geodesic.
Solution:

2.4 4.) Hyperbolic geodesics

Prompt: Problem 4. (Problem 8.12 in Hartle) The hyperbolic plane defined by the
metric
1
ds2 = dx2 + dy 2 , y ≥ 0


y
is a classic example of a two-dimensional surface. a) Show that points on the x-axis are an
infinite distance from any point (x, y) in the upper half-plane. b) Write out the geodesic
equations. c) show that the geodesics are semicircles centered on the x-axis or vertical
lines. d) Solve the geodesic equations to find x and y as functions of the length S along
these curves.
Solution:

2.5 5.) Geodesics and Killing vectors

Prompt: Problem 5. We denote the inner product of two 4-vectors with the dot:

u · v = gµν uµ uν

a) Using the geodesic equation, show that

d
(K · u) = uµ uν (∂µ Kν − Γσµν Kσ )
dτ
where uµ is the 4-velocity. A vector K µ that satisfies dτ (K · u) = 0 for all u is called
a Killing vector. b) Using the above show that for a metric gµν for which the metric
components do not depend on one of the coordinates, say x (i) , then the vector

K µ = η µ(i)

is Killing.
Solution:

2.6 6.) Killing vectors in the SZ metric

Prompt: Problem 6. The Schwarzschild metric is given by

ds2 = −F (r)c2 dt2 + F −1 (r)dr2 + r2 dΩ22

where
2M
F (r) = 1 −
r

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