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بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم
اللهم ال تزغ قلوبنا بعد إذ هديتنا وهب لنا من لدنك رحمة إنك أنت الو َهاب
Changing numbers to operators.
Relativistic dispersion relation for a single particle:
E2 = p2 c 2 +m2 c 4 ⇒ E=±√ p 2 c 2 +m2 c 4
Sign ambiguity!! Is related to the fact that relativistic theories give rise to both particles and
antiparticles .
Great success of RQM is the prediction of antiparticles arising from this negative sign ambiguity.
Negative sign solution.
Also spin df
In massless photon its antiparticle is also a photon.
E i ,
t ⃗p= ℏ ∇
⃗
i
Sub into dispersion equation to get:
2
2∂ ψ
−ℏ 2
=−ℏ2 c 2 ∇ 2 ψ +m2 c 2 ψ
∂t : Free particles.
μ
Now ¿ ∂ μ ∂
2 2 2 m 2c 4
c 0
2 t 2 2 4 2
∂ ψ 2 2 m c
−c ∇ ψ + 2 ψ=0
∂t 2 ℏ
2
∂ ψ mc
[ −∇ 2 ψ ]+( )2 ψ =0
Or ∂(ct )
2 ℏ
2
∂0 ∂0 =∂ t ∂t = ∂ 2 =∂ 0 ∂
x0
x
But ∂t
2
−∇ =∂ i ∂ =∂i (−∂i )=− ∂ i 2 =∂ i (+∂ )=−∂ xi ∂ xi
2 i xi
x
(∂x )
0
I= 1,2,3, x =ct
∂ μ ∂ μ =∂ 0 ∂ 0−∂i ∂ i=
2 2 2 m2c 4
2 2
c 0
∂ − ∂ t 2 2
2 2 2 4
= ∂(ct
c 2 )2 (∂m
x i )c2 0
2 2
t
Last time??????????
F 0 J Check if (-)sign should be removed.
1
∂ α F αβ=μ 0× J β
c
1
∂α F αβ=μ 0× Jβ
√ μ0 ε 0
∂ α F αβ=
√ μ0
ε0
Jβ
Proof:
A suitable Lagrangian density for electromagnetic field is:
1 1
Ldensity =L D=− F λρ F λρ+ J λ A λ
4 μ0 c
To obtain the E-L eqns., we note that:
∂ LD 1 ∂ Aλ
=0+ J
∂ Aμ c λ ∂ Aμ
∂ LD 1
= J λ δ λμ
∂ Aμ c
∂ LD
1
= Jμ
∂A c
μ
∂ LD 1 ∂ F λρ ∂ F λρ
=− ( F λρ + F λρ )+ 0
∂(∂υ A μ ) 4 μ0 ∂ ( ∂υ A μ ) ∂ (∂υ A μ)
∂ LD 1 ∂ F λρ ∂ F λρ
=− ( F λρ + F λρ )
∂(∂υ A μ ) 4 μ0 ∂ ( ∂υ A μ ) ∂ ( ∂υ A μ )
∂ LD 1 ∂ F λρ λρ
=− ×2 F
∂(∂ υ A μ ) 4 μ0 ∂ ( ∂υ A μ )
∂ LD 1 ∂ F λρ
=− × F λρ
∂(∂ υ A μ ) 2 μ0 ∂ ( ∂ υ A μ )
∂ LD 1
× ∂ ∂ A −∂ A F λρ
2 μ0 ∂ ( ∂ υ A μ ) ( λ ρ ρ λ )
=−
∂(∂ υ A μ )
∂ LD 1 υ μ υ μ λρ
∂(∂ υ A μ )
=− ( δ δ −δ δ ) F
2 μ0 λ ρ ρ λ
∂ LD 1
=− ( F υμ−F μυ )
∂(∂υ A μ ) 2 μ0
∂ LD 1
=− (−F μυ −F μυ )
∂(∂υ A μ ) 2 μ0
∂ LD 1
=− (−2 F μυ )
∂(∂υ A μ ) 2 μ0
∂ LD 1
= (+2 F μυ )
∂(∂υ A μ ) 2 μ 0
∂ LD 1
= F μυ
∂(∂υ A μ ) μ0
d ∂ LD ∂ LD
( )− =0
dx υ ∂(∂υ A μ ) ∂ A μ
d 1 μυ 1
( F )− j μ =0
dx υ μ
0 √ μ 0 ε0
d
dx υ
( F μυ
)=
μ0 μ
ε0
j
√
αβγδ
ε ∂ β F γδ =0
These equations possess symmetry: (Lorentz invariance)
2
∂0 ∂ =∂t ∂t = ∂ 2 =∂ 0 ∂
0 x0
x
∂t
Flat spacetime
2 2 2 2 2
ds =−dt +dx +dy +dz
Θ=t −x
k α=−∂α Θ
k α=(−1,1,0,0 )
α
k =(1,1,0,0)
0 1 2 3
gαβ ∂α ∂ β =∂ α ∂α =∂x0 ∂ x +∂ x1 ∂x +∂x 2 ∂ x +∂x 3 ∂x
hα =g α +u α u β
β β
hα =Transverse . Metric
β
gα =Spacetime . Metric
β
−uα u β =Longitudinal . Metric
gα =−uα u β +hα
β β
uα h α =0
β
uα g α =−uα u α u β +u α hα
β β
α
u β =−(−1 )u β +u h α
β
α
u β =u β +u h α
β
∴u α hα =0
β
hα =g α +u α u β
β β
gμα hα =g μα g α + g μα uα u β
β β
μ
β
h = δ μβ + uμ u β
α μ α α
μ
h h β =h μ
δ μβ +( h μ
uμ ) u β
α μ α
μ
h h β =h β +( 0) u β
α μ α
μ
h h β =h β
Introduce the null co-ordinates:
u=t −x
v =t + x
A useful choice of parameter when the geodesic is space-like is the Proper distance, s, such that:
2 α β
ds =g αβ dx dx
¿
ds = (−dt 2 +dx 2 )+dy 2+dz 2
2
A useful choice of parameter when the geodesic is time-like is the Proper time ,τ , such that:
2 α β
dτ =−gαβ dx dx
2 2
dτ =−ds
du=dt −dx
dv=dt+dx
2 2
dudv=dt −dtdx+dxdt−dx
2 2
∴ dudv=dt −dx
2 2
−dudv=−dt +dx
So, the line element:
¿
ds = (−dt 2 +dx 2 )+dy 2 +dz 2
2
Becomes, in the new coordinates, the line element:
¿
ds =−dudv+dy 2 +dz 2
2
Impose:
α
k N α=−1
If:
k α=−∂α u ,
Then,
k α=−∂α (t−x) ,
k0 0 (t x )
k t =−∂t (t−x)
k t =−(1−0)
k t =−1
k 1 =−∂ 1 (t−x )
k x =−∂x (t−x )
k x =−(0−1)
k 1 =k x =1
Similarly,
k 2 =k y =−∂ y (t−x )
k 2 =k y =−(∂ y t−∂ y x )=0
Similarly,
k 3 =k z =−∂z (t−x )
k 3 =k z =−(∂z t−∂z x)=0
Therefore,
k α=(−1,1,0,0 )
Therefore,
α
k =(1,1,0,0)
Also, let,
1
N α =− ∂α v
2
1
N α =− ∂ α (t +x )
2
1
N 0 =− ∂ 0 (t +x )
2
1
N t =− ∂t (t+x )
2
1
N t =− (1+0 )
2
1
N 0 =N t =−
2
1
N 1 =− ∂1 (t+x )
2
1
N x=− ∂ x (t+x )
2
1
N x=− (0+1)
2
1
N 1 =N x =−
2
Similarly,
1
N 2 =N y =− ∂ y (t +x )
2
1
N 2 =N y =− (∂ y t +∂ y x )=0
2
Similarly,
1
N 3 =N z=− ∂z (t +x )
2
1
N 3 =N z=− (∂ z t +∂ z x )=0
2
Therefore,
1 1
N α =(− ,− ,0,0 )
2 2
Therefore,
1 1
N α =( ,− ,0,0 )
2 2
Check that,
1 1 1 1
N α N α =(− ,− ,0,0 ).( ,− , 0,0)
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
N α N α =(− )×( )+(− )×(− )+0+0
2 2 2 2
1 1
N α N α =(− )+( )
4 4
α
N α N =0
Similarly,
α
k α k =(−1,1,0,0).(1,1,0,0)
α
k α k =(−1)×(1)+(1)×(1)+0+0
α
k α k =−1+1
k α k α =0
However,
1 1
k α N α=(−1,1,0,0).( ,− ,0,0)
2 2
1 1
k α N α=(−1)×( )+(1 )×(− )+0+0
2 2
1 1
k α N α=(− )−( )
2 2
α
k α N =−1
similarly,
1 1
k α N α=(1,1,0,0).(− ,− ,0,0)
2 2
1 1
k α N α=(1)×(− )+(1 )×(− )+0+0
2 2
1 1
k α N α=(− )−( )
2 2
k α N α=−1
Consider the object:
hα =g α + k α N β + N α k β
β β
β
Contract with k , i.e along k-direction:
β β β β
hα k =g α β k + k α N β k + N α k β k
β
β
hα k =k α + k α (−1)+ N α (0 )
β
β
hα k =k α −k α
β
β
hα k =0
β
β
Also, Contract with N , i.e along N-direction:
β β β β
hα N =gα β N +k α N β N + N α k β N
β
β β β
hα N =N α + k α ( N β N )+ N α ( k β N )
β
β
hα N =N α + k α ( 0)+ N α (−1)
β
β
hα N =N α −N α
β
β
hα N =0
β
gαβ h α =gαβ g α β + gαβ k α N β + gαβ N α k β
β
α α
α α
h =g +k α N α + N α k α
Due to symmetry the above was done in the above manner or even as below , and also the dummy
index criterion allows us to be flexible in choosing the symbols:
α α
α α
h =g +k α N α + N β k β
Which is equivalent to:
α α
α α
h =g +k α N α + N β k β
But:
α
α
g =δ αα =δ 00 + δ 11 + δ 22 +δ 33=1+1+1+1+1=4
Therefore,
α
h α =( gαα =4 )+( k α N α =−1 )+( N β k β =−1)
α
α
h =4−1−1
α
α
h =2 for the null vector case.
Differential Forms
ω1 ( v 1 ) ω 2 ( v 1 )
ω1 ∧ω 2 ( ⃗v 1 , ⃗v 2 ) =| |
ω1 ( v 2 ) ω2 ( v 2 )
( ⃗e i , ⃗e j )=gij
( dui ,du j )=gij
Differential forms inner product:
( η , ω )=( ηi du i , ω j du j )
⇒ ( η , ω )=ηi ω j ( dui , du j )
ij
⇒ ( η ,ω )=ηi ω j g
ij
⇒ ( η ,ω )=g ηi ω j
Similarly, Vectors inner product is defined as:
( ⃗v , w⃗ )=( v i ⃗e i , w j ⃗e j )
⃗ ) =( ⃗e i ,⃗e j ) vi w j
⇒ ( ⃗v , w
i j
⇒ ( ⃗v , w⃗ ) =g ij v w
n
Let ω− be a differential m-form on R
ω=f I dx I I=i1 ,i 2 , .. . .. .. . .. , im
n m
ϕ : D→R D⊆R
s
∇ ∂i ∂ j =Γ ij ∂s
We define through the relation :
∇ Χ ∂i =ωsi ( Χ ) ∂s …….(*)
s
a set of scalar functions (ωi ) which are easily to see that they are one-forms.
See that :
s s
ωi ( ∂ j )=Γ ij
If we write :
j
Χ =X ∂ j
Then LHS of eq.(*):
j j s
∇ Χ ∂i =∇ X j ∂ ∂i =X ∇ ∂ j ∂i =X Γ ji ∂s
j
RHS of eq.(*):
s s j
ωi ( Χ ) ∂s =ωi ( X ∂ j )∂s
s j s
ωi ( Χ ) ∂s =X ωi (∂ j )∂s
s j s
ωi ( Χ ) ∂ s =X Γ ij ∂ s
Therefore, RHS of eq.(*) is equal to LHS; i.e,
s
∇ Χ ∂i =ωi ( X ) ∂s
s
The skew-symmetry of ωi , or ,ω si , arises from the covariant constancy of the metric tensor,
gkl :
∇ Χ gkl =0
∇ Χ ⟨∂k ,∂l ⟩=0
⟨∇ Χ ∂k ,∂l ⟩+⟨∂k , ∇ Χ ∂l ⟩=0
s s
⟨ωk ( Χ )∂s ,∂l ⟩+⟨∂k ,ωl ( Χ )∂s ⟩=0
s s
ω k ( Χ )⟨∂s ,∂l ⟩+ωl ( Χ )⟨∂k ,∂s ⟩ =0
s s
ω k ( Χ )g sl +ωl ( Χ )g sk=0
ωlk ( Χ )+ωkl ( Χ )=0
(ωlk +ω kl )( Χ )=0
This equation is true for any arbitrary X; therefore:
(ωlk +ω kl )=0
ωlk =−ωkl therefore,
ωlk is skew−symmetric
Let
E1 , E2 ,...........,E n be a moving frame, then,
j
dE k=ωk E j
j
Where
ωk , are differential forms called connection forms.
n
The moving frame is an Orthonormal Frame field at every point, P, of the Manifold, M, in ℜ .
E1 ( P ),E 2( P),..........., En ( P)
The differential of this vector field is the vector-valued differential form with components:
d E 1( P),d E2 ( P),...........,d E n ( P)
Example:
For a curve tangent,
v
T = ⇒ T =|v|−1 v
|v|
∇F
N= ⇒ N=|∇⃗ F|−1 ∇ F
|∇ F|
F= y−f ( x ) ⇒ for the curve, y=f ( x )
Where,
∂F ∂f ∂F ∂f
=0− ⇒ =−
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
∂F ∂ F ∂F ∂f
=1 ⇒ ∇ F=( , )=( − ,1)
∂y ∂x ∂ y ∂x
[ ]
1 /2
⃗ F|= (− ∂f 2
|∇ ) +1
∂x
[ ]
1/2
⃗ F|= ( ∂f 2
|∇ ) +1
∂x
( ) − ∂ f ,1
( ( )) ( )
2−1
∇F ∂f
N= ⇒ N=|∇⃗ F|−1 ∇ F= 1+ 2
|∇ F| ∂x ∂x
Set x=t, then:
( ) − ∂ f ,1
( ( )) ( )
2−1
∂f 2
N= 1+
∂t ∂t
Let the displacement be, S, then:
S=( x(t ), y(t ) )
1 1
y=f ( x )=f (t )= x 2 = t 2
2 2
' '
y =f ( x )=x=t
po int on curve at time ,t=( x , y )=(t , f (t ))
v
Τ = ⇒ Τ =|v|−1 v
|v|
d df '
v= (t , f (t )) ⇒ v=(1, )=(1, f )=(1 , t )=(1, x )
dt dt
1
|v|=( 1+x ) 2 2
−1
|v| =( 1+ x )
−1 2 2
−1
(1 ,f ') ¿ 2 '
Τ= 1
⇒ Τ = ( 1+ f ) (1,f )
¿ 2
(1+ f )
' −1
(1,f )
⇒ Τ =( 1+ x2 )
2
Τ= 1
(1 , x)
¿ 2
(1+ f )
−1
Τ =( 1+t ) (1, t )
2 2
( ) − ∂ f ,1
( ( )) ( )
2−1
∂f 2
N= 1+
∂t ∂t
−( 12 ) (
N=( 1+t )
2
−t , 1 )
− (
) 2(
1
)
N=( 1+ x
2
−x , 1 )
−1
Τ =( 1+x ) (1 , x )
2 2
−1 −1
⇒ d Τ =d ( 1+ x ) .(1 , x )+(1+ x 2 ) 2 .(0 , dx )
2 2
−3 −1
1
⇒ d Τ =− ( 1+x 2 ) 2
2 xdx .(1 , x )+(1+x 2 ) 2 .(0 , dx )
2
−3 −1
⇒ d Τ =−x ( 1+ x ) 2 2 2 2
dx .(1 , x )+(1+ x ) .(0,1 )dx
−3
⇒ d Τ =( 1+ x ) 2 2
dx ((−x ,−x 2 )+(1+ x2 ).(0,1))
−3
⇒ d Τ =( 1+ x ) 2 2
dx (( −x , −x 2 )+( 0 , 1+ x 2 )
−3
⇒ d Τ = ( 1+ x ) 2 2
dx (−x , 1)
− (
) 2(
1
)
N=( 1+x
2
−x , 1 )
−1 −1
⇒ d N=d ( 1+x ) .(−x , 1)+(1+x 2 ) 2 .(−dx , 0 )
2 2
−3 −1
1
⇒ d N=− ( 1+ x 2 ) 2 xdx .(−x ,1 )+(1+x 2 ) 2 .(−1,0 )dx
2
2
−3 −1
⇒ d N=( 1+ x ) 2 2 2
dx (x ,−x )+(1+ x ) 2 2
(−1,0) dx
−3
⇒ d N=( 1+ x ) 2 2
dx( ( x 2 ,− x )+(1+ x 2 ) (−1,0) )
−3
⇒ d N=( 1+ x ) 2 2
dx( ( x 2 ,− x )+(−( 1+ x 2 ) , 0 ))
−3
⇒ d N=( 1+ x ) 2 2
dx( ( x 2 ,− x )+(−(1+ x 2 ) , 0 ))
−3
⇒ d N=( 1+ x ) 2 2
dx( −1 , −x )
−1
⇒ d N=( 1+ x ) (1+ x 2 )−1 dx (−1 , −x )
2 2
−1
set , ω=( 1+x 2 ) dx
But,
− (
) 2(
1
)
N=( 1+ x
2
−x , 1 )
−1
Τ =( 1+ x ) (1 , x )
2 2
−3
d Τ = ( 1+ x ) 2 2
dx (−x ,1 )
−1
⇒ d Τ = ( 1+ x ) 2 2
(1+ x 2 )−1 dx (−x ,1 )
−1
⇒ d Τ = ( 1+ x ) 2 2
ω (−x , 1)
−1
⇒ d Τ =ω ( 1+ x ) 2 2
(−x ,1 )
⇒ d Τ =ω N
−1
⇒ d N=( 1+ x ) (1+ x 2 )−1 dx (−1 , −x )
2 2
−1
⇒ d N=( 1+ x ) (−(1+ x 2 )−1 dx )( 1 , x )
2 2
−1
⇒ d N=( 1+ x ) 2 2
(−ω )( 1 , x )
−1
⇒ d N=(−ω ) ( 1+ x ) 2 2
( 1 , x)
⇒ d N=(−ω) T
j
dE k=ωk E j
dE k , E j , the coefficients being, ω kj
Which implies that is a linear combination of , .
El
Dot multiply by, , to get:
j
dE k . E l=ω k E j . E l
j
dE k . E l=ω k δ jl
dE k . E l=ωkl
Take differential to both sides of the above equation to get:
E j . E k=δ jk
dE j . E k +E j . dE k=0
ω jk +dEk . E j=0
ω jk =−dE k .E j
ω jk =−ω kj
When j=k, then:
ω kk =−ωkk ⇒ω kk =0
E1 =T = tangent to curve,
E2 =N = Normal to curve, and let,
2 1 2
ω1 =ω ⇒ ω 2=−ω1 =−ω
, then:
From,
d Τ=ω N 2
d E 1=ω1 E2
, one gets:
d N =(−ω) T d E 2 =ω12 E1
And from, , one gets:
For a vector, X:
d X=θ k Ek
d X .E j =θk Ek . E j
d X . E j =θk δ kj
j
d X . E j =θ
Therefore,
θ j=d X . E j
Example:
r= ( x , y ) ⇒ dr=( dx,dy )
2
x
y=
2
( ( ))
⇒ d r = dx , d
x2
2
( 1
⇒ d r = dx , ×2 xdx
2 )
⇒ dr=( dx , xdx )
⇒ dr=( dx , xdx )
⇒ d r=( 1, t ) dt , setting x=t
dr
⇒
dt
= 1 ,t
( )
dr
⇒
dt
= 1 ,t
( )
1
dr
⇒| |=| 1 ,t |= ( 1+t2 ) 2
dt ( )
dr
⇒ E 1=T =
dt
=
1 ,t
( )
dr 1
| | ( 1+t 2 ) 2
dt
−1
⇒ E 1=T =( 1+t ) 2 2
( 1 ,t )
F= y −f (t )
2
t
⇒ F= y −
2
∂
(x2 ∂
⇒ ∇ F= ( y− ), ( y−
∂x 2 ∂y
x2
2 )
1
(
⇒ ∇ F= − ×2 x , 1
2 )
⇒ ∇ F=(−x ,1 )
, change parameter x=t to get:
⇒ ∇ F=(−t , 1 )
1
⇒|∇ F|=( (−t ) +1 2
)
2 2
⇒|∇ F|=( t +1 ) 2 2
⇒ E 2=N =
∇F
=
(−t , 1 )
|∇ F| 1
2 2
( 1+t )
−1
⇒ E 2=N =( 1+t ) 2 2
(−t ,1 )
Compare with:
−1
⇒ E 1=T =( 1+t ) 2 2
( 1 ,t )
To see that:
( 1 ,t ) ⇒ (−t , 1 )
Recall that:
θ j=d X . E j
θ1 =d r. E1
−1
θ =dx (1 , x )⋅( 1+ x )
1 2 2
(1 , x )
−1
θ1 =dx ( 1+ x ) ( 1+ x 2 )
2 2
1
1
θ =( 1+ x ) dx which implies that
1 2 2
θ is a1−formsin ceit contains dx
θ2 =d r. E2
−1
θ =dx (1 , x )⋅( 1+ x )
2 2 2
(−x , 1 )
−1
θ =dx ( 1+ x )
2 2 2
(−x + x )
2
θ =0
2
Darboux frame along the curve in ℜ :
x=x(t )
y= y(t )
Compute the velocity ( tangent) ,v:
v= ( dxdt , dydt )
(( ) ( ) )
2 1
dx 2 dy
v=|v|= + 2
dt dt
ds
v=
dt
1
ds=vdt =( dx +dy ) 2 2 2
Recall that:
d Τ=ω N
d N =−ω T
Where,
ω is a one-form which depends only on , t, so one may write it as follows:
ω=f (t )dt
but
−1
dt=v ds
−1
⇒ω=f (t )v ds
set
κ (t )=v−1 f (t )
One may get:
ω=κ (t )ds
Compare with:
ω=f (t )dt
For our previous example,
s=r=( x , y )
s=r = x ,
2( )( )
x2
= t,
t2
2
ds dr
v= = =( 1, t )
dt dt
1
d ⃗s ds
|v|=| |= =( 1+t 2 ) 2
dt dt
1
ds=( 1+t ) dt
2 2
−1
ω=f (t )v ds
−1 1
ω=f (t ) ( 1+t ) 2 2
( 1+ t ) dt
2 2
⇒ω=f (t )dt
Now, from the fact that:
2
Τ .Τ=|Τ| =1
dΤ dΤ
.Τ +Τ . =0
dt dt
dΤ
2Τ . =0
dt
dΤ
Τ. =0
dt
dΤ
⊥Τ
dt
therefore,
dΤ
N is parallelto
dt
dΤ
dt
N=
dΤ
| |
dt
Let,
B=T×N
|B|=|T||N|sinϑ
π
|B|=1×1 sin
2
|B|=1×1×1
|B|=1 , therefore, B is a unit vector as well, that is perpendicular to both T and N .
Label,
E1 =T ,
E2 =N ,and,
E3 =B
Where,
E1 , E2 ,and E3 are vector fields forming Darboux frame (Frenet – Seret - frame).
d E1 d Τ '
= =Τ
dt dt .
We also found that:
dΤ
'
dt Τ
N= =
d Τ |Τ '|
| |
dt
' '
Τ =|Τ |N
d ⃗E1
=|Τ '|N
dt
d E 1= (|Τ '|dt ) E2 ,
But,
2
d E 1=ω1 E 2
2 '
ω1=|Τ |dt
E3 =B ,
d ⃗E3 dB
=
dt dt
d ⃗E3 d
= (T ×N )
dt dt
d E3 d Τ dN
= ×N +Τ ×
dt dt dt
d E3 dN
=|Τ|N ×N +Τ ×
dt dt
Since,
N×N =0
Then,
d E3 dN
=Τ ×
dt dt
d E 3 =Τ ×d N
Now,
j
dE k=ωk E j
1 2 3
⇒ dE1 =ω1 E 1 +ω1 E 2 +ω 1 E3
1 2 3
⇒ dE2 =ω2 E1 +ω2 E 2 +ω 2 E3
1 2 3
⇒ dE3 =ω3 E1 +ω3 E 2 +ω 3 E3
Alternatively wring them as:
1 2 3
⇒ d Τ =ω 1 Τ +ω 1 N +ω 1 B
1 2 3
⇒ d N=ω2 Τ +ω2 N +ω2 B
1 2 3
⇒ d B=ω 3 Τ +ω3 N +ω3 B
1 2 3
ω1 =ω 2 =ω3 =0 , therefore,
2 3
d E 1=ω1 E 2 +ω1 E3 ,…………………………………..(A)
And,
E1 =T ,therefore,
d E1 d Τ '
= =Τ
dt dt
And as found earlier,
d E 1= (|Τ '|dt ) E2 ,………………………………………….(B)
Comparing equations A, and, B one may conclude that:
3
ω1 =0
ω21 =|Τ '|dt
( )( )( )
d E1 0 ω21 0 E1
d E2 = ω12 0 ω32 E2
d E3 0 ω23 0 E3
2 1
ω1 =−ω2 =ω
3 2
ω2 =−ω3 =η
So one gets 2 independent ω' snamely ,ωand η .
Making 4 non-zero entries to the matrix and also 5 zero entries.
( )( )( )
d E1 0 ω 0 E1
d E2 = −ω 0 η E2
d E3 0 −η 0 E
3
Alternatively,
( )( )( )
dΤ 0 ω 0 Τ
d N = −ω 0 η N
dB 0 −η 0 B
Getting the metric of a surface, S, by restricting the Euclidean Metric:
dx 2 +dy 2 +dz 2 to the surface, S, where, S, is usually given by some parametric equations:
σ : x=x(u,v), y= y(u,v ), z=z(u ,v )
Sometimes written as:
1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 3 3 1 2
σ : x =x (u ,u ), x =x (u , u ), x =x (u ,u )
A mapping, σ , that sends a point, (u , v) in the plane to a point (x , y , z ) in the 3-D space and the
required metric is just the pull- back:
¿
σ dx=dx(u,v)
1 1 i
¿ ∂x ∂x ¿ 1 ∂x 1 ∂x 2 ¿ i ∂x
σ dx= du+ dv σ dx = 1 du + 2 du σ dx = j du j
∂u ∂ v ……………. ∂u ∂u ……… ∂u
2 2 i
∂y ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂x
σ ¿ dy=
¿ ¿
du+ dv σ dx 2 = 1 du1 + 2 du 2 σ dxi = j du j
∂u ∂ v …………… ∂u ∂u …… ∂u ….
3 3 i
¿ ∂z ∂z ¿ 3 ∂x 1 ∂x 2 ¿ i ∂x
σ dz= du+ dv σ dx = 1 du + 2 du σ dx = j du j
∂u ∂ v …………… ∂u ∂u ………. ∂u
Or equivalently,
σ ¿ dx=x u du+x v dv ¿ 1
……………. σ dx =x
1 1
u
du1 + x
1 2
u
du 2 …………. σ ¿ dxi =x
i
uj
du j
σ ¿ dy= y u du+ y v dv ¿ 2
………….. σ dx = x
2 1
u 1
du + x
2 2
u
du ……….. σ dxi = x u du
2 ¿
i j j
σ ¿ dz=z u du+z v dv ¿ 3
………….. σ dx = x
3 1
u
du1 + x
3 2
u
i
du 2 …………. σ ¿ dxi = x u du j
j
Since
2 2 2 2
ds =dx +dy +dz
2 2 2 2
ds =(x u du+x v dv ) +( y u du+ y u dv ) +( z u du+z v dv )
Expanding and collecting:
2 2 2 2
ds =( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) du +2( x u x v + y u y v + z u z v ) dudv +( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) dv
u u u v v v
Also one has:
guu =g11 =r u .r u =x 2 + y 2 + z
u u u2
gvv =g 22=r v . r v=x 2 + y 2 + z
v v v2
guv =g12=r u . r v=x u x v + y u y v +z u z v
2 2 2
⇒ ds =(r u . r u ) du +2( x u x v + yu y v + z u z v )dudv +( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) dv
v v v
2 2 2
⇒ ds =g uu du +2 g uv dudv +gvv dv
2 1 1 1 2 2 2
⇒ ds =g 11 du du + 2 g12 du du +g 22 du du
2 i j
⇒ ds =g ij du du
2 T
⇒ ds =dU G dU
ds 2 =( du1 du2 )
( g11
g21
g12 du 1
g 2 du
2
)( )
g=det(g ij )=g11 g22−g12 g 21
2
g=det(g ij )=g11 g22−g12
Where,
gij =r ui . r u j
∂r ∂r
gij = .
∂ ui ∂u j
gij =δ ij …………….for the Euclidean space.
∂r
=U 1
∂u1
∂r
=U 2
∂u2
∂r ∂ r
g11= ⋅ =⟨U 1 ,U 1 ⟩
∂u1 ∂u1
∂r ∂ r
g22= ⋅ =⟨ U 2 , U 2 ⟩
∂u2 ∂u 2
∂r ∂ r
g12= ⋅ =⟨U 1 ,U 2 ⟩
∂u1 ∂u 2
⟨U 2 ,U 2 ⟩⟨U 1 ,U 1 ⟩≥⟨U 1 ,U 2 ⟩⟨U 2 ,U 1⟩
⇒⟨U 2 ,U 2 ⟩⟨U 1 ,U 1 ⟩≥⟨U 1 ,U 2 ⟩⟨U 1 ,U 2 ⟩
2
⇒⟨U 2 ,U 2 ⟩⟨U 1 ,U 1 ⟩≥|⟨U 1 ,U 2⟩| ………. Cauchy-schwarz inequality
⇒ g22 g 11≥g12 g12
⇒ g22 g 11 ≥g
12 2
⇒ g22 g 11−g 2≥0
12
⇒ g≥0
det
( ) (
⟨U 1 ,U 1 ⟩ ⟨U 1 , U 2 ⟩
⟨U 2 ,U 1 ⟩ ⟨U 2 , U 2 ⟩
g g
=det 11 12 =g≥0
g 21 g22 )
The two-form:
α=√ g du1 ∧du 2
is the area form for the surface, S.
( )
i j k
r u ×r v= x u y u z u
xv y v zv
r u ×r v=( y u z v − y v z u )i+( x v z u −x u z v ) j+( x u y v −x v y u )k
|r u×r v|2=( y u z v− y v z u )2 +( x v z u−x u z v )2 +( x u y v−x v y u )2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= ( yu zv ) +( y v zu ) +( x v z u ) +(x u z v ) +( x u y v ) +(x v y u ) +z u z v −zu z v
−2 y u y v z u z v −2x u x v z u z v −2 xu x v y u y v
2 2 2 2
=
( y u z v ) +( x u z v ) +z u z v
2 2 2 2 2 2
+( y v zu ) +( x v z u ) +( x u y v ) +( x v y u ) −z u z v −2 y u y v z u z v −2x u x v z u z v −2 xu x v y u y v
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
( y 2 + x 2 + z u ) z v +( y v + x v + z v ) z u−2 z v z u + xu y v + x v y u −2 y u y v z u z v −2x u x v z u z v −2 xu x v y u y v
= u u
One parameterization of the space (surface) may be:
2 k l
ds =Gkl dv dv
Another parameterization of the space (surface) may be:
2 i j
ds =gij du du
Where,
1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2
u =u ( v ,v ),u =u (v ,v )...............2−D space ,where ,k ,l ,i, j=1,2
i i
∂u ∂u
du (v , v )= 1 dv 1 + 2 dv 2
i 1 2
∂v ∂v
Or, more compactly,
∂u i j
dui ( v j )= dv
∂vj
ds =gij
∂ui k ∂ u j l
2
∂ vk
dv
∂ vl
dv
( )( )
∂u i ∂u j k l
ds 2 =gij dv dv
∂ vk ∂ vl
Compare with:
2 k l
ds =Gkl dv dv ………,
To get:
i j
∂u ∂u
Gkl=g ij k
∂ v ∂ vl
If ,f, is a smooth function, and, ω , is a one-form, then,
d (fω )=( df )∧ω+fdω
Replace, f, by a vector-valued form, F:
d( F ω)=(d F )∧ω+F dω
Now the one-forms
k j
ωj ,ϑ
Are written in front of our vector-valued function:
E j ; i.e:
d(ω F )=d(F ω)=F dω+d F∧ω , the + is because (d) comes first
Also equals:
d(ω F )=(dω)F−ω∧d F , the - is because (d) comes second
And the two RHS’s are equal to each other.
Now for:
k j
ωj ,ϑ
j
d(d X )=d(ϑ E j )
2 j j
d X =dϑ E j−ϑ ∧d E j
j j
0=dϑ E j−ϑ ∧d E j
But,
j
d E k =ω k E j
j k
⇒0=dϑ E j −ϑ ∧d Ek
j k j
⇒0=dϑ E j −ϑ ∧ω k E j
j k j
⇒0=( dϑ −ϑ ∧ω k ) E j
Since at each point, { E1 ,......, En } form an orthonormal basis (not zero themselves),then:
j k j
(dϑ −ϑ ∧ω k )=0
j k j
dϑ =ϑ ∧ω k ………………..Cartan’s First Structural Equations
Similarly,
j
d E k =ω k E j
j
d(d Ek )=d( ωk E j )
2 j j
d Ek =dωk E j −ω k∧d E j
j j l
⇒0=dω k E j−ωk ∧ω j E l
l j l
⇒0=dω k El −ω k ∧ω j El
l j l
⇒0=( dωk −ω k ∧ω j )El
Since at each point, { E1 ,......, En } form an orthonormal basis (not zero themselves),then:
l j l
dω k−ωk ∧ω j =0
l j l
⇒ dωk =ω k ∧ω j ………………….. Cartan’s Second Structural Equations
Since ω , is a one-form, then:
ω=f (t )dt
⇒ dω=d( f (t )dt )
⇒ dω=df (t )∧dt
∂ f (t )
⇒ dω= dt ∧dt
∂t
Since,
dt∧dt=0
Then:
dω=0
1 2 3
ω1 =ω 2 =ω3 =0
3 1
ω1 =ω3 =0
2 1
ω1 =−ω2 =ω
3 2
ω2 =−ω3 =η
recall,
E1 =T ,
E2 =N ,and,
E3 =B
j
d X=ϑ E j
1 2 3
d X=ϑ E1 +ϑ E2 +ϑ E3
Since, d X , is tangential,then:
d X is parallel to T =E1
d X is perpendicular to E2 , E3
2 3
ϑ ,ϑ =0
1
d X=ϑ E1
Since ϑ , is a one-form, then:
ϑ 1 =f (t )dt
1
⇒ dϑ =d (f (t )dt )
⇒ dϑ 1 =df (t )∧dt
∂ f (t )
⇒ dϑ 1 = dt∧dt
∂t
⇒ dϑ 1 =0
dϑ 1 =dω=dη=0
dϑ j =ϑ k ∧ω kj
j 1 k 1
dϑ =dϑ =ϑ ∧ωk
1 1 1 2 1 3 1
dϑ =ϑ ∧ω1 +ϑ ∧ω2 +ϑ ∧ω3
1 1 1
dϑ =ϑ ∧0+ 0∧ω2 + 0∧0
1
dϑ =0 , first as d(1-form)=LHS, and also we proved RHS=0, so 0=0 and ,consequently, both sides of
Cartan’s First SE=0, secondly,
l j l
dω k=ωk ∧ω j
j l
⇒ LHS=0=ωk ∧ω j =f 1 (t )dt∧f 2 (t )dt=f 1 (t )f 2 (t )dt∧dt=0=RHS
So both sides of Cartan’s SSE=0, so the local geometry of a curve given by the F_S_F is not interesting at
all.
So let us turn to surfaces.
j
d X=ϑ E j
1 2 3
d X=ϑ E1 +ϑ E2 +ϑ E3
3
ϑ =0 , therefore,
1 2
d X=ϑ E1 +ϑ E2
Where,
E1 , E2 ,span the surface, S, with surface element, d X .d X
Rcall that,
j
d E k =ω k E j , therefore,
j
d E 1=ω1 E j
Hence,
1 2 3
d E 1=ω1 E1 +ω1 E 2 +ω 1 E3
1
Since,
ω1 =0 , then one gets:
2 3
dE 1=ω 1 E2+ω1 E 3
Similarly,
j
d E 2 =ω2 E j
1 2 3
⇒ d E2 =ω 2 E1 + ω2 E2 +ω2 E 3
2
Again, since,
ω2 =0 , then one gets:
1 3
⇒ d E2 =ω 2 E1 +ω2 E3
Similarly,
j
d E 3 =ω3 E j
1 2 3
⇒ d E3 =ω 3 E1 + ω3 E 2 +ω 3 E3
3
Again, since,
ω3 =0 , then one gets:
1 2
⇒ d E3 =ω 3 E1 +ω3 E 2
1 2 3
⇒ dE3 =ω3 E1 +ω3 E 2 +ω 3 E3
We found earlier that:
j k j
dϑ =ϑ ∧ω k
1 k 1
dϑ =ϑ ∧ωk
1 1 1 2 1 3 1
dϑ =ϑ ∧ω1 +ϑ ∧ω2 +ϑ ∧ω3
1 3
But,
ω1 =0 , ϑ =0 , hence,
1 2 1
dϑ =ϑ ∧ω2
2 k 2
dϑ =ϑ ∧ω k
2 1 2 2 2 3 2
dϑ =ϑ ∧ω1 +ϑ ∧ω2 +ϑ ∧ω 3
2 3
But,
ω2 =0 , ϑ =0 , hence,
2 1 2
dϑ =ϑ ∧ω1
Finally, we found earlier that:
j k j
dϑ =ϑ ∧ω k
3 k 3
dϑ =ϑ ∧ω k
3 1 3 2 3 3 3
dϑ =ϑ ∧ω1 + ϑ ∧ω2 +ϑ ∧ω 3
3 3 3
But,
ω3 =0 ,ϑ =0⇒ dϑ =0 , hence,
0=ϑ 1 ∧ω31 +ϑ 2 ∧ω 32
2 k 2
dϑ =ϑ ∧ω k
2 1 2 2 2 3 2
dϑ =ϑ ∧ω1 +ϑ ∧ω2 +ϑ ∧ω 3
2 3
But,
ω2 =0 , ϑ =0 , hence,
2 1 2
dϑ =ϑ ∧ω1
From Cartan’s second SE:
l j l
dω k=ωk ∧ω j
2 j 2
⇒ dω1 =ω1 ∧ω j
2 1 2 2 2 3 2
⇒ dω1 =ω1 ∧ω 1 +ω 1∧ω2 + ω1 ∧ω 3
1 2
Since,
ω1 =0 , ω 2=0 , then,
2 3 2
dω1 =ω 1 ∧ω3
Similarly,
3 1 3 2 3 3 3
⇒ dω1 =ω1 ∧ω 1 +ω 1 ∧ω2 +ω1 ∧ω 3
1 3
Since,
ω1 =0 , ω 3=0 , then,
3 2 3
⇒ dω1 =ω1 ∧ω 2
Finally,
3 1 3 2 3 3 3
⇒ dω2 =ω2 ∧ω 1 + ω2 ∧ω2 +ω2 ∧ω3
2 3
Since,
ω2 =0 , ω 3 =0 , then,
3 1 3
⇒ dω2 =ω2 ∧ω 1
Consider :
d F ,where ,F , is tangential to, S, but this doesn’t imply that ,d F , is also tangential to, S.
In general we expect that the normal component of, d F , i.e,
(d F .N )N≠0
⇒ d F≠0,⇒F , is accelerated.
For every vector, v , attached to a point on, S, denote:
v T = tangential component of, v
v ¿ = perpendicular component of, v
Hence:
v =v T + v ¿
Then,
v T =( v. E1 )E 1 +( v. E2 )E 2
And,
v ¿ =( v. E3 ) E3
Now
d T F =(d F )T = tangential component of, d F
d ¿ F=(d F )¿ = perpendicular component of, d F
Therefore, one may write,
d F=d T F +d ¿ F
Or , equivalently,
d F=(d F )T +(d F )¿
Where,
d T F = Covariant Differential which is responsible for the intrinsic geometry of surface, S.
And,
d ¿ F= Normal Differential which is responsible for the extrinsic shape of surface, S.
Leibniz rule:
1. For tangential component of the differential
d T ( g F )=dg . F+gd T F …
where g is a function
While for a one-form, ω
d T (ω F )=dω.F−ω∧dT F
2. While for the perpendicular component of the differential
⇒ d¿ (g F )=gd ¿ F
Also,
⇒ d¿ (ω F )=−ω∧d¿ F
Proofs:
From
(d(g F ))¿=(dg.F )¿+( gd { F )¿ ¿
(d(g F ))¿=dg.(F )¿ +g(d F )¿
(d(g F ))¿=d ¿ ( gF )=dg.0+g(d F )¿
(d(g F ))¿=d ¿ ( gF )=g(d F )¿
Similarly,
d ¿ (ω F )=(dω. F−ω∧d F )¿
⇒ d¿ (ω F )=(dω.F )¿ −( ω∧d F )¿
⇒ d¿ (ω F )=dω.( F )¿ −ω∧( d F )¿
⇒ d¿ (ω F )=dω.( 0)−ω∧d ¿ F
⇒ d¿ (ω F )=−ω∧d¿ F
Let:
1 2
F=f E 1 + f E2 , then:
1 2
F . E1=f E1 . E1 +f E 1. E 2
1
⇒ F . E1 =f
Similarly,
1 2
F . E2 =f E 1 . E2 +f E 2. E 2
F .E2 f 2
1 2
F=f E 1 + f E2
d F
Now, to compute, T
d T F =d T (f 1 E 1 +f 2 E2 )
1 1 2 2
d T F =df . E1 + f d T E1 + df . E2 + f dT E 2
Now,
d T E1=(d E1 )T
2 3
d T E1 =(ω 1 E2 +ω1 E3 )T
2
ω1 E 2=Tangential to surface,S
3
ω1 E3 =Perpendicular to surface,S
Therefore,
2
d T E1 =(d E1 )T =ω 1 E2
Similarly,
d T E2 =(d E2 )T
1 3
d T E2 =(ω 2 E1 +ω2 E3 )T
1
ω2 E 1=Tangential to surface,S
3
ω2 E3 =Perpendicular to surface,S
Therefore,
1
d T E2 =(d E2 )T =ω2 E1
In general,
(j)
d T Ek =( d E k )T =ω k E( j) … where, k=1,2, and j=1,2 no summing over j
Hence the equation,
d T F =df 1 . E1 + f 1 d T E1 + df 2 . E2 + f 2 dT E 2
Becomes,
d T F =df 1 . E1 +f 1 ω12 E 2 +df 2 . E2 +f 2 ω 12 E1
d T F =(df 1 +f 2 ω12 ) E 1 +( df 2 +f 1 ω21 )E 2
Now
1 2 1
first part=(df +f ω2 ) E1
2 1 2
sec ond part=(df +f ω1 )E 2
Note that:
d (d T F )T =d T d T F=d 2T F
1 2 1 2 1 2
d T d T F=(d ((df +f ω2 ) E1 ))T +( d((df +f ω1 ) E2 ))T
so
1 2 1 1 2 1
d T ( first part )=d( df +f ω2 ) E1 −(df +f ω2 )∧dT E1
2 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1
d T ( first part )=(d f +df ∧ω2 +f dω2 )E 1−(df +df ω2 )∧dT E1
2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2
d T ( first part )=(0+df ∧ω2 +f dω2 )E 1−(df +df ω2 )∧ω1 E2
21 12 = −ω12 )∧ω21 =0
2 1 2 1 1 2
d T ( first part )=(df ∧ω2 +f dω 2 )E1 −(df ∧ω1 ) E2
2 1 2 2 1 2
d T (sec ond part )=d( df +f ω1 )E 2 −(df +f ω 1 )∧d T E2
so
2 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2
d T (sec ond part )=(d f +df ∧ω 1 +f dω1 ) E2 −(df +f ω 2 )∧d T E2
1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1
d T (sec ond part )=(0+df ∧ω 1 +f dω1 ) E2 −( df +f ω1 )∧ω 2 E1
12 21 = −ω12 )∧ω21 =0
1 2 1 2 2 1
d T (sec ond part )=(df ∧ω1 +f dω1 )E 2 −(df ∧ω2 ) E1
2 1 2 1 1 2
d T ( first part )=(df ∧ω2 +f dω 2 )E1 −(df ∧ω1 ) E2
Adding the two parts, one gets:
2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1
d T d T F=(df ∧ω2 ) E1 +f dω 2 E1−(df ∧ω 1 )E2 +(df ∧ω 1 )E 2 +f dω1 E 2−(df ∧ω2 )E 1
2 1 1 2
d T d T F=f dω 2 E1 +f dω 1 E2
d T d T F=(f 2 E 1−f 1 E2 )dω12
2 1 1
d 2 F=( f E1 − f E2 ) dω2
T
d 2 1
Therefore, T2 , sends a vector field, F , to a vector-valued (f E 1−f E2 ) ,
1
Two -form, dω 2 .
2
d 2 F=f dω12 E 1 + f 1 dω21 E 2=ϕ1 E 1 +ϕ 2 E 2
T
Where,
2 1 1
f dω2 =ϕ ,
f 1 dω21 =ϕ 2
Such that:
1 0 d21 f1
2 2 2
d 0 f
1 Where,
l j l
dω k=ωk ∧ω j
1 j 1
⇒ dω2 =ω2 ∧ω j
1 1 1 2 1 3 1
⇒ dω2 =ω2 ∧ω 1 +ω 2∧ω2 + ω2 ∧ω 3
1 1 1 3 1
⇒ dω2 =ω2 ∧0+0∧ω 2 +ω 2 ∧ω3
1 3 1
⇒ dω2 =ω2 ∧ω 3
d
We may regard, T2 , as operator-valued 2-form and its matrix representation with respect to basis
{ E1 , E 2} , is given by:
Ω=
( 0
dω 21
dω 12
0 )
d
T 2 F=[ E1 E2 ]
( 0
dω21 0 )( )
dω12 f 1
f2
Setting
f1
Η= 2
f ()
One may write Eq. more compactly as:
Τ
d 2 F=Ε Ω Η
T
d 2 F=[ E1
T
E2 ] ( )
ϕ1
ϕ2
]( )
ϕ1
⇒ d 2 F=[ E 1 E2 1 2
2 =ϕ E1 + ϕ E2
T ϕ
Setting,
ϕ1
Φ= 2
ϕ ( )
Then,
⇒ d 2 F=[ E 1 E2 ]
T ( ) ϕ1
ϕ
Τ
2 =Ε Φ
Note that,
Φ=
( dω21
0 dω12
0 )( )f1
f2
d 2 𨠨
T curvature form for the surface,S.
Now we want to prove that:
d 2 ( g F )=gd 2F
T T
First,
F=f 1 E 1 + f 2 E2
Therefore,
1 2
g F=( gf )E1 +( gf ) E2
Since we found:
2
d 2 F=f dω12 E 1 + f 1 dω21 E 2=ϕ1 E 1 +ϕ 2 E 2
T
Then,
2 1 1 2
d 2 ( g F )=( gf ) dω2 E 1 +( gf ) dω1 E 2
T
2 1 1 2
d 2 ( g F )=g ( f dω 2 E1 + f dω 1 E2 )
T
d 2 ( g F )=gd 2F
T T
Done!!
We found earlier that:
Ω=
( 0
dω 21
dω 12
0 )
But,
2 1
ω1 =−ω2
2 1
⇒ dω1 =−dω 2
Therefore,
Ω=
(−dω 12
0 dω12
0 )
Ω= ( 0 1 1
dω )
−1 0 2 …………..skew-symmetric matrix
Second proof:
d T ( g F )=dg . F+gd T F
d 2 ( g F )=d ( dg) . F−dg∧d T F +dg∧d T F+ gd 2 F
T T
2
d 2 ( g F )=( d g) . F−dg∧d T F +dg∧d T F + gd 2F
T T
d 2 ( g F )=(0 ). F + gd 2 F
T T
d 2 ( g F )=gd 2F
T T
Done once more!!
Two frames:
{ E1 , E 2 }
{ F 1 ,F 2 }
With angle of rotation, { ϑ } having same orientation on surface, S.
Then,
( )(
F1
F2
=
cos ϑ
sin ϑ
−sin ϑ
cos ϑ )( )
E1
E2
d 2 E2
Find, T ??
From:
(j)
d T Ek =( d E k )T =ω k E( j) … where, k=1,2, and j=1,2 no summing over j
( j) ( j) j
Since if k=j, then, ω k =0 , then, ω k ≡ω k , with no summation on j.
j
d T Ek =( d E k )T =ω k E j , no summation implied, since j≠k , j , k=1,2
And if j=1, then k=2, and if j=2, then k=1.
j j
d 2 E k=d T ( d T E k )=dω k E j +ω k d T E j
T
j j l
d 2 E k=dωk E j + ωk ∧ω j E l
T
j l
d 2 E k=dωk E j + dωk El
T
j j
d 2 E k=dωk E j + dωk E j
T
j
d 2 E k=2 dω k Ej
T
2
⇒ d 2 E 1=2dω 1 E2
T
1
⇒ d 2 E 2 =2dω 2 E1
T
Now for the , F , frame:
⇒ d 2 F 2 =d 2 ( sinϑ E 1 +cos ϑ E 2 )
T T
⇒ d 2 F 2 =sin ϑd 2 E1 +cos ϑd 2 E 2
T T T
2 1
⇒ d 2 F 2 =sin ϑ ( 2 dω1 E 2 )+ cos ϑ (2 dω2 E 1 )
T
1 1
⇒ d 2 F 2 =sin ϑ (−2 dω2 E 2 )+cos ϑ ( 2 dω2 E1 )
T
1
⇒ d 2 F 2 =2 dω2 (−sin ϑ E 2 +cos ϑ E 1 )
T
1
⇒ d 2 F 2 =2 dω2 ( cos ϑ E1 −sin ϑ E2 )
T
⇒ d 2 F 2 =2 dω12 F 1
T
Similarly,
⇒ d 2 F 1 =d 2 (cos ϑ E1 −sin ϑ E2 )
T T
⇒ d 2 F 1 =cos ϑd 2 E1 −sin ϑd 2 E2
T T T
2 1
⇒ d 2 F 1 =cos ϑ ( 2 dω 1 E2 )−sin ϑ (2 dω 2 E1 )
T
2 2
⇒ d 2 F 1 =cos ϑ ( 2 dω 1 E2 )+ sin ϑ ( 2 dω1 E 1 )
T
2
⇒ d 2 F 1 =2 dω1 ( sin ϑ E 1 +cos ϑ E 2 )
T
2
⇒ d 2 F 1 =2 dω1 F 2
T
1
The 2-form
dω 2≡Pfaffian of Ω ,
Ω= (−10 10 ) dω 1
2
and it is a numerical invariant associated with a skew-symmetric form on an even linear space, { E1 , E 2 }
or, { F 1 ,F 2 } .
1 1 2 1
⇒ dω2 ∝Θ ∧Θ ,
dω 2 , is a multiple of the area form, (Θ1∧Θ2 ) , therefore:
1 1 2
dω 2=kΘ ∧Θ
Where, k, is a scalar function on surface, called Gauss Curvature.
Ex.
2
Unit sphere, S , parametrized by:
π π
− ≤ϕ≤+
latitude≡ϕ , 2 2
longitude≡θ , −π≤θ≤+ π
x=cosθcos ϕ
y=sin θcos ϕ
z=sin ϕ
r=( x, y ,z )
r=(cosθ cos ϕ,sin θ cos ϕ,sin ϕ )
∂r
t1 = =r =(−sin θ cosϕ ,cosθ cos ϕ, 0 )
∂θ θ
∂r
t 2= =r =(−cos θ sin ϕ,−sin θ sin ϕ ,cosϕ)
∂ϕ ϕ
( )
i j k
n=t 1 ×t 2= −sin θ cos ϕ cosθ cosϕ 0
−cosθ sin ϕ −sinθ sin ϕ cos ϕ
2 2
n=(cos θ cos ϕ ,sinθ cos ϕ,sin ϕ cos ϕ )
n=cosϕ(cosθ cos ϕ,sin θ cos ϕ,sin ϕ)
n=cosϕ r
|t 1|=√(−sinθ cos ϕ)2 +(cosθ cos ϕ)2 +0 2
|t 1|=√ (sin2 θ+cos 2 θ )cos 2 ϕ
|t 1|=cosϕ
|t 2|=√(cos2 θ sin 2 ϕ+sin2 θ sin2 ϕ+cos2 ϕ)
|t 2|=√(cos2 θ+sin2 θ )sin 2 ϕ+cos 2 ϕ)
|t 2|=√ sin2 ϕ+cos 2 ϕ)
|t 2|=1
t1 (−sin θ cosϕ ,cosθ cos ϕ, 0 )
Τ 1= =
|t 1| cos ϕ
(−sin θ ,cosθ ,0 )cos ϕ
Τ 1=
cos ϕ
Τ 1 =(−sin θ ,cosθ ,0 )
t 2 (−sin θ cos ϕ,cosθ cos ϕ, 0 )
Τ 2= =
|t 2| 1
Τ 2=(−cosθ sin ϕ,−sin θ sin ϕ ,cosϕ)
cos ϕr
N=
|cos ϕr|
cos ϕr
N=
cos ϕ|r|
r
N=
|r|
r
N=
1 ….since unit sphere
N=r
Now recall:
j
d E k =ω k E j
j
d E k . El =ω k E j . El
j
d E k . El =ω k δ jl
l
⇒ω k =d Ek . El
2
⇒ω 1 =d E 1 . E 2
2
⇒ω 1 =d T 1 . T 2
Τ 1 =(−sin θ ,cosθ ,0 )
d Τ 1 =(−cosθdθ ,−sin θdθ ,0)
d Τ 1 =−dθ (cosθ ,sin θ ,0)
Τ 2=(−cosθ sin ϕ,−sin θ sin ϕ ,cosϕ)
Τ 2=−(cosθ sin ϕ ,sin θ sin ϕ,−cos ϕ)
d Τ 2 =(sin θ sin ϕ,−cosθ sin ϕ ,0 )dθ+(−cosθ cosϕ ,−sin θ cos ϕ,−sin ϕ)dϕ
ω12 =dT 2 .T 1
=(sinθ sin ϕ,−cosθ sin ϕ , 0)dθ+(−cosθ cosϕ ,−sin θ cos ϕ,−sin ϕ)dϕ . (−sinθ ,cos θ ,0)
2 2
=(−sin θ sin ϕ−cos θ sin ϕ)dθ+(+sin θ cosθ cos ϕ−sin θ cosθ cos ϕ+0 )dϕ
1 2 2
ω2 =−(sin θ+cos θ )sin ϕdθ+(1−1)sin θ cos θ cosϕdϕ
1
ω2 =−sin ϕdθ+(0)sin θ cosθ cos ϕdϕ
Therefore,
1
ω2 =−sin ϕdθ
While,
2
ω1 =d T 1 .T 2
Which becomes:
2
ω1 =−dθ(cosθ ,sin θ , 0 ). (−(cosθ sin ϕ ,sin θ sin ϕ ,−cos ϕ))
2 2 2
ω1 =dθ(cos θ sin ϕ+ sin θ sin ϕ+0 )
2 2 2
ω1 =dθ(cos θ+sin θ )sin ϕ
2
⇒ω 1 =dθ sin ϕ
Or, equivalently,
2
⇒ω 1 =sin ϕdθ
2 1
Hence, we proved that, ω1 =−ω2
Now,
r=r(θ ,ϕ)
Taking the differential, one gets:
∂r ∂r
d r(θ , ϕ)= dθ+ dϕ
∂θ ∂ϕ
Or, more compactly,
∂r
d r (θ j )= dθ j j
, where, θ =θ , ϕ
j
∂θ
⇒ d r(θ ,ϕ)=r θ dθ +r ϕ dϕ
⇒ d r=t 1 dθ +t 2 dϕ
⇒ dr=Τ 1|t 1|dθ+Τ 2|t2|dϕ
Set as:
i
⇒ d r =Θ Τ i
1 2
⇒ d r=Θ Τ 1 +Θ Τ 2
Θ1=|t1|dθ
Θ2 =|t 2|dϕ
But we found:
|t 1|=cosϕ
|t 2|=1
Therefore,
1
Θ =cosϕdθ
Θ2 =dϕ
1
ω2 =−sin ϕdθ
Taking the differential, one gets:
1
dω2=−d (sin ϕdθ )
d sin ϕ
dω12=−( dϕ∧dθ )
dϕ
1
dω 2=−cosϕdϕ∧dθ
1
dω 2=cos ϕdθ∧dϕ
Since we already found that,
1
Θ =cosϕdθ
2
Θ =dϕ
1 1 2
Then, dω 2=Θ ∧Θ
Compare with,
1 1 2
dω 2=kΘ ∧Θ
k=1= Gauss curvature for the unit sphere.
Recall that:
d T F = covariant differential of F , tangent to surface, S.
d ¿ F=(d F . E3 )E 3
The scalar form,
⟨d F. E3 ,G⟩ is composed of :
A Convector field,
d F .E 3 , and,
A vector field, G
d ¿ F , tells us how, S, is imbedded in, ℜ3
Good Example:
E1 =(− y ,x ,0) =tangent to cylinder surface, and around the cylinder.
E2 =(0,0 , z) =tangent to cylinder surface, and along the cylinder.
E3 =( x , y,0) = normal outwards to cylinder surface.
⇒ d E1 =(−dy , dx ,0)
⇒ d E2 =( 0,0 ,dz )
⇒ d E3=(dx,dy ,0)
Take two tangents to the cylinder surface, S:
F=f 1 E 1 + f 2 E2
G=g1 E 1 +g2 E2
Find expression for the pairing:
⟨d F. E3 ,G⟩
First,
d E 1 .E 3=(−dy ,dx,0).( x , y ,0)
⇒ d E1 . E3 =−xdy+ ydx+0
d E 2 .E 3 =(0,0 ,dz).( x, y ,0)
d E 2 .E 3=0
Then:
1 1 2 2
d F . E 3=(df . E1 +f d E1 +df . E2 +f d E 2 ).( x, y , 0)
1 1 2 2
d F .E 3=(df (− y , x ,0 )+f (−dy ,dx , 0)+df (0,0 , z)+f (0,0, dz)).( x , y , 0)
1 1 2 2
d F . E 3=df (− yx +xy +0 )+ f (−xdy + ydx +0 )+df ( 0+0+0 )+f (0+0+0)
1 1 2 2
d F . E 3=df ×0+f (−xdy + ydx )+df ×0+f ×0
1
d F . E 3=f (−xdy + ydx )
Now we get:
⟨d F . E3 ,G⟩=⟨f 1 (− xdy+ ydx),G⟩
1
⇒⟨d F .E 3 ,G⟩=⟨f (−xdy+ ydx),G⟩
By linearity:
1
⇒⟨d F .E 3 ,G⟩=f ⟨(−xdy+ ydx),G⟩
Again by linearity:
1
⇒⟨d F .E 3 ,G⟩=f (⟨−xdy ,G⟩+⟨ ydx ,G ⟩)
Linearity again:
1
⇒⟨d F .E 3 ,G⟩=f (−x ⟨dy,G⟩+ y⟨dx ,G ⟩)
Now introduce the standard basis:
e 1 ,e2 ,e 3
(
dx=∇ x= ∂ i+ ∂ j+ ∂ k x
∂x ∂ y ∂ z )
dx=∇ x= ( ∂ x ∂x ∂x
i+ j+ k
∂ x ∂ y ∂z )
dx=∇ x=( 1i+0 j+0k )
dx=∇ x=( 1,0,0 )≡e1
Similarly,
( )
dy=∇ y= ∂ i+ ∂ j+ ∂ k y
∂x ∂ y ∂z
dy=∇ y=( i+ j+ k )
∂y ∂y ∂y
∂x ∂ y ∂z
dy=∇ y= ( 0i+1 j+0k )
dy=∇ y= ( 0,1,0 )≡e 2
Similarly,
( )
dz=∇ z= ∂ i+ ∂ j+ ∂ k z
∂x ∂ y ∂z
dz=∇ z=( i+ j+ k )
∂z ∂ z ∂z
∂x ∂ y ∂z
dz=∇ z=( 0,0,1 )
dz=∇ z=( 0,0,1 , )≡e3
To find:
1
⟨d F . E3 ,G⟩=f (−x⟨dy ,G⟩+ y ⟨dx,G⟩)
⟨dy,G⟩=⟨ ∇ y,G⟩=⟨e 2 ,G⟩=e2 .G
1 2
e 2 .G=e 2 . (g E 1 +g E 2 )
1 2
e 2 .G=g e 2 . E1 +g ⃗e 2 . E 2
e 2 .G=g 1 (0,1,0 ).(− y , x , 0)+g 2 (0,1,0 ).(0,0 , z)
1 2
e 2 .G=g x+g ×0
e 2 .G=g 1 x
Similarly,
⟨dx,G⟩=⟨∇ x ,G ⟩=⟨e 1 ,G⟩=e 1 .G
1 2
e 1 .G=e1 .( g E 1 +g E2 )
1 2
e 1 .G=g e1 . E1 +g ⃗e 1 . E2
1 2
e 1 .G=g (1,0,0).(− y ,x ,0)+g (1,0,0).(0,0 ,z )
1 2
e 1 .G=−g y + g ×0
1
e 1 .G=−g y
Therefore,
⟨d F . E3 ,G⟩=f 1 (−x⟨dy ,G⟩+ y ⟨dx,G⟩)
Becomes:
⟨d F . E3 ,G⟩=f 1 (−x(g 1 x)+ y(−g 1 y))
⟨d F . E3 ,G⟩=−f 1 g1( x 2+ y 2)
For a cylinder of unit radius, one finally gets:
⟨d F. E3 ,G⟩=−f 1 g1×1
1 1
⟨d F . E3 ,G⟩=−f g …………..Done!!
Prime Example:
Parametric Curve, γ : Υ =Υ ( s) , Ζ=Ζ ( s) in, ΥΖ− plane
With, Υ (s)≥0
Assuming the arc-length parametrization:
' 2 ' 2
Υ (s) +Ζ ( s) =1 ;i,e:
( ds
+ )(
dΥ (s) 2 dΖ ( s) 2
ds
=1 )
, which means:
2 2 2
(ds ) =(dΥ ( s)) +(dΖ (s)) , which is the normal Pythagorean formula for infinitesimal arc-length, ds.
Most times written, for simplicity, as:
ds 2 =dΥ (s)2 +dΖ( s)2
Surface of revolution obtained by revolving Parametric Curve, γ , about the z-axis is, in parametric
equations, as follows:
x=x (u ,v)=Υ (v)cosu
y= y(u, v )=Υ ( v )sinu
z=z(u ,v)=Ζ (v )
Tangent fields:
∂r
r u=
∂u
∂r
rv =
∂v
Now,
r=r( x, y , z )=(Υ ( v)cosu, Υ (v)sin u ,Ζ (v )
Therefore,
∂r
ru= =(−Υ ( v)sin u ,Υ ( v)cosu , 0 )
∂u
r
E1 = u
|r u|
|r u|= √(−Υ ( v)sin u)2 +(Υ (v )cosu)2 +02 )=Υ ( v)
ru (−Υ (v )sin u , Υ (v )cos u , 0 )
⇒ E 1= =
|r u| Υ ( v)
ru
⇒ E 1= =(−sin u ,cos u , 0 )
|r u|
Similarly,
∂r ' ' '
rv = =(Υ (v )cosu ,Υ (v )sin u , Υ ( v ))
∂v
r
E2 = v
|r v|
|r v|= √(Υ ( v)cosu )2 +(Υ (v )sin u)2 +(Υ ( v))2
' ' '
|r v|= √Υ ¿ (v )( cos2 u+sin 2 u)+(Υ ' ( v ))2
|r v|= √Υ ¿ (v )(1)+(Υ ' (v ))2
|r v|= √Υ (v )+(Υ (v))2= √1=1
¿ '
rv(Υ ' ( v )cos u , Υ ' (v )sin u ,Υ ' ( v ))
E2 = =
|r v| 1
E2 =(Υ ' (v )cos u ,Υ ' ( v )sin u , Υ ' (v ))
E3 =E1 ×E2
( )
i j k
E3 = −sin u cosu 0
' ' '
Υ ( v)cosu Υ (v )sin u Ζ (v)
' ' ' 2 ' 2
E3 =( Ζ ( v )cosu , Ζ (v )sin u ,−Υ ( v )sin u−Υ ( v )cos u )
E3 =( Ζ ' ( v )cosu , Ζ ' (v )sin u ,−Υ ' ( v )(sin2 u+cos2 u ))
E3 =( Ζ ' ( v )cosu , Ζ ' (v )sin u ,−Υ ' ( v ))
Find,
⟨d F. E3 ,G⟩ , ?
First,
1 2
F=f E 1 + f E2
⇒ d F=df 1 . E1 + f 1 d E1 + df 2 . E 2 +f 2 d E 2
1 1 2 2
⇒ d F . E3 =df . E1 . E3 +f d E1 . E3 +df . E 2 . E3 +f d E 2 .E 3
1 2
⇒ d F . E3 =f (d E1 . E 3 )+f (d E 2 . E3 )
1 2
⇒ d F . E3 =f (d E1 . E 3 )+f (d E 2 . E3 )
Therefore,
d E 1 . E 3=d (−sinu ,cosu ,0 ).( Ζ ' ( v)cosu , Ζ ' (v )sin u ,−Υ ' ( v ))
' ' '
d E 1 .E 3=(−cosu du ,−sinu du,0).(Ζ (v)cosu ,Ζ (v )sin u,−Υ ( v))
2 ' 2 '
d E 1 . E 3=−cos u Ζ ( v)du−sin u Ζ (v )du+0
d E 1 . E 3=−(cos 2 u+sin2 u)Ζ ' (v )du
'
d E 1 .E 3=−Ζ (v )du
Therefore,
' ' ' ' ' '
d E 2 . E 3 =d (Υ ( v )cosu , Υ sin u , Ζ (v )). (Ζ (v )cosu , Ζ (v )sin u ,−Υ ( v ))
' '' ' '' '' ' ' '
d E 2 . E 3 =(−Υ (v )sin udu+Υ ( v )cosudv ,Υ cos udu+Υ ( v )sin udv , Ζ (v )dv ).( Ζ ( v )cosu , Ζ (v )sin u ,−Υ ( v ))
' ' '' ' 2 ' ' '' ' 2 '' '
d E 2 . E 3 =(−Υ Ζ sin u cosudu+Υ Ζ cos udv +Υ Ζ sin u cosudu+Υ Ζ sin udv−Ζ Υ dv
'' ' 2 '' ' 2 '' '
d E 2 . E 3 =Υ Ζ cos udv +Υ Ζ sin udv−Ζ Υ dv
'' ' 2 2 '' '
d E 2 . E 3 =Υ Ζ (cos u+sin u )dv −Ζ Υ dv
'' ' '' '
d E 2 . E 3=Υ Ζ dv−Ζ Υ dv
'' ' '' '
d E 2 .E 3=(Υ ( v )Ζ (v )−Ζ (v )Υ (v ))dv
Therefore,
1 2
d F . E 3=f (d E1 . E3 )+f (d E2 . E3 )
Together with,
d E 1 .E 3=−Ζ ' (v )du , and
d E 2 .E 3 =(Υ ' ' ( v)Ζ ' (v )−Ζ ' ' (v)Υ ' (v))dv
Become:
1 ' 2 '' ' '' '
d F . E 3=f (−Ζ ( v )du )+f (Υ (v )Ζ ( v )−Ζ ( v )Υ ( v ))dv
1 ' 2 ' '' ' ''
d F . E 3=−f Ζ ( v)du−f (Υ ( v)Ζ ( v)−Ζ (v )Υ ( v))dv
Let,
1 '
U=−f Ζ ( v)
2 ' '' ' ''
V =−f (Υ ( v)Ζ ( v)−Ζ (v)Υ ( v))
Then:
d F .E 3=Udu+Vdv
Therefore,
⟨d F. E3 ,G⟩=?
⟨d F. E3 ,G⟩=⟨Udu+Vdv,G⟩
1 2
⟨d F . E3 ,G⟩=⟨Udu+Vdv,g E1+g E 2 ⟩
1 −1 2 −1
⟨d F. E3 ,G⟩=⟨Udu+Vdv,g |ru| ru+g |r v| r v ⟩
⟨d F. E3 ,G⟩=⟨Udu, g1|r u|−1 r u+g2|r v|−1 rv ⟩ + ⟨Vdv ,g 1|ru|−1 ru+g 2|rv|−1 r v ⟩
1 −1 2 −1 1 −1 2 −1
⟨d F. E3 ,G⟩=⟨Udu, g |r u| r u⟩ + ⟨Udu,g |r v| r v ⟩ + ⟨Vdv ,g |r u| ru ⟩ + ⟨Vdv ,g |rv| r v ⟩
⟨d F. E3 ,G⟩=Ug1|r u|1 ⟨du,r u ⟩ + Ug2|r v|1 ⟨du,r v ⟩ + Vg1|ru|−1 ⟨dv ,r u⟩ + Vg2|r v|−1 ⟨dv ,r v ⟩
We found:
r
E1 = u
|r u| , E1=|ru|−1 r u
rv
E2 = −1
|r v| , E2 =|r v| r v
Note that,
⟨du,r u ⟩=⟨du,∂u r⟩=1
⟨dv,r v ⟩=⟨dv ,∂ v r ⟩=1
⟨du,r v ⟩=⟨du,∂v r⟩=0
⟨dv,r u ⟩=⟨dv,∂u r⟩=0
⟨du,r u ⟩=1
⟨du,r v ⟩=0
⟨dv,r u ⟩=0
⟨dv,r v ⟩=1
⟨d F. E3 ,G⟩=Ug1|r u|1 (1) + Ug2|r v|1 (0) + Vg1|r u|−1 (0) + Vg2|rv|−1(1)
1 −1 2 −1
⟨d F. E3 ,G⟩=Ug |r u| +Vg |rv|
⟨d F. E3 ,G⟩=Ug 1|r u|−1 +Vg2|rv|−1
Since we found:
1 '
U=−f Ζ ( v)
2 ' '' ' ''
V =−f (Υ ( v)Ζ ( v)−Ζ (v)Υ ( v))
−1
|r v| =1
−1 −1
|r u| =Υ ( v)
Therefore,
1 ' 1 −1 2 ' '' ' '' 2
⟨d F . E3 ,G⟩=−f Ζ ( v)g (Υ ( v))+(−f (Υ ( v)Ζ ( v)−Ζ ( v)Υ ( v)) g (1)
⟨d F . E3 ,G⟩=−f 1 g1 Ζ' ( v)Υ −1 (v )−f 2 g2 (Υ ' (v )Ζ '' ( v)−Ζ ' ( v)Υ '' (v ))
First,
1 2
F=f E 1 + f E2
⇒ d F=df 1 . E1 + f 1 d E1 + df 2 . E 2 +f 2 d E 2
1 1 2 2
⇒ d F . E3 =df . E1 . E3 +f d E1 . E3 +df . E 2 . E3 +f d E 2 .E 3
1 2
⇒ d F . E3 =f (d E1 . E 3 )+f (d E 2 . E3 )
But,
F . E3 =0
⇒ d( F . E3 )=d F . E3 +F .d E 3=0
⇒ d F. E3 =−F.d E 3
Since,
j
d E 3 =ω3 E j
1 2 3
d E 3 =ω3 E 1 +ω 3 E2 +ω3 E 3
1 2
d E 3 =ω3 E 1 +ω 3 E2
Therefore, eq:
d F .E 3=−F .d E3
Becomes:
1 2 1 2
⇒ d F . E3 =−( f E1 +f E 2 ).(ω3 E1 +ω 3 E2 )
1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2
⇒ d F . E3 =−( f ω 3 E1 . E1 +f ω3 E2 . E 1 +f ω3 E 1 . E 2 +f ω3 E 2 . E 2 )
1 1 2 2
⇒ d F . E3 =−( f ω 3 +f ω3 )
So let us turn to surfaces.
j
d X=ϑ E j
1 2 3
d X=ϑ E1 +ϑ E2 +ϑ E3
3
ϑ =0 , therefore,
d X=ϑ 1 E1 +ϑ 2 E2
For,
1 2
d X=d r ≡ϑ E1 + ϑ E2
Now,
2 j
dd { X=d X=d(ϑ E j )¿
2 j j
d X =dϑ . E j −ϑ ∧d E j
2 j j k
d X =dϑ . E j −ϑ ∧ω j Ek
k j k
⇒0=dϑ . E k −ϑ ∧ω j E k
k j k
⇒0=( dϑ −ϑ ∧ω j ) Ek
1 j 1 n j n
⇒(0,.. ... ,0 )=((dϑ −ϑ ∧ω j ) E1 , ... ... ,(dϑ −ϑ ∧ω j )) En )
Therefore,
1 j 1 1 j 1
⇒ dϑ −ϑ ∧ω j =0 ,
⇒ dϑ =ϑ ∧ω j
……………………………………………………………………
n j n n j n
⇒ dϑ −ϑ ∧ω j =0 , ⇒ dϑ =ϑ ∧ω j
⇒ dϑ 1 =ϑ 1 ∧ω11 + ϑ 2 ∧ω12 , since, ϑ 3 =0 ,as explained earlier
1 2 1
⇒ dϑ =ϑ ∧ω2
Similarly,
2 1 2 2 2
⇒ dϑ =ϑ ∧ω1 +ϑ ∧ω 2
2 1 2
⇒ dϑ =ϑ ∧ω1
Similarly,
3 1 3 2 3 3 3
dϑ =d( 0)=0=ϑ ∧ω1 + ϑ ∧ω2 +ϑ ∧ω 3
1 3 2 3
0=ϑ ∧ω1 +ϑ ∧ω 2
Recall,
j
d E k =ω k E j
j
ωk≡¿ ¿ differential forms called connection forms.
j
d E k . El =ω k E j . El
j
d E k . El =ωk δ jl
⇒ d Ek .El =ω kl
Now,
j
d X=ϑ E j
j
d X .E k=ϑ E j . Ek
j
d X .E k=ϑ δ jk
k
d X . E k=ϑ k =ϑ =check ?
Recall:
Ek . Ek =1
d E k . Ek + Ek .d E k =0
2d E k .E k =0
⇒ d Ek .E k=0
⇒ d Ek ⊥ Ek
We already know this from:
j
dE k=ωk E j
2 3
⇒ dE1 =ω1 E 2 +ω 1 E3
⇒ d E1 ⊥E 1
Therefore,
dE 1lies in E2 , E3 plane
1
And if,
ω3 =0 , then:
dE 1 lies along E 2 line
Similarly,
1 3
dE 2 =ω 2 E1 +ω 2 E3
Therefore,
dE 2 liesin E 1 ,E 3 plane
⇒ d E2 ⊥E 2
Similarly,
1 2
dE 3 =ω 3 E1 +ω 3 E2
Therefore,
dE 3 liesin E 1 ,E 2 plane
⇒ d E3 ⊥E 3
1
And if,
ω3 =0 , then:
dE 3 liesalong E2 line
1 2
We see that,
ϑ , ϑ forma coframe of , S ,dual tothe tan gent frame, E1 , E2 , in the sense that:
i i
⇒⟨ϑ , Ek ⟩=δ k
⟨ϑ 1 , E1 ⟩=1
2
⟨ϑ , E2 ⟩=1
1
⟨ϑ , E2 ⟩=0
⟨ϑ 2 , E1 ⟩=0
Co-frame means that every one-form, , defined on, S, can be written as:
g1 1 g 2 2
Just as a frame means that every vector, d X , defined on, S, can be written as:
dX dr 1 E1 2 E2 …… EQ.(*)……
j fundamental forms determined by EQ.(*)
j
Where their differentials, d , satisfy the first structural equations,
d n j nj
3 0
d 3 d (0) 0 1 13 2 23 3 33
d 3 0 1 13 2 23
So one has the following pair of equations for vectors and one-form, respectively:
dX dr i Ei
g i i
d n , j , and nj
Where, are related by the following equation:
d n j nj
kj
Recall, the connection forms, , are determined by:
dE j kj Ek
With,
kj kj 0
…… anti symmetrical
With second SE’s:
dkj kl l j
d12 1l l2
d12 11 12 12 22 13 32
11 0 , 22 0
Since, , then,
d12 13 32
Similarly,
d13 11 13 12 23 13 33
11 0 , 33 0
Since, , then,
d13 12 23
Finally,
d23 21 13 22 23 23 33
22 0, 33 0
Since, , then,
d23 21 13
We have just found, above, that:
1 13 2 23 0 , and
g1 1 g 2 2 ,Therefore,
13 g11 g 2 2
We like to write the functions,
g1 , g 2 for 13 23 , such that we keep the 1,2, and distinguis h for 13 , 23 which is the,1,2, while ,3, is , same, so
g1 h11 , g 2 h12 , for 13
And,
g1 h21, g 2 h22 , for 23
Hence, one may get:
13 h11 1 h12 2
23 h211 h22 2
3j h jm m
Where,j=1,2.m=1,2
Writing it as a matrix
13 h11 h12 h13 1
3
2 h21 h22 h23 2
3 h h 3
3 31 32 h33
13 h11 1 h12 2 h13 3
23 h21 1 h22 2 h23 3
33 h311 h32 2 h33 3
Since,
33 0, h31 h32 0, because, 1 0, 2 0
h31 h32 0, h13 h23 0
Now,
Therefore,
13 h11 h12 0 1
3
2 h21 h22 0 2
0 0 0 0 0
Which may be simplified to 2-d surface, S:
13 h11 h12 1
3 2
h h
2 21 22
dF .E3 , G
?????
First,
F f 1 E1 f 2 E2
Or simply,
F f jEj
Therefore, eq:
dF .E3 F .dE3
Becomes:
dF .E3 ( f 1E1 f 2 E2 ).(31E1 32 E2 )
dF .E3 ( f 131E1.E1 f 231E2 .E1 f 132 E1.E2 f 232 E2 .E2 )
dF .E3 ( f 131 f 232 )
dF .E3 ( f 113 f 223 )
Or simply,
dF .E3 f j 3j
……….j=1,2
This can be done by,
dF .E3 F .dE3 ,
F f j E j f j F .E j
,
G g j E j g j G.E j
,
and
dE3 3k Ek
Therefore,
dF .E3 f j E j .3k Ek
dF .E3 f j3k E j .Ek
dF .E3 f j3k jk
dF .E3 f j j 3 f j3 j
Or, equivalently,
dF .E3 f j3j f j j 3 f j3 j
3j j 3
Therefore,
dF .E3 f j 3j f j3 j
dF .E3 f 113 f 223
dF .E3 , G f ii3 , g j E j
dF .E3 , G f i g j i3 , E j
But,
3j h jm m
Therefore,
dF .E3 , G f i g j him m , E j
dF .E3 , G f i g j him m , E j
dF .E3 , G f i g j him mj
dF .E3 , G f i g j hij
i j
Symmetric bilinear form in f , g , so:
dF .E3 , G dG.E3 , F
We call:
II F , G dG.E3 , F dF .E3 , G
………..The Second Fundamental Form
Where,
dF .E3 , G hij f i g j
While We call:
I F , G I G, F F .G G.F
………..the First Fundamental Form
Where,
F,G f i g j
F , G f 1g1 f 2 g 2
The Trace, H, is equal to the Mean Curvature of surface, S, and is given by:
h11 h22
While the Determinant :
h11 h22 h12h21
And since,
h12 h21
Then,
2
h11 h22 h12 ..
total Curvature of surface, S.
h h
11 12
Where the Symmetric Matrix, useful for Curvature of S, h21 h22
We found in the Prime Example:
dF .E3 , G f 1 g 1(v) 1 (v) f 2 g 2 ( (v) (v) (v) (v))
But,
dF .E3 , G hij f i g j
For any general functions of the form:
F f j E j f j F .E j
,
G g j E j g j G.E j
,
Hence,
dF .E3 , G h11 f 1 g 1 h12 f 1 g 2 h21 f 2 g 1 h22 f 2 g 2
… General
Compare with:
dF .E3 , G (v) 1 (v) f 1 g 1 (v) (v) (v) (v) f 2 g 2
….. for the prime example
Then:
h12 h21 0
h11 (v) 1 (v)
h22 (v) (v) (v) (v)
Also, , the total Curvature of surface, S.
2
h11 h22 h12 ..
h11 h22 0 2
h11 h22
(v) 1 (v) ( (v) (v) (v) (v) )
(v) (v) (v) (v) (v) (v)
1
(v) (v) (v) (v) (v) (v)
1 2
(v)(v)(v) (v)(v) 2
(v )
2 (v) 2 (v) 1
d
take, , again
dv to get:
2 2 0
0
Therefore,
2
Becomes:
() 2
2 2
2
2
1
2
h11 h22 h12
Where, h11 , h22 , h12 , are extrinsic quantities.
see that:
d d ( gi i ) …… where, d , is a 2-form since, , is a 1-form
d dgi i g i d i
Recall that:
d j k kj …..……………….. Cartan’s First Structural Equations
And
dkl kj lj
…………………… Cartan’s Second Structural Equations
The Gaussian Curvature (intrinsic) is determined by:
d21 1 2
Prove theorem egregium of Gauss from:
dkl kj lj
…………………… Cartan’s Second Structural Equations
d21 2j 1j
….only j=3 is non-zero wedge product:
d21 23 31
d21 23 13
3j h jm m
23 h2 m m
23 h21 1 h22 2
13 h111 h12 2
Hence,
d21 (h21 1 h22 2 ) (h11 1 h12 2 )
d21 (h21h11 1 1 h11 h22 2 1 h 212 1 2 h22h12 2 2 )
d21 (h11 h22 2 1 h 212 1 2 )
d21 h11 h22 2 1 h 212 1 2
d21 h11 h22 1 2 h 212 1 2
d21 (h11 h22 h 212 ) 1 2
d21 1 2
We now explain why:
j , Ek kj
First:
x ( x1 , x 2 , x 3 )
dx (dx1 , dx 2 , dx 3 )
dx j E j
e1 (1,0,0)
e2 (0,1,0)
e3 (0,0,1)
Ek ( Ek 1 , Ek 2 , Ek 2 )
Then:
Ekl Ek .el
1
Ek1 Ek .e1 ( Ek 1 , Ek 2 , Ek 2 ) 0
0
Ek1 Ek .e1 Ek1
For more specific example:
E12 E1.e2
0
E12 E1.e2 ( Ek1 , Ek 2 , Ek 2 ) 1
0
E12 E1.e2 Ek 2
From:
dx j E j
Ek .dx j E j .Ek
Ek .dx j jk
Ek .dx k
Or, equivalently:
k Ek .dx
dx1
k Ek .dx ( Ek1 , Ek 2 , Ek 3 ) dx 2
dx 3
k E k l dx l ( E k 1dx1 E k 2 dx 2 E k 3dx 3 )
Therefore,
k,Ej
k , E j E k l .dx l , E mj em
k , E j E k l E mj .dx l , em
k , E j E k l E mj ml
k , E j E k l E lj k , E j jk
,
As found earlier:
Now introduce the standard basis:
e1 , e2 , e3
dx x i j k x
x y z
x x x
dx x i j k
x y z
dx x 1i 0 j 0k
dx x 1,0,0 e1
Can equivalently written as:
Now introduce the standard basis:
e1 , e2 , e3
dx1 x1 1 , 2 , 3 x1
x x x
x1 x 2 x 3
dx1 x1 1 , 2 , 3
x x x
dx1 x1 1,0,0 e1
Or,
dx x 1,0,0 e1
And so on for the others.
dx k , E j x k .E j ek .E j E kj
k Ek .dx
The Gauss Curvature
The presence of Gauss Curvature is reflected in the fact that the second covariant differential
2
( dT 0 ) , in general, while the usual( d 0 ).
2
The Gauss Curvature, K, defined intrinsically by:
d21 1 2
Is the same as the Gauss Curvature, K, defined extrinsically the determinant of the second fundamental
form, Recall:
II F , G dF .E3 , G hij f i g j
II , d.E3 ,
Or, equivalently,
r 1 r
dr 1 du 2 du 2
u u , or more compactly:
r
dr k du k
u
r r r r
dr dr ( du dv) ( du dv)
u v u v
dr dr (ru du rv dv) (ru du rv dv)
dr dr ru ru du du rv ru dv du ru rv du dv rv rv dv dv
dr dr rv ru dv du ru rv du dv
dr dr ( ru rv ) (du dv) ru rv du dv
dr dr ru rv du dv ru rv du dv
dr dr 2ru rv du dv
1
(dr dr ) ( ru rv ) du dv
2
1 (ru rv )
(dr dr ) ru rv du dv
2 ru rv
1
(dr dr ) ru rv N du dv
2
1
(dr dr ) ru rv du dv N
2
1
dS (dr dr ) ru rv du dv N S N
2
Similarly, since:
N N (u, v)
, then:
N N
dN du dv
u v
Or, equivalently, if we let:
N N (u, v) N (u1 , u 2 )
, then:
N 1 N 2
dN 1 du 2 du
u u ,
or more compactly:
j N
dN (u ) j du j
u
Taking cross product:
N N N N
dN dN ( du dv) ( du dv)
u v u v
dN dN ( N u du N v dv) ( N u du N v dv)
dN dN N u N u du du N v N u dv du N u N v du dv N v N v dv dv
dN dN N v N u dv du N u N v du dv
dN dN ( N u N v ) ( du dv) N u N v du dv
dN dN N u N v du dv N u N v du dv
dN dN 2 N u N v du dv
1
(dN dN ) ( N u N v ) du dv dS
2 , for S-surface
1
dS ( dN dN )
2
1
dS (dE3 dE3 )
2
1
dS (31 E1 32 E2 ) (31 E1 32 E2 )
2
Note that:
E1 E2 E3
E1 E1 0
E2 E2 0
Hence:
1
dS (31 32 E1 E2 32 31E2 E1 )
2
1
dS (31 23 E3 32 31 ( E3 ))
2
1
dS (31 23 E3 (31 32 )( E3 ))
2
1
dS (31 23 E3 31 32 E3 )
2
1
dS (31 23 E3 31 23 E3 )
2
1
dS (31 23 31 23 ) E3
2
1
dS (231 23 ) E3
2
dS 31 23 E3
dS (13 ) (32 ) E3
dS 13 32 E3
dkl kj lj
But,
dS d12 E3
dS d21 E3
dS d21 N
1
dS (dr dr ) ru rv du dv N S N
2
dS ru rv du dv N
dS S N
S ru rv du dv
S ru rv du dv
S ru du rv dv
S 1 2
So let us turn to surfaces, where we found that:
dX j E j
dX 1E1 2 E2 3 E3
3 0 , therefore,
dX 1E1 2 E2 , and
j E j .dX
Proof:
E j .dX E j . k Ek
E j .dX k E j Ek
E j .dX k j k
E j .dX j
Let,
r r (u , v )
ru , rv E1 , E2
N N (u, v ) E3
ru rv
N N (u , v)
ru rv
j u i
dr (u ) j du j
u
r r (u, v) r (u1 , u 2 )
r r
dr du dv
u v
dr ru du rv dv
ru rv
dr ru du rv dv
ru rv
dr ( ru du ) E1 ( rv dv) E2
Setting:
1 ru du
, and,
2 rv dv
,
One gets:
dr 1 E1 2 E2
dr dr ( 1 E1 2 E2 ) ( 1 E1 2 E2 )
dr dr 1 2 E1 E2 2 1 E2 E1
dr dr 1 2 E1 E2 ( 1 2 )( E1 E2 )
dr dr 1 2 E1 E2 1 2 E1 E2
dr dr ( 1 2 1 2 ) E1 E2
dr dr 2 1 2 E3
1
dr dr 1 2 N
2
But we found above:
1
dS (dr dr ) ru rv du dv N S N
2
Therefore:
1
dS (dr dr ) ru rv du dv N S N 1 2 N
2
Also
dS d21 N
d21 1 2
dS 1 2 N
But,
dS 1 2 N
Therefore:
dS dS
dS dS
dS dS
Now the inner product:
r r r r
dr . dr ( du dv ) ( du dv )
u v u v
dr dr (ru du rv dv) (ru du rv dv)
dr . dr ru . ru du du rv . ru dv du ru . rv du dv rv . rv dv dv
dr . dr (ru . ru ) (du ) 2 (rv . ru ) (dv du ) (ru . rv ) (du dv) ( rv . rv ) (dv ) 2
dr . dr g uu (du ) 2 g vu (dv du ) ( g uv (du dv) g vv (dv) 2
Or equivalently:
dr . dr g11 (du1 ) 2 g 21 (du 2 du1 ) ( g12 (du1 du 2 ) g 22 (du 2 ) 2
Which, in matrix form, as found earlier:
dr .dr ds 2 g ij du i du j
ds 2 dU T G dU
g g12 du1
dr .dr ds 2 du1 du 2 11
g 2
2
du
g 21
Where,
g det( g ij ) g11 g 22 g12 g 21
g det( g ij ) g11 g 22 g122
g ij ru i .ru j
Where,
r r
g ij .
u i u j
g ij ij
…………….for the Euclidean space.
since
ds 2 dx 2 dy 2 dz 2
ds 2 ( xu du xv dv) 2 ( yu du yu dv) 2 ( zu du zv dv) 2
Expanding and collecting:
2 2 2 2 2 2
ds 2 ( xu yu zu )du 2 2( xu xv yu yv zu zv ) 2 dudv ( xv yv zv )dv 2
Also one has:
2 2 2
guu g11 ru .ru xu yu zu
2 2 2
g vv g 22 rv .rv xv yv zv
guv g12 ru .rv xu xv yu yv zu zv
2 2 2
ds 2 (ru .ru )du 2 2( xu xv yu yv zu zv )dudv ( xv yv zv )dv 2
ds 2 g uu du 2 2 guv dudv g vv dv 2
ds 2 g11 du1du1 2 g12du1du 2 g 22du 2 du 2
ds 2 g ij du i du j
ds 2 dU T G dU
g g12 du1
ds 2 du1 du 2 11
g 2
2
du
g 21
g det( g ij ) g11 g 22 g12 g 21
g det( g ij ) g11 g 22 g122
Where,
g ij ru i .ru j
r r
g ij i . j
u u
g ij ij
…………….for the Euclidean space.
r
1
U1
u
r
U 2
u 2
r r
g11 1 1 U1 ,U1
u u
r r
g 22 2 2 U 2 ,U 2
u u
r r
g12 1 2 U1 ,U 2
u u
U 2 , U 2 U 1 , U1 U 1 , U 2 U 2 , U 1
U 2 , U 2 U1 , U 1 U 1 ,U 2 U 1 , U 2
2
U 2 , U 2 U 1 , U 1 U 1 ,U 2
………. Cauchy-schwarz inequality
g 22 g11 g12 g12
2
g 22 g11 g12
2
g 22 g11 g12 0
g0
U1 ,U1 U1 ,U 2
det det g11 g12
g0
U 2 ,U1 U 2 ,U 2 g g 22
21
The two-form:
g du1 du 2
is the area form for the surface, S.
i j k
ru rv xu yu zu
x yv zv
v
ru rv ( yu zv yv zu ) i ( xv zu xu zv ) j ( xu yv xv yu ) k
2
ru rv ( yu zv yv zu ) 2 ( xv zu xu zv ) 2 ( xu yv xv yu ) 2
( yu zv ) 2 ( yv zu ) 2 ( xv zu ) 2 ( xu zv ) 2 ( xu yv ) 2 ( xv yu ) 2 zu2 zv2 zu2 zv2
=
2 yu yv zu zv 2 xu xv zu zv 2 xu xv yu yv
=
( yu zv ) 2 ( xu zv ) 2 zu2 zv2
( yv zu ) 2 ( xv zu ) 2 ( xu yv ) 2 ( xv yu ) 2 zu2 zv2 2 yu yv zu zv 2 xu xv zu zv 2 xu xv yu yv
2 2
( yu xu zu2 ) zv2 ( yv2 xv2 zv2 ) zu2 2 zv2 zu2 xu2 yv2 xv2 yu2 2 yu yv zu zv 2 xu xv zu zv 2 xu xv yu yv
=
One parameterization of the space (surface) may be:
ds 2 Gkl dv k dv l
Another parameterization of the space (surface) may be:
ds 2 g ij du i du j
Where,
u1 u1 (v1 , v 2 ) , u 2 u 2 (v1 , v 2 )...............2 D space , where, k , l , i, j 1,2
u i 1 u i 2
du i (v1 , v 2 ) dv 2 dv
v1 v
Or, more compactly,
i u i j
j
du (v ) j dv
v
2 u i k u j l
ds gij k dv l dv
v v
u i u j k l
ds 2 g ij dv dv
v k vl
Compare with:
ds 2 Gkl dv k dv l ………,
To get:
u i u j
Gkl g ij k l
v v
Comparison:
Now the inner product:
r r r r
dr . dr ( du dv ) ( du dv )
u v u v
dr dr (ru du rv dv) (ru du rv dv)
dr . dr ru . ru du du rv . ru dv du ru . rv du dv rv . rv dv dv
dr . dr (ru . ru ) (du ) 2 (rv . ru ) (dv du ) (ru . rv ) (du dv) ( rv . rv ) (dv ) 2
dr . dr g uu (du ) 2 g vu (dv du ) ( g uv (du dv) g vv (dv) 2
2
(ru . ru ) ru guu g11
2
(rv . rv ) rv g vv g 22
ru . rv ru rv cos guv g12
cos cos 0 r , rv
2 , if the two vectors u are orthogonal (mostly assumed so),
ru . rv ru rv cos g uv g12 0
If not orthogonal, then:
ru . rv ru rv cos g uv g12
g g
cos uv 12
ru rv r1 r2
g uv g12
cos
g uu g vv g11 g 22
ru . rv ru rv cos g uv g12
Proof: since,
ru guu
rv g vv
g uv
ru . rv cos g uu g vv g uv
g uu g vv
dr ( ru du ) E1 ( rv dv) E2
dr ( g uu du ) E1 ( g vv dv) E2
dr dr ( g uu duE1 g vv dvE2 ) ( g uu duE1 g vv dvE2 )
dr dr ( g uu ) 2 du 2 E1 E1 ( g vv ) 2 dv 2 E2 E2 g uu g vv dudvE1 E2 g vv g uu dvduE2 E1
dr dr g uu g vv dudvE1 E2 g vv g uu ( dudv)( E1 E2 )
dr dr 2 g uu g vv dudvE1 E2
1
dr dr guu g vv du dv E1 E2
2
1
dr dr guu g vv du dv E3
2
1
dr dr g du dv E3
2
1
dr dr g du dv N
2
While, setting:
1 ru du
, and,
2 rv dv
,
One gets:
dr 1 E1 2 E2
dr dr ( 1 E1 2 E2 ) ( 1 E1 2 E2 )
dr dr 1 2 E1 E2 2 1 E2 E1
dr dr 1 2 E1 E2 ( 1 2 )( E1 E2 )
dr dr 1 2 E1 E2 1 2 E1 E2
dr dr ( 1 2 1 2 ) E1 E2
dr dr 2 1 2 E3
1
dr dr 1 2 N
2
Compare with:
1
dr dr g du dv N
2
Therefore:
1 2 N g du dv N
1 2 g du dv
E1 E2 E3
ru rv ru 0 0
0
rv 0
ru rv 0 E1 0 E2 ru rv E3
ru rv ru rv E3
ru rv ru rv E3
ru rv ru rv 1
ru rv ru rv guu g vv
ru rv ru rv guu g vv
ru rv ru rv g
1
dS (dr dr ) ru rv du dv N S N
2
Therefore:
1
dS (dr dr ) ru rv du dv N S N 1 2 N
2
Also (see later) proof done in next page!)
dS d21 N
d21 1 2
dS 1 2 N
, But,
dS 1 2 N
Therefore:
dS dS
dS dS
dS dS
Recall:
: D S 2 , unit sphere
(u , v) N (u , v) G ( r (u, v)) E3
r ( u ,v )
S 2 is S 2 dS ( 1 2 )
The area for,
S dS 1 2
Therefore,
dS 1 2 N S N
Now:
1
dS dN d N
2
1
dS dE3 dE3
2
Recall that we already know from:
dEk kj E j
That:
dE3 31 E1 32 E2
dE3 lies in E1 , E2 plane
Therefore,
dE3 E3
Therefore,
dS (31 E1 32 E2 ) (31 E1 32 E2
1
dS (31 32 E1 E2 32 31 E2 E1 )
2
1
dS (31 32 E1 E2 (31 32 ) ( E1 E2 ))
2
1
dS (31 32 E1 E2 31 32 E1 E2 )
2
1
dS (231 32 E1 E2 )
2
dS 31 32 E1 E2
dS 31 32 E3
Or equivalently,
dS 31 32 N
dS 13 32 N
dS d12 N
dS d21 N
….proof done!
Recall that we found:
3j h jm m
Where, j=1, 2, m=1, 2, simplified to 2-d surface, S:
Hence:
13 h11 1 h12 2
23 h211 h22 2 , i.e:
13 h11 h12 1
3 2
2 h21 h22
Therefore,
dS 13 23 N
Becomes:
dS (h11 1 h12 2 ) (h21 1 h22 2 ) N
dS (h11 h22 1 2 h12h21 2 1 ) N
dS (h11 h22 1 2 h12h21 ( 1 2 )) N
dS (h11 h22 h12h21 ) 1 2 N
Also, since:
dkl kj lj
Then:
dS 31 32 N
becomes
dS 13 32 N
dS d12 E3
dS d21 E3
dS d21 N
Compare with:
dS (h11 h22 h12 h21 )1 2 N
To get:
d21 (h11h22 h12h21 ) 1 2
But:
d21 1 2
Therefore:
(h11 h22 h12h21 )
Summary
dr ( ru du ) E1 ( rv dv) E2
dr ( g uu du ) E1 ( g vv dv) E2
While, setting:
1 ru du g uu du g11 du
, and,
2 rv dv g vv dv g 22 dv
,
One gets:
dr 1 E1 2 E2
2
(ru . ru ) ru guu g11
2
(rv . rv ) rv g vv g 22
ru . rv ru rv cos guv g12
1
So our aim is to find, 2 , the differentiate it.
1
Since, 2 , is a 1-form with two independent variables,( u,v), then:
21 pdu qdv , where:
p p(u , v)
q q(u, v)
Cartan’s structural eqs:
Recall that:
d j k kj …..……………….. Cartan’s First Structural Equations
And
dkl kj lj
…………………… Cartan’s Second Structural Equations
d 1 k k1
d 1 1 11 2 21
d 1 2 21
d 1 2 21
But:
1 ru du g uu du g11 du
, and,
2 rv dv g vv dv g 22 dv
Also
21 pdu qdv
Therefore:
d 1 ( g 22 dv) ( pdu qdv)
d 1 p g 22 dv du
d 1 p g 22 du dv
Now:
1 ru du g uu du g11 du
1 g11 du
d 1 d ( g11 du )
d 1 (d g11 ) du g11 d (du )
d 1 (d g11 ) du
g11 g11
d 1 ( du dv) du
u v
g11
d 1 dv du
v
g11
d 1 du dv
v
But:
d 1 p g 22 du dv
Therefore:
g11
p g 22
v
1 g11
p
g 22 v
Similarly:
d 2 k k2
d 2 1 12 2 22
d 2 1 12
d 2 1 21
But:
1 g uu du g11 du
, and,
2 g vv dv g 22 dv
Also
21 pdu qdv
Therefore:
d 2 ( g11 du ) ( pdu qdv)
d 2 q g11 du dv
Now:
2 g 22 dv
d 2 d ( g 22 dv )
d 2 (d g 22 ) dv g 22 d (dv)
d 2 (d g 22 ) dv
g 22 g 22
d 2 ( du dv) dv
u v
g 22
d 2 du dv
u
But:
d 2 q g11 du dv
Therefore:
g 22
q g11
u
1 g 22
q
g11 u
We found above:
1 g11
p
g 22 v
Therefore:
21 pdu qdv
Becomes:
1 g11 1 g 22
21 du dv
g 22 v g11 u
g11 1 1 g11
v 2 g11 v
Similarly:
g 22 1 1 g 22
u 2 g 22 u
Therefore:
1 1 1 g11 1 1 1 g 22
21 du dv
2 g 22 g11 v 2 g11 g 22 u
1 1 g11 1 1 g 22
21 du dv
2 g11 g 22 v 2 g11 g 22 u
1 1 g11 1 1 g 22
21 du dv
2 g v 2 g u
1 1 g11 g
21 ( du 22 dv)
2 g v u
Now:
21 pdu qdv
Taking the differential to get:
d21 d ( pdu qdv)
d21 dp du dq dv
d21 ( pu du pv dv) du (qu du qv dv) dv
d21 pv dv du qu du dv
d21 pv du dv qu du dv
d21 (qu pv ) du dv
But:
1 g uu du g11 du
, and,
2 g vv dv g 22 dv
1 2 g11 du g 22 dv
1 2 g11 g 22 du dv
1 2 g du dv
1 1
2 du dv
g
Compare with:
d21 (qu pv ) du dv
1
d21 (qu pv ) 1 2
g
Then since:
d21 1 2
, then:
1
(qu pv )
g
g12 g 21 0
Then, for,
g g11 g 22
if g11 g 22
And , then,
g g112
G g g11 g 22
We found above that:
1 g 22 1 G 1 1 1 G 1 1 G
q q q ( ) q ( )
g11 u G u , G 2 G u , 2 G u
,
1 g11 1 G 1 1 1 G 1 1 G
p p p ( ) p( )
g 22 v G v , G 2 G v , 2 G v
,
1
(qu pv )
g
1
( qu pv )
G
1 1 1 G 1 1 G
G u 2 G u v 2 G v
1 1 G 1 G
2G u G u v G v ………….Gauss Formula
Now fool around with:
1 1 g11 g
21 ( du 22 dv)
2 g v u
1 1 G G
21 ( du dv)
2 G v u
1 G 1 G
2d21 ( )dv du ( )du dv
v G v u G u
1 G 1 G
2d21 ( ) du dv ( )du dv
v G v u G u
1 1 G 1 G
d21 ( ) ( ) du dv
2 v G v u G u …………….*ok
and
d21 (qu pv ) du dv
Where,
1 1 G q 1 1 G
q ( )
2 G u ……….. u 2 u G u
1 1 G p 1 1 G
p( )
2 G v … v 2 v G v …….
Therefore:
1 1 G 1 1 G
d21 du dv
2 u G u 2 v G v
1 1 G 1 G
d21 du dv
2 u G u v G v ……………….*ok
But:
log G 1 G
u G u , and,
log G 1 G
v G v
Therefore:
1
d21 log G log G du dv
2 u u v v
1 2 2
d 2 log G 2 log G du dv
1
2
2 u v
1 2 2
d 2 2 log G du dv
1
2
2 u v
1
d21 2 log G du dv
2
1
d21 log G du dv
2
But we found that:
1
log G log G
2G u u v v
1 2 2
2
log G 2 log G
2G u v
1 2 2
log G
2G u 2 v 2
1 2
log G
2G
1
G 2 log G
2
But:
1
d21 2 log G du dv
2
Therefore:
d21 G du dv
But:
d21 1 2
Therefore:
1 2 G du dv
1 2 G du dv
1 2 g du dv
Vectors and Differential Forms:
v 2 v1
1 2 v1 , v2 1 1
1 v2 2 v2
e , e g
i j ij
du , du g
i j ij
Differential forms inner product:
, i du i , j du j
, i j du i , du j
, i j g ij
, g iji j
, j j
Similarly, Vectors inner product is defined as:
v, w vi ei , w j ej
v , w ei , e j v i w j
v , w gij vi w j
v , w v j w j
While,
v v i ei j~ j
v v e ~
i
j i
j
v v i j g ij
Where,
g ij i j
Hence,
v v i j i j
v v ii
Or, equivalently:
v (v i i j ) j
v v j j
In the above analysis, we had, in an n-D space:
e1,....., en 1
,........, n 1 ,.........., n
Vector basis: x x ,
Corresponding dual vector basis: ~ ,....., ~ dx ,........, dx
1 n 1 n
Where:
e , e , g
i j i j ij
~ , ~ dx , dx g
i j i j ij
e ~ dx g
i
j
i
j
i
j
i
j
Now from:
ei ~ j i dx j g ij i j
ei ~ j g jk i dx j g jk i j g jk
e ~ g
j
i
ik dx g
j
i
ik g jk
gik~ i .e j g jk
gik~ i .e j e j .ek
gik~ i .e j ek .e j 0
( g ik~ i ek ).e j 0
Let:
k ( gik~ i ek ) vector
Therefore,
k .e j 0, j , k
k 0, k
Tensor Product (Tensors)
ei ~ j
for vector space, V. = e1 ,e2
ei basis
~ j basis for dual space, V*= ,
~1 ~ 2
~ i (e j ) ij
Kronecker Product(Arrays)
v1 v1 v1
2 1 2 2 1 2 2
v v v
v1 v1 v1 2
2 1 2 2 1 2
v v v
1 2
v11 v1 2
2
v11 v1 2 1 v 21 v 1
2
2
v 2 v
2 2 v 1 v1 2
1
1 2 2
v 2 v
1 2
v111 v1 21
2
v11 v 2 1 v 211
1
v
2 1
2
v 2 v
2 2 v 12 v1 22
1
1 2
v 2 v
1 2 2 2
v ~ v i ei j ~ j
v ~ v i j (ei ~ j )
Now:
1
e1 ~1 1 0
0
1 1 1
e1 ~1 1 0 1 0
0 0 0
1 1 0
1 0
0 0 0
1 1 0
1 0
0 0 0
1 1 1
e1 ~ 2 0 1 0 1
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1
0 0 0
0 0 0
e2 ~1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1
0 0 0
1 0
1 1 0
0 0 0
1 0
1
1 0
0 0 0
e2 ~ 2 0 1 0 1
1 1 1
0 0 0
0 1
1 0 1
1 0 0
1 0
0 0 1
Therefore:
v ~ v i j (ei ~ j ) M ij M i ( row ) j ( column) Matrix Elements
v ~ v1 1 (e1 ~1 ) v 21 (e2 ~1 ) v1 2 (e1 ~ 2 ) v 2 2 (e2 ~ 2 )
1 0 2 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 0
v ~ v1 1 v 1 v 2 v 2
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
~ v 1 0 0 0 0 v 2 0 0
1 1
v 2 2
0 0 v 1 0 0 0 0 v 2
v1 v1 v1
v ~ 2 1 2 2 1 2 2
v v 1 v 2
ei ~ j
Standard notation for Tensor Product:
ei ~ j
Non-Standard notation for Tensor Product:
L Lk l ek ~ l
k ek ~ l
Where, L , is the tensor quantity of rank (1,1), with components, L l , and “direction”, .
“Forward” Transformation to the primed coordinates of the vector part is given by:
(e j ) F k j ek
While the “Backward” Transformation of the primed coordinates to the original coordinates of the
vector part is given by:
ek B i k (ei )
Conversely,
“Forward” Transformation to the primed coordinates of the Co-vector part is given by:
(~ i ) B i l ~ l
While the “Backward” Transformation of the primed coordinates to the original coordinates of the
Co-vector part is given by:
~ l F l j (~ j )
To transform to the primed coordinates, one gets:
L Lk l ek ~ l
L Lk l B i k (ei ) F l j (~ j )
L B i k Lk l F l j (ei )(~ j )
Therefore, setting:
( Li j ) B i k Lk l F l j
L ( Li j )(ei )(~ j )
Similarly, if:
????
Then:
Li j F i k ( Lk l ) B l j
Proof:
From:
L ( Lk l )(ek )(~ l )
,and
(ek ) F i k ei , and
(~ l ) B l j ~ j
One gets:
L ( Lk l ) F i k ei B l j~ j
L F i k ( Lk l ) B l j ei ~ j
Hence,
Li j F i k ( Lk l ) B l j
Which leads to:
L Li j ei ~ j
…. Proof completed
Bilinear forms:
It is a linear combination of co-vector – co-vector pairs.
B Bij ~ i~ j
Now given:
B Bkl ~ k ~ l
Then, since:
~ k F k i (~ i )
~ l F l j (~ j )
The:
B Bkl ( F k i (~ i ))( F l j (~ j ))
B ( F k i F l j Bkl )(~ i )(~ j )
Setting:
Bij ( F k i F l j Bkl )
B Bij (~ i )(~ j )
While, since:
B Bkl (~ k )(~ l )
And:
(~ k ) B k i ~ i
(~ l ) B l j ~ j
Then:
B Bkl ( B k i~ i )( B l j~ j )
B ( B k i B l j Bkl )~ i~ j )
Setting:
Bij ( B k i B l j Bkl )
Then:
B Bij ~ i~ j )
v1 v1 v1
v ~ 2 1 2 2 1 2 2
v v 1 v 2
v11 v1 2 L11 L12
2
v v 2 L21 L2 2
1 2
Li j ei ~ j Li j v j i
To summarize from the above:
(e j ) F k j ek
ek B i k (ei )
(~ i ) B i l ~ l
~ l F l j (~ j )
To transform the following :
D D kj ek e j
,
D D kj ( B i k (ei )) ( B l j (el ))
D ( D kj B i k B l j )(ei ) (el )
Setting:
( D il ) ( B i k B l j D kj )
One finally gets the required transformation:
D ( D il )(ei ) (el )
For the reverse transformation of:
D ( D il )(ei ) (el )
Back to the unprimed coordinates,Start with:
(ei ) F k i ek
(el ) F j l e j
D ( D il ) ( F k i ek ) ( F j l e j )
D (( D il ) F k i F j l ) ek e j
Setting:
D kj ( D il ) F k i F j l
One may finally get the required reverse transformation back to the unprimed coordinates:
D D kj ek e j
Now take:
Q Q i jk ei ~ j ~ k
to the primed coordinates, note that:
ei B l i (el ) , ~ j F j m (~ m ) , ~ k F k n (~ n )
Hence:
Q Q i jk ( B l i (el )) ( F j m (~ m )) ( F k n (~ n )
Q (Q i jk B l i F j m F k n )(el )(~ m )(~ n )
Setting:
(Q l mn ) Q i jk B l i F j m F k n
Then one gets:
Q (Q l mn ) (el )(~ m )(~ n )
Similarly to get the reverse transformation from:
Q (Q l mn ) (el )(~ m )(~ n )
( el ) F k l ek (~ m ) B m j ~ j (~ n ) B n i (~ i )
Substitute: , ,
into the above equation to get:
Q (Q l mn ) ( F k l ek )( B m j~ j )( B n i~ i )
Q (Q l mn ) F k l B m j B n i ek ~ j ~ i
Setting:
Q k ji (Q l mn ) F k l B m j B n i
Q Q k ji ek ~ j ~ i
To get:
Compare:
(Q l mn ) Q i jk B l i F j m F k n
With:
Q k ji (Q l mn ) F k l B m j B n i
Example (1)
What is Q(D ) ? , where,
Q Q i jk ei ~ j ~ k
, and:
D D ab ea eb
Solution:
Q( D) Q i jk ei ~ j ~ k ( D abea eb )
Q( D) Q i jk D ab ei ~ j (ea ) ~ k (eb )
Q( D) Q i jk D ab ei aj bk
Q( D) Q i jk D jk ei e
………..therefore, Q(D) , is a vector along i .
Example (2)
1 w1
v
v w w
1 1 2
v w 2 2 1
v w v 2 w
w2
v1w1
v w
1 2
v w 2 1
v w
v 2 w2
Example (3)
Say,
v1w1
1 2
vw
D D abea eb v w v a ea wb eb v a wb ea eb 2 1
v w
v 2 w2
Where,
v1w1
v1w2
D D abea eb v a wb ea eb 2 1
v w
v 2 w2
D ab v a wb
D11
D12
D D abea eb v a wb ea eb 21
D
D 22
D D abea eb D11e1 e1 D12e1 e2 D 21e2 e1 D 22e2 e2
1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
D D abea eb D11 D12 D 21 D 22
0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
Now
1
1
1 1 0
e1 e1
0 0 0 1
0
1 1
0 0
e1 e1
0 0
0 0
1
0
e1 e1
0
0
Similarly,
0
1
1 0 1
e1 e2
0 1 0 0
1
0 0
1 1
e1 e2
0 0
0 0
0
1
e1 e2
0
0
Similarly,
1
0
0 1 0
e2 e1
1 0 1 1
0 0 0
0 0
e2 e1
1 1
0 0
0
0
e2 e1
1
0
Finally,
0
0
0 0 1
e2 e2
1 1 1 0
1
0
0 0 0
e2 e2
1 1 0
1
0
0
e2 e2
0
1
To summarize:
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
e1 e1 e1 e2 e2 e1 e2 e2
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
, , ,
Hence:
D D abea eb D11e1 e1 D12e1 e2 D 21e2 e1 D 22e2 e2
Becomes
1 0 0 0
ab 11 0 12 1 21 0 22 0
D D ea eb D D D D
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
D11 0 0 0
12
ab 0 D 0 0
D D ea eb
0 0 D 21 0
0 0 0 D 22
D11
12
D
D D abea eb 21
D
D 22
22
Where, for example, D , component of the one-column matrix is the component in the second
“macro” row and second “micro” row. The column is not mentioned here since , as it seems, it is a one-
column matrix
Example (4)
Now suppose we have:
D D i j ei ~ j D11 e1 ~1 D12 e1 ~ 2 D 21 e2 ~1 D 2 2 e2 ~ 2
Starting with:
1 11 0
e1 ~1 1 0
0 01 0
1 0
e1 ~1
0 0
1 0
e1 ~1
0 0
Then:
1 10 1
e1 ~ 2 0 1
0
00 1
0 1
e1 ~ 2
0 0
0 1
e1 ~ 2
0 0
Then:
0 01 0
e2 ~1 1 0
1 11 0
0 0
e2 ~1
1 0
0 0
e2 ~1
1 0
Finally:
0 00 1
e2 ~ 2 0 1
1 10 1
0 0
e2 ~ 2
0 1
0 0
e2 ~ 2
0 1
Therefore the following expression :
D D i j ei ~ j D11 e1 ~1 D12 e1 ~ 2 D 21 e2 ~1 D 2 2 e2 ~ 2
Becomes:
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
D D i j ei ~ j D11 D12 D 21 D 2 2
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
~ j D 1 0 0 D 2 0 0 0 0
1 1
i
D D j ei
0 0 0 0 D 21 0 0 D 2 2
~j D1 D 2
1 1
D D j ei 2
i
2
D 1 D 2
example(5)
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
D D i jk ei ~ j ~ k D111 1 0 D121 1 0 D 211 1 0 D 2 21 1 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
D112 0 1 D122 0 1 D 212 0 1 D 2 22 0 1
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Therefore:
11 0 01 0 01 0 11 0
D D i jk ei ~ j ~ k D111 D121
01 0 01 0 01 0 01 0
01 0 01 0 01 0 01 0
D 211 D 2 21
11 0 01 0 01 0 11 0
10 1 00 1 00 1 10 1 00 1 00 1
D112 D122 0 1 D 212
00 1 00 1 00 1 00 1 10 1 00 1
00 1 00 1
D 2 22
00 1 10 1
Hence :
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
D D i jk ei ~ j ~ k D111 D121
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
D 211 D 2 21
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0
D112 D122 D 12
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
D 2 22
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
D D i jk ei ~ j ~ k D111 D121
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
D 211 D 2 21
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
D112 D122 D 212
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
D 2 22
0 0 0 1
Finally
~ j ~ k D 11 0 0 0 0 0 D121 0
1
DD i
ei
0 0 0 0 0 0
jk
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2
D 11 0 0 0 0 0 D 2 21 0
0 D112 0 0 0 0 0 D122 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 D 212 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
2
0 0 0 D 22
The final result is:
~ j ~ k D 11 D122
1
D112 D121
DD i
ei 2
D 2 22
jk
D 11 D 212 D 2 21
Explanation: from the following:
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
D D i jk ei ~ j ~ k D111 D121
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
D 211 D 2 21 ...........
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
1
We see that D 11 in the first row, the first (block column) and the first (micro column)
2
We see that D 11 in the second row, the first (block column) and the first (micro column)
2
We see that D 21 in the second row, the second (block” or Macro” column) and the first (micro column)
1
We see that D 21 in the first row, the second (block column) and the first (micro column)
And so on..
Multi-linear Map: a function that is linear when all inputs except one input are held constant.
e.g.: the following linearity properties:
1 2 i n 1 2 i n
i. T ( x , x ,....., kx ,..., x ) kT ( x , x ,......., x ,......, x )
1 2 i i n 1 2 i n 1 2 i n
ii. T ( x , x ,....., x y ,..., x ) T ( x , x ,......., x ,......, x ) T ( x , x ,..., y ,...x )
Co-ordinates transformations (special chain rule):
i x i j
dx j dx
x
dx i i j dx j
Similarly,
Ai i j A j , Now:
A Ai ei , also
A Aiei , Now since,
A Ai ei Aiei , then:
Ai ei (ii Ai )ei
Ai ei (ii Ai )ei 0
Ai (ei ii ei ) 0
i
Since this equation is true for arbitrary A , then :
ei ii ei 0 , Hence:
ei ii ei
Therefore, we see that:
Ai ei (i k Ak )( ji e j )
Ai ei Ak (i k ji ) e j )
, But:
Ai ei Ak ek , Therefore:
Ak ek Ak (i k ji ) e j
ek (i k ji ) e j )
i k ji kj
To summarize:
Ai i j A j , transformation rule for the components of a vector.
ei k i ek , transformation rule for the basis vector.
One- Form
One-forms are linear maps that take vectors to numbers.
~
P ( A) number
~ ~ ~
P ( A) P ( Ai ei ) Ai P (ei )
~
P (ei ) Pi
, therefore:
~ ~
P ( A) Ai P (ei ) Ai Pi inner product scaler number
Basis one-forms:
d~x i (e j ) ij
~
P Pi d~
xi
~
P ( A) Pi d~
x i ( A je j )
~
P ( A) Pi A j d~
x i (e j )
d~x i (e j ) ij
~
P ( A) Pi A j ij
~
P ( A) Pi Ai
n
m
Now assume a general tensor, , of rank i,e; made up of n- contra-variant (vector) components
and
m- covariant (convectors, or dual vectors),this tensor, , takes n- co-vectors (or convector basis) and
1
m- vectors, (vector basis) and gives a number; a specific component for example; T 32
T a1 ,..., an b1 ,.... bm d~
x a1 ,..., d~
x an , eb1 ,....., ebm
Where,
T a1 ,..., an b1 ,.... bm ea1 ,....., ean , d~
x b1 ,...., d~x bm
Therefore,
d~x a1 ,..., d~
x an , eb1 ,....., ebm T a1 ,..., an b1 ,.... bm ea1 ,....., ean , d~
x b1 ,...., d~
x bm d~x a1 ,..., d~
x an , eb1 ,....., ebm
T a1 ,..., an b1 ,.... bm ea1 d~
x a1 ....... ean d~
x an .. d~
x b1 eb1 .. d~
x bm ebm
T a1 ,..., an b1 ,.... bm 1.......1..1..1
d~
x a1 ,..., d~x an , eb1 ,....., ebm T a1 ,..., an b1 ,.... bm
Transformation law:
a a d d c ,..., c
T a1 ,..., an b1 ,.... bm 1 c1 ... n cn 1 b1 ... m bm T 1 n d1 ,.... d m
0 0 0
Rank Tensor Rank Tensor Rank Tensor
1 1 2 …feed it with two vectors to get:
~p q~ A , B p A q B
Anti-symmetric tensors:
1
p q p q p q
2
1
p q p q ( p q
2
1
p q p q p q
2
1
p q 2 p q
2
p q p q
symmetric tensors:
1
p q p q p q
2
1
p q p q p q
2
1
p q 2 p q
2
p q p q
Tangent
Let,
x i x i ( )
d
Then:
dx i
dx i d
d
Set:
i dx i
U
d
,
Hence
dx i U i d
So the infinitesimal length along the curve:
dl dx i ei
Hence:
dl (U i d ) ei
for finite length along the curve:
l U i ei
~p (l ) p d~x i (U j e )
i j
~p (l ) p U j d~
x i (e j )
i
~p (l ) p U j i
i j
~p (l ) p U i
i
~p (l ) p x
i
i
~p (l ) p x i
i
Cuve,C1, from(a) to (b):
b
~ ~ ~ b dx i
lim
l 0
a p (l ) p p (dl ) pi d d
C1 a
b
~ ~
b
lim
l 0
p (
a
l ) pi dx
p i
C1 a
Hence:
b
~
p pi dx
i
C1 a
For 2-forms:
~p F
C2 C2
2
~p pi dx
i
C1 a
~p F number
C2 C2
2
A V W
A V W sin
iˆ ˆj kˆ
1
A V V 2 0
1
W W 2 0
A (V 1W 2 V 2W 1 ) kˆ
A V 1W 2 V 2W 1
A V W sin
Therefore,
V 1W 2 V 2W 1 V W sin
V 1W 2 V 2W 1
sin
V W
Also, the area magnitude is:
V 1 W 1
det(V ,W ) det 2 2
W
V
V 1 W 1
A det(V ,W ) det 2
2
V W
A det(V ,W ) V 1W 2 V 2W 1
0
A rank Tensor
2 maps 2 vectors to a number ( such as the magnitude of the area made up of the
two vectors as the two adjacent sides of the parallelogram :
d~x d~y d~x d~y d~y d~x
Now operating on the two vectors, V,W, to get:
d~x i d~x j (V ,W ) d~
x i d~x j (V ,W ) d~x j d~x i (V ,W )
i
d~x i d~x j (V ,W ) d~
x i (V ) d~
x j (W ) d~x j (V )d~
x (W )
d~x i d~
x j (V ,W ) d~
x i (V k ek ) d~
x j (W l el ) d~
x j (V k ek )d~x i (W l el )
d~x i d~
x j (V ,W ) V k d~
x i (ek ) W l d~
x j (el ) V k d~
x j (ek )W l d~
x i (el )
d~x i d~x j (V ,W ) V k i k W l j l V k j k W l i l
d~
x i d~
x j (V ,W ) V i W j V j W i =Area magnitude
Now suppose, i=1=x-axis, j=2=y-axis, then:
d~
x 1 d~x 2 (V ,W ) V 1 W 2 V 2 W 1
Or, in terms of x and y axes:
d~x d~y (V ,W ) V x W y V y W x
Now suppose, i=3=z-axis, j=2=y-axis, then:
d~x 3 d~
x 2 (V ,W ) V 3 W 2 V 2 W 3
Or, in terms of z and y axes:
d~z d~y (V ,W ) V z W y V y W z
And so on…..
Recall that anti-symmetric tensors:
1
p q p q p q
2
1
p q p q ( p q
2
1
p q p q p q
2
1
p q 2 p q
2
p q p q
symmetric tensors:
1
p q p q p q
2
1
p q p q p q
2
1
p q 2 p q
2
p q p q
let ~p, q~
two arbitrary one-forms, then:
0
~p q~
2
makes a two-form which is a special tensor:
~p q~ ~p q~ q~ ~p
Hence:
~p q~ q~ ~p
~p p d~x
q~ q d~x
~p q~ p d~x q d~x q d~x p d~x
~p q~ p q (d~
x d~ ~
x d~x dx )
Setting:
d~x d~x (d~x d~x d~x d~x )
One may get:
~p q~ p q d~x d~x
Setting:
d~x d~x d~
x , Hence: d~
x d~x
Then one may get:
~p q~ p q d~
x
Now:
~p q~ 1 p q d~x 1 p q d~x
2 2
~p q~ 1 p q d~x 1 p q d~x
2 2
~
d~
x , hence:
But: dx
~p q~ 1 p q d~x 1 p q d~x
2 2
~p q~ 1 ( p q p q ) d~x 1
p q p q p q
2 , But: 2 ,
~p q~ p q d~
x
hence:
~p q~ p q d~
x
Now, let:
~ 1
A Aij d~x i d~x j
2
Therefore,
~ 1
A(ek , el ) Aij (d~x i d~x j d~x j d~x i ) (ek , el )
2
~ 1
A(ek , el ) Aij (d~x i (ek ) d~x j (el ) d~x j (ek ) d~x i (el ))
2
~ 1
A(ek , el ) Aij ( ki l j kj li )
2
~ 1
A(ek , el ) ( Akl Alk )
2
~ 1
A(ek , el ) ( Akl ( Akl ))
2
~ 1
A(ek , el ) ( Akl Akl )
2
~ 1
A(ek , el ) (2 Akl )
2
~
A(ek , el ) Akl Akl
, where, , is an anti-symmetric rank (0,2)tensor
To summarize:
~ 1
A(ek , el ) Aij d~x i d~x j (ek , el )
2
~ 1
A(ek , el ) Aij ( ki l j kj li )
2
Therefore:
d~x i d~x j (ek , el ) ki l j kj li klij
ki li
j j
ki l j kj li klij
k l
Therefore, summing up:
ki li
~ i ~ j j j
ki l j kj li klij
dx dx (ek , el ) k l
ki li
Aij Aij ( ki l j kj li ) Aij klij
Aij d~x i d~x j (ek , el ) j
k l j
ki li
~ i ~ j Aij j Akl Alk Aij klij
Aij dx dx (ek , el ) k l j
ki li
~ i ~ j Aij j Akl ( Akl ) Aij klij
Aij dx dx (ek , el ) k l j
ki li
A 2 Akl Aij klij
Aij d~x i d~x j (ek , el ) ij kj l j
ki li
Aij Aij klij 2 Akl
Aij d~x i d~x j (ek , el ) j
k l j
ki li
Aij Aij klij 2 Akl
Aij d~
x ij (ek , el ) j
k l j
i i
1 ~ ij 1 A k l 1 A ij A
Aij dx (ek , el ) ij
kj l j 2
ij kl kl
2 2
~
A Aij d~x ij
Let:
Compare with:
~
A Aij d~x ij
~ 1
A ( Aij A ji )d~x ij
2
~ 1
A ( Aij Aij )d~x ij
2
~
A Aij d~
x ij
Therefore:
~
A Aij d~x ij Aij d~x ij
This, further, leads to:
Therefore:
Aij Aij
Recall:
d~x ij d~x i d~x j d~x i d~x j d~x j d~x i
And the special case:
d~x d~y d~ x d~y d~y d~ x
d~x d~y ( A, B) d~x d~y ( A, B) d~y d~x ( A, B)
d~x d~y ( A, B) d~x d~y ( Ai ei , B j e j ) d~y d~x ( Ai ei , B j e j )
d~x d~y ( A, B) Ai B j d~x (ei ) d~y (e j ) Ai B j d~y (ei ) d~x (e j )
d~
x d~y ( A, B ) Ai B j i1 2j Ai B j i2 1j
d~x d~y ( A, B) A1B 2 A2 B1 =area subtended by the parallelogram made from vectors A,B , as
adjacent sides .
Special case when sides are unit basis vectors:
d~x d~y (ei , e j ) d~x (ei ) d~y (e j ) d~y (ei )d~x (e j ) i1 j2 i2 1j
d~x d~y (ei , e j ) d~x (ei ) d~y (e j ) d~y (ei )d~x (e j ) ij12
, where,
ki li
j
ij
kl j
ki l j li kj
k l
1 1
kl12 k2 l2 k1 l2 l1 k2
k l
11 11
2
12
11 2
11 12 11 12 0
1 1
11 21
2
12
12 2
11 22 21 12 1
1 2
1 21
12
22 22 2
21 22 21 22 0
2 2
1 1
kl11 k1 l1 k1 l1 l1 k1
k l
11 21 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 2 2 1 0
11
12
1 2
1 1
1111 11 11 11 11 11 11 0
1 1
21 21
1 1 21 21 21 21 0
11
22
2 2
2 2
kl22 k2 l2 k2 l2 l2 k2
k l
12 12
22
11 2 2
12 12 12 12 0
1 1
12 12
22
12 2 2
12 22 12 22 0
1 1
2 2
2222 22 22 22 22 22 22 0
2 2
Now:
x j
dlu1 dl1 du1 1 e j
u
i
2 x
dlu 2 dl2 du ei
u 2
dAij dx i dx j
dx i dx j (dl1 , dl2 )
2 2 1 , dl2 )
F
C2
F ( d
C2
l
1
F2 Fij dx i dx j
2
m n
1 1 x 2 x
F2 C 2 ij
F dx i
dx j
( du e
1 m
, du e)
2 n
C2 2
u u
1 1 2 x m x n j
F2 C 2 du du u1 u 2 Fij dx dx (em , en )
i
C2 2
1 1 2 x m x n
F2 du du 1
F ij
2 ij mn
C2 C2
2 u u
Now:
1 ij 1
Fij mn Fij ( mi nj mj ni )
2 2
1 ij 1
Fij mn ( Fmn Fnm )
2 2
1 ij 1
Fij mn ( Fmn ( Fmn )
2 2
1 ij 1
Fij mn (2 Fmn )
2 2
1 ij
Fij mn Fmn
2
1 1 2 x m x n
F2 C 2 du du u1 u 2 Fij mn
ij
C2 2 , therefore:
x m x n
F2 du du 1 2
Fmn
C2 C2
u1 u 2
Now:
( x i , x j ) x m x n ij
J mn
(u1 , u 2 ) u1 u 2
( x i , x j ) x m x n i j
J ( m n mj ni )
(u1 , u 2 ) u1 u 2
( xi , x j ) x i x j x j x i
J ( )
(u1 , u 2 ) u1 u 2 u1 u 2 , which is the same as:
x i x i
( x i , x j ) u1 u 2
J
(u1 , u 2 ) x j x j
u1 u 2
1 1 2 x m x n ij
F2 du du ( 1 2 mn ) Fij
C2 C2
2 u u
1
F2 2 du du JF
1 2
ij
C2 C2
1 1 2 ( xi , x j ) 1 i
F2 C 2 du du (u1 , u 2 ) Fij C 2dx dx Fij
j
C2 2 2
To be reviewed further
Let
x i x i (u1 , u 2 )
x i
dxi j
du j
u
x i 1 x i 2
dxi du 2 du
u1 u
1 i j 1 x i 1 x i 2 x j 1 x j 2
Fij dx dx Fij ( 1 du 2 du ) ( 1 du 2 du )
2 2 u u u u
1 1 x i x j x i x j
Fij dxi dx j Fij ( 1 2 du1 du 2 2 1 du 2 du1 )
2 2 u u u u
set i j in the second term only:
1 1 x i x j 1 x j x i
Fij dxi dx j ( Fij 1 2 du1 du 2 F ji 2 1 du 2 du1 )
2 2 u u 2 u u
1 1 x i x j 1 1 x j x i
Fij dx dx ( Fij 1 2 du du ( Fij ) 2 1 (du1 du 2 ))
i j 2
2 2 u u 2 u u
1 1 x i x j 1 x j x i
Fij dx i dx j ( Fij 1 2 Fij 2 1 )du1 du 2
2 2 u u 2 u u
1 x i x j 1
Fij dx dx Fij 1 2 du du 2
i j
2 u u check??
But:
1
Fmn = Fij δijmn
2
Or,
1
Fij = Fmn δmn
ij
2
then
i j
1 i j 1 mn ∂ x ∂ x
F ij dx ∧dx = Fmn δij du1 ∧du 2
2 2 1
∂u ∂ u 2
Therefore,
i j
∂x ∂x
Fij dx i ∧dx j=F mn δ ijmn du 1∧du 2
∂u1 ∂u2
∂( x m , x n ) mn ∂ x i ∂ x j
J= =δ
∂(u1 , u2 ) ij ∂u1 ∂u2
Hence,
∂( x m , x n ) 1
Fij dx i ∧dx j=F mn 1 2
du ∧du2
∂(u , u ) , setting I,m=1,j,n=2 to get:
1 2
1 ∂( x , x ) 1
2
F12 dx ∧dx =F 12 1 2
du ∧du 2
∂(u , u )
this equation (green highlight) is clearer than the equation which follows (yellow highlight):
1 2 1 2
F( 2 ) dx ∧dx =F (2 ) J du ∧du
i j k i j k
dx ∧dx ∧dx ( el , e m ,e n )= dx ⊗dx ⊗dx (e l , em , e n )
j i k
−dx ⊗ dx ⊗dx (e l , em , e n )
k i j
+dx ⊗dx ⊗dx (e l , em , e n )
k j i
−dx ⊗dx ⊗dx (e l , em , e n )
j k i
+dx ⊗dx ⊗dx (e l , em , e n )
i k j
−dx ⊗dx ⊗dx (e l , em , e n )
Therefore,
i j k i j k
dx ∧dx ∧dx ( el , e m ,e n )= dx (e l )dx (e m )dx ( en )
j i k
−dx (e l )dx (e m )dx ( en )
k i j
+dx (el )dx (e m )dx (en )
k j i
−dx (el )dx (em )dx ( en )
j k i
+dx (e l )dx (e m )dx (en )
i k j
−dx (e l )dx (e m )dx ( en )
hence,
i j k
dx ∧dx ∧dx ( el , e m ,e n )= i
δ lδ
j
m
δ
k
n
−δ l δ m δ
j i k
n
k i j k j i
+δ l δ m δ n
−δ l δ m
δ n
j k i i k j
+δ l δ m
δ n
−δ l δ m
δ n
hence,
i j k i j k k j
dx ∧dx ∧dx ( el , e m ,e n )= δ l ( δ m δ n
−δ m
δ n)
i k j j k
+δ m ( δ l δ n
−δ l δ n )
i j k k j
+δ n ( δ l δ m
−δ l δ m )
hence,
i i i
l
δ δm δ n
j j j
dx i∧dx j ∧dx k ( el , e m ,e n )=|δ l
δ m
δ |≡δ ijk
lmn
n
k k k
l m n
δ δ δ
i j k ijk
dx ∧dx ∧dx ( el , e m ,e n )≡δ lmn
Also:
i i i
δl δm δn
j j j
|δ l
δ m
δ n |≡δ ijk
lmn
k k k
l m n
δ δ δ
Generalize:
μ 1ν
μ¿
δ 1 .. δ
μ μ μ . .μ
¿| . . . . . . |
dx 1∧. . ..∧dx p (e ν ,. . , e ν )≡δ ν 1 .. ν p δ
μ
.. δ
μ ¿ ¿
1 p 1 p
Generalize:
μ 1ν
μ¿
δ 1 .. δ
μ μ μ . .μ
¿| . . . . . . |
dx 1∧. . ..∧dx p (e ν ,. . , e ν )≡δ ν 1 .. ν p δ
μ
.. δ
μ ¿ ¿
1 p 1 p
μ¿ μ¿
δ .. δ
1
1 μ μ 1 μ .. μ ¿ F μ .. μ | .. . . .. |
F μ ..μ dx 1 ¿....∧dx p (e ν ,.., e ν )≡ F μ .. μ δ ν 1 .. ν p p! 1 p μ μ
p! 1 p 1 p p! 1 p 1 p δ .. δ
¿ ¿
Setting:
1 μ μ
F( p ) = F μ .. μ dx 1 ¿ .. ..∧dx p
p! 1 p , then:
1 μ .. μ
F( p ) ( e ν ,..,eν )≡ F μ .. μ δ ν 1. .ν p ¿F ν . ... .ν
1 p p! 1 p 1 p [ 1 p ] definition of a totally anti-symmetric tensor. But not to be
expanded.
Therefore:
F( p ) ( e ν ,. . , eν )≡F [ν .. ν ]
1 p 1 p
Finally:
F( p ) ( e ν ,. . , eν )=¿ F ν . ... ν =anti−symmetric Tensor ¿
1 p 1 p
1 1 μ .. μ
F ν ν .. ν = ( F ν 1 ν 2 .. ν p −F ν 2 ν 1 .. ν p +..−. ... p !−termswhich add to p ! F ν 1 ν 2 .. ν p ) F μ . .μ δ ν11. .ν pp ¿ F [ ν . ... .ν ]
[ 1 2 p] p ! = p! 1 p 1 p
Or:
μ .. μ
p! F ν ν . . ν =( F ν ν .. ν −F ν ν .. ν +. .−. .. . p !−termswhich add to p ! F ν ν .. ν ) F μ . . μ δ ν 1. .ν p ¿ p ! F ν . .... ν
[ 1 2 p] 1 2 p 2 1 p 1 2 p = 1 p 1 p [ 1 p]
Or:
μ .. μ
( F ν1 ν 2 .. ν p−F ν 2 ν 1 .. ν p +. .−. .. . p !−termswhich add to p ! F ν 1 ν 2 .. ν p ) F μ . . μ δ ν11. .ν pp
= 1 p
Or:
p! F [ ν ν ..ν ] ≡¿ ¿ F μ . . μ δ μν 1....νμ p
1 2 p 1 p 1 p
Or:
1 μ .. μ
F ν ν ..ν ¿ p ! F μ1 ..μ p δ ν1 . .ν p
1 p
[ 1 2 p]
Recall 2-D case:
i j i j j i
dx ∧dx ( el , e m )= dx ⊗dx (el , e m ) −dx ⊗ dx (el , e m )
Therefore,
i j i j j i
dx ∧dx ( el , e m )= dx (e l )dx (e m ) −dx (e l )dx (e m )
hence,
i j
dx ∧dx ( el , e m )= δ lδ
i j
m
−δ l δ
j i
m
i i
i δl j δ m
⇒ dx ∧dx ( e l , em )=| j j |≡δ ijlm
δ l δ m
i.e:
i j ij
dx ∧dx ( el , e m )≡δ lm
Also:
i i
δl δm
| jl j
m
|≡δ ijlm
δ δ
Now, let:
Flmn =completely anti-symmetric tensor
Flmn =( ~
p∧~
q∧~
r )lmn=~
p∧~
q∧~
i j k
r (e l ,e m , e n )= pi dx ∧q j dx ∧r k dx (e l , e m , e n )
i j k i j k
pi q j r k dx ∧dx ∧dx (e l , e m ,e n )= pi q j r k (dx ⊗dx ⊗dx (el ,e m , en )
j i k
−dx ⊗ dx ⊗dx (e l , em , e n )
k i j
+dx ⊗dx ⊗dx (e l , em , e n )
k j i
−dx ⊗dx ⊗dx (e l , em , e n )
j k i
+dx ⊗dx ⊗dx (e l , em , e n )
i k j
−dx ⊗dx ⊗dx (e l , em , e n ))
Therefore,
i j k i j k
dx ∧dx ∧dx ( el , e m ,e n )= dx (e l )dx (e m )dx ( en )
j i k
−dx (e l )dx (e m )dx ( en )
k i j
+dx (el )dx (e m )dx (en )
k j i
−dx (el )dx (em )dx ( en )
j k i
+dx (e l )dx (e m )dx (en )
−dx i (e l )dx k (e m )dx j ( en )
hence,
i j k
dx ∧dx ∧dx ( el , e m ,e n )= δ lδ
i j
m
δ
k
n
j
−δ l δ m δ
i k
n
k
+δ l δ m δ
i j
n
k
−δ l δ
j
m
δ
i
n
+δ l δ
j k
m
δ
i
n
i k j
−δ l δ m
δ n
Hence,
i j k i j k k j
dx ∧dx ∧dx ( el , e m ,e n )= δ l ( δ m δ n
−δ m
δ n)
i k j j k
+δ m ( δ l δ n
−δ l δ n )
i j k k j
+δ n ( δ l δ m
−δ l δ m )
hence,
i i i
δl δm δn
j j j
pi q j r k dxi ∧dx j∧dx k (e l , e m , e n )= pi q j r k |δ l
δ m ijk
δ n |≡ pi q j r k δ lmn
k k k
l m n
δ δ δ
i j k ijk
pi q j r k dx ∧dx ∧dx (e l , e m , e n )≡ pi q j r k δ lmn
i j k ijk
Flmn =Fijk dx ∧dx ∧dx (e l , em ,e n )≡Fijk δlmn
hence,
1 1 i j k
F( 3 ) (e l , e m , e n )= F ijk dx i∧dx j ∧dx k (e l ,e m , e n )= Fijk (δ l δ m δ n j i k k i j
3! 3! −δ l δ m δ n
+δ l δ m δ n
k j i j k i i k j
−δ l δ m
δ n
+δ l δ m
δ n
−δ l δ m
δ n)
hence,
1 1
F( 3 ) (e l , e m , e n )= F ijk dx i∧dx j ∧dx k (e l ,e m , e n )= ( F lmn −F +F −F +F
3! 3! mln mnl nml nlm −F ln m )
hence,
1 1
F( 3 ) (e l , e m , e n )= F ijk dx i∧dx j ∧dx k (e l ,e m , e n )= F =F
3! 3! [lmn ] lmn
i,e:
1
F( 3 ) = F ijk dx i ∧dx j ∧dx k
3!
Also:
F[ lmn ]=3! Flmn
hence,
1 1
F( 3 ) (e l , e m , e n )= F ijk dx i∧dx j ∧dx k (e l ,e m , e n )= ( F lmn
3! 3! −(−Flmn ) +F lmn −(−Flmn ) +F nlm
−(−Flmn ))
1 1
F( 3 ) (e l , e m , e n )= F ijk dx i∧dx j ∧dx k (e l ,e m , e n )= ( F lmn +F +F +F +F
3! 3! lmn lmn lmn nlm +F lmn )
1 1
F( 3 ) (e l , e m , e n )= F ijk dx i∧dx j ∧dx k (e l ,e m , e n )= (6 F lmn )=F lmn
3! 3!
1 μ μ
F( p ) = F μ . ..μ dx 1 ¿....∧dx p
p! 1 p
1 μ μ
F( p ) ( e ν ,.., eν )= F μ .. μ dx 1 ¿...∧dx p (e ν ,... ,e ν )
1 p p! 1 p 1 p
1 μ ... μ
F( p ) ( e ν ,.., eν )= F μ .. μ δ ν 1. .. ν p
1 p p! 1 p 1 p
1
F( p ) ( e ν ,..,eν p )= ( p! F[ ν .. ν ] )
1 p! 1 p
F( p ) ( e ν ,. . , eν )=F [ν .. ν ]
1 p 1 p
F( p ) ( e ν ,..,eν )=F ν ... ν F ν ... ν
1 p 1 p , where, 1 p , is a totally anti-symmetric tensor.
Next,
∫ F ( p )=∫ F ( p )( dl1 ,...,d l p )
Cp Cp
ν ν
1 ∂x 1 ∂x p
∫ F ( p )=∫
μ μ
F μ .. .μ dx 1 ¿ . ..∧dx p (du 1 1 e ν ,. .. , du p p e ν )
Cp Cp
p! 1 p du 1 ∂u p
ν ν
1 1 ∂ x 1 ∂ x p μ1
∫ F ( p )=∫
μ
du . . du p F μ . .. μ . . .. p dx ¿ . ..∧dx p (e ν ,. . ., e ν )
Cp Cp
p! 1 p
∂u 1
∂u 1 p
ν ν
1 1 ∂ x 1 ∂ x p μ1 .. .μ p
∫ F ( p )=∫ p!
du .. du p F μ . .. μ
1 p
∂u1
. . .. p δ ν ... ν
∂u 1 p
Cp Cp
ν ν
∂ x 1 ∂x p 1
∫ F ( p )=∫ du1 .. du p
μ1 ... μ p
.. . ( F μ ... μ δ ν . .. ν )
Cp Cp ∂u1 ∂ u p p ! 1 p 1 p
But:
1 μ ... μ
F( p ) ( e ν ,.., eν )= F μ .. μ δ ν 1. .. ν p
1 p p! 1 p 1 p , and:
F( p ) ( e ν1 ,. . , eν p )=F [ν 1 .. ν p]
, hence:
1 μ .. .μ
F ν .. ν = F μ .. μ δ ν 1. .. ν p
[ 1 p ] p! 1 p 1 p
Therefore,
ν ν
∂ x 1 ∂x p 1
∫ (p) ∫ 1 p μ ... μ
F = du .. du .. . p ( F μ ... μ δ ν 1. .. ν p )
Cp Cp ∂u 1
∂u p! 1 p 1 p
,becomes:
ν ν
∂ x 1 ∂x p
∫ (p ) ∫
F = du . .du
∂u 1
1 p
.. . p F [ ν ... ν ]
∂u 1 p
Cp C p
∫ F ( p )=∫ dx
ν1 ν
. . dx p F[ ν 1 .. .ν p ]
Cp C
p
Or, from:
ν ν
1 p ∂x
1
∂ x p μ1 ... μ p
∫ (p ) p ! ∫
F = du 1
. . du (
∂u 1
.. .
∂u
δ
p ν1 . .. ν p
)F μ .. . μ
1 p
Cp
C p
ν ν
1 p ∂( x , . .. ∂ x
1 p
∫ F ( p )= p ! ∫ du .. du ∂(u1 , . .. , u p ) F μ1 . .. μ p
1
Cp
Cp
1
∫ F ( p )= p! ∫ du 1 ..du p JF 1 ... p
Cp Cp
Compare with:
∫ F ( p )=∫ dx
ν1 ν
. . dx p F[ ν 1 .. .ν p ]
Cp C
p
Therefore,
1
∫
p! C
du1 ..du p JF 1... p =∫ F ( p)=∫ dx ν 1 . .dx ν p F[ ν .. .ν ]
1 p
C C
p p p Or:
∫ du 1 .. du p JF [ 1... p ] =∫ dx ν .. dx 1
νp
F[ ν 1 ... ν p ]
Cp Cp
Recall that:
1 μ μ
A ( p )= A μ ... μ dx 1 ¿.. ..∧dx p
p! 1 p , And:
1 ν ν
B (q )= B ν . .. ν dx 1 ¿.. . .∧dx p
q! 1 q , Then:
1 μ μ 1 ν ν
A ( p )∧B( q ) =( A μ .. . μ dx 1 ¿. . ..∧dx p )∧( B ν1 . .. ν q dx 1 ¿ . .. .∧dx q )
p! 1 p q!
set:
F( p+q )= A( p ) ∧B( q )
Then:
1 μ μ ν ν
F( p+q )= F μ .. . μ ν .. . ν dx 1 ¿ .. ..∧dx p ¿ dx 1 ¿ .. ..∧dx q
( p +q )! 1 p 1 q
1 μ μ ν ν 1 μ μ ν ν
F μ .. . μ ν .. . ν dx 1 ¿ .. ..∧dx p ¿ dx 1 ¿. . ..∧dx q = A μ .. .μ Bν ... ν dx 1 ¿ . ..∧dx p ¿ dx 1 ¿ . ..∧dx q
( p +q )! 1 p 1 q p! q! 1 p 1 q
1 1
F μ ...μ ν ...ν = A B
( p+q )! 1 p 1 q p! q! μ1 .. .μ p ν 1 .. .ν q
( p+q)!
F μ ...μ = A B
1 p ν1 ...νq p!q! μ1 .. .μ p ν 1 ... ν q
F μ ...μ
1 p ν1 ...νq
= ( ) p+q
A B
p μ1 ... μ p ν 1 ... ν q
=(
p )
p+q
F μ ...μ A Bν ... ν
p ν1 ...νq
μ1 ... μ p 1 q
1
=(
p )
p+q
F μ ...μ A B
p ν1 ...νq
[ μ1 . .. μ p ν1 . .. νq ]
1
….. brackets to show total anti-symmetry.
¿
g :TM→TM , v ↦ g(. , v)
Where, g(.,v) , is an element of TM ¿
−1
g , exists and the metric can be used to establish a one-to-one correspondence between vectors and
dual vectors.
TM=Tangent space ,TM ¿ =Dualspace
Let, v, y of C∞ vector fields. Let f be a function, then:
∇ fv y=f ∇ v y
∇ v (fy )=f ∇ v y+( ∇ v f ) y
∇ v (fy )=f ∇ v y +( ∇ vi ∂ f ) y
i
i
∇ v (fy )=f ∇ v y +v ( ∇ ∂i f ) y
i
∇ v (fy )=f ∇ v y +v (∂i f ) y
∇ v (fy )=f ∇ v y+v( f ) y
i
Where,
v ( f )=v (∂i f )
Now:
∇ v y =∇ v i ∂ ( y j ∂ j )=v i ∇ ∂i ( y j ∂ j )
i
i j j
∇ v y =v ( y ∇ ∂i (∂ j )+(∇ ∂i y )∂ j )
Note that:
s
∇ ∂i ∂ j =Γ ij ∂s
i j k j
∇ v y=v ( y Γ ij ∂k +∂i y ∂ j )
i j k k
∇ v y=v ( y Γ ij ∂k +∂i y ∂k )
i k j k
∇ v y=v (∂i y + y Γ ij )∂k
i
∇ v y=v ( y )∂k
k ;i
and one may see that:
∇ v y , is a vector by noting, ∂k .
Where:
k
y ;i ≡∂ i y k + y j Γ kij
Covariant derivative (∇ y ) , is a tensor of rank (1,1) defined by:
∇ y(v , ~
ω)≡~
ω [ ∇v y ]
Where,
y ,v∈TM ,
~
ω∈TM
¿
In co-ordinate basis { ∂i } and its dual basis {dx i } .
Then for ,
i
y= y ∂i
i
v=v ∂i ,
~
ω=ωi dx i
Define:
i k i j
∇ y≡(∂ j y + y Γ kj )dx ⊗∂i
Or, more compactly:
i
∇ y≡ y ; j dx j ⊗ ∂ i
and by setting:
i
v=v ∂i
~
ω=ωi dx
i
Then the equation,
∇ y(v , ~
ω)≡~
ω [ ∇v y ]
Becomes:
[
∇ y (∂ j , dx i )=dx i ∇ ∂ j ( y ∂k
k
]
∇ y (∂ , dx )=dx [ ∇ (y ∂ ]
i i k
j ∂j k
Substituting to get:
l
y ; k dx k ⊗ ∂ l ( ∂ j , dx i )= dx i ∇ ∂ j ( y ∂ k ) [ k
]
l
y ; k dx k ( ∂ j )∂ l ( dxi )=dxi ∇ ∂ j ( y ∂ k ) [ k
]
l
[
y ; k δ kj δ i =dx i ∇ ∂ j ( y ∂ k )
l
k
]
i
[
y ; j =dx i ∇ ∂ j ( y k ∂ k ) ]
i
[
y ; j =dx i y k ∇ ∂ j ( ∂ k )+ ∇ ∂ j ( y k ) ∂ k ]
i
y ; j =dx i [ y k Γ mjk ∂ m +( ∂ j y k ) ∂k ]
i
y ; j =dx i [ y l Γ kjl ∂ k +( ∂ j y k ) ∂ k ]
i
y ; j =dx i ( ∂ k ) [ y l Γ kjl +∂ j y k ]
i
y ; j =δ ik [ y l Γ kjl + ∂ j y k ]
i
y ; j =[ y l Γ ijl +∂ j y i ]
Rearranging:
i
y ; j = [ ∂ j y i +∂ j y i ]
, as defined earlier. Hence the equations and definitions are consistent.
Now:
j i j
∇ v u=∇ v i ∂ (u ∂ j )=v ∇ ∂i (u ∂ j )
i
i j j
∇ v u=v (u ∇ ∂ i (∂ j )+( ∇ ∂i u )∂ j )
i j k j
∇ v u=v (u Γ ij ∂k +∂i u ∂ j )
∇ v u=v i (u j Γ kij ∂k +∂i uk ∂k )
i j k k
∇ v u=v (u Γ ij +∂i u )∂ k
∇ v u=v i (uk +u j Γ ijk )∂ k
,i
, similarly:
i k,i j k
∇ u v=u (v +v Γ ij )∂k
Subtracting the two equations to get:
i k ,i i j k i k i j k
∇ v u−∇ u v=v u ∂k +v u Γ ij ∂k −u v ,i ∂k −u v Γ ij ∂k
i k ,i i j k i k j i k
∇ v u−∇ u v=v u ∂k +v u Γ ij ∂k −u v ,i ∂ k −u v Γ ji ∂k
But:
k k
Γ ij =Γ ji
Therefore,
i k ,i i j k i k i j k
∇ v u−∇ u v=v u ∂k +v u Γ ij ∂k −u v ,i ∂ k −v u Γ ji ∂k
Reduces to:
i k ,i i k
∇ v u−∇ u v=v u ∂k −u v ,i ∂k
i k ,i i k
∇ v u−∇ u v=(v u −u v ,i )∂k
[ v ,u ] =v u−u v=v i ∂i (u k ∂k )−ui ∂i ( v k ∂k )
k k
[ v ,u ] =v i (u ,i ∂ k + uk ∂i ∂k )−ui ( v ,i ∂ k + v k ∂i ∂k )
k k
[ v ,u ] =v i u , i ∂k + v i u k ∂i ∂k−ui v , i ∂k −u i v k ∂ i ∂ k
Interchange i and k to get:
k k
[ v ,u ] =v i u , i ∂k + v i u k ∂ i ∂k−ui v , i ∂k −u k v i ∂k ∂ i
And since,
∂i ∂k =∂k ∂i , then:
k k
[ v ,u ] =v i u , i ∂k + v i u k ∂i ∂k−ui v , i ∂k −v i uk ∂ i ∂ k
k k
⇒ [ v , u ] =v i u ,i ∂ k −ui v ,i
∂k
k k
⇒ [ v , u ] =( v i u , i−u i v ,i
) ∂k
But we have just found above that:
i k ,i i k
∇ v u−∇ u v=(v u −u v ,i )∂k
Hence:
∇ v u−∇ u v= [ ⃗v ,u ]
∇ v u−∇ u v= [ ⃗v ,u ] =( v i uk −ui v k ,i )∂k ,i
Now let, γ (t ) , be a curve
j
∇ γ̇ v =∇ ẋ i ∂ (v ∂ j )
i
i j
∇ γ̇ v = ẋ ∇ ∂i (v ∂ j )
i j j
∇ γ̇ v = ẋ ((∇ ∂i v )∂ j +v ( ∇ ∂ i ∂ j ))
i j j k
∇ γ̇ v= ẋ (∂i v ∂ j +v Γ ij ∂k )
i k j k
∇ γ̇ v= ẋ (∂i v ∂k +v Γ ij ∂k )
i k j k
∇ γ̇ v= ẋ (∂i v +v Γ ij )∂k
i k i j k
∇ γ̇ v=( ẋ ∂i v + ẋ v Γ ij )∂ k
But:
i k k
k dx ∂ v dv
i k
v̇ = ẋ ∂i v = =
dt ∂ x i dt
Hence:
k i k
v̇ = ẋ ∂i v
k i j k
∇ γ̇ v=( v̇ + ẋ v Γ ij )∂k
the covariant derivative of the vector v along the curve γ (t ) (along the tangent to the curve, γ̇ (t ) )=
∇ γ̇ v .
And if
∇ γ̇ v=0 , then :
∇ γ̇ v ⊥v at all times, then v is transported in a perpendicular fashion (to the tangent to the
curve)along the curve at all times; i.e, parallel transported along the curve.
The new position of the transported vector is parallel to its infinitesimal previous position and
perpendicular to the (tangent) to the curve.
So, if :
∇ γ̇ v=0 , then:
k i j k
v̇ + ẋ v Γ ij=0 ,
∂
Therefore the components of vector in each of the directions, { k } , is zero; which implies that the rate
of change of the vector along the curve is zero.so either the vector is zero, which is trivial, or the vector
Has no component along the curve , hence the vector is normal to the curve, or has constant
components along the curve, which is the vector (tangent vector) which shapes the “geodesic “curve :
∇ γ̇ γ̇=0
j
∇ γ̇ γ̇=∇ ẋ i ∂ ( ẋ ∂ j )=0
i
i j
∇ γ̇ γ̇ = ẋ ∇ ∂i ( ẋ ∂ j )=0
i j j
∇ γ̇ γ̇= ẋ ( ∇ ∂i ( ẋ )∂ j + ẋ ∇ ∂ i (∂ j ))=0
i j i j k
∇ γ̇ γ̇= ẋ ( ∇ ∂i ( ẋ )∂ j + ẋ ˙x Γ ij ∂ k )=0
i k i j k
∇ γ̇ γ̇= ẋ (∂i˙ x )∂k + ẋ ˙x Γ ij ∂k )=0
i k k i j
∇ γ̇ γ̇=[ ẋ ∂i ˙x +Γ ij ˙x ẋ ]∂k =0
now
i k k 2 k
dx ∂ ẋ d ẋ d x
ẋ i ∂i ẋ k = = = ẍ j = 2
dt ∂ x i dt dt
∇ γ̇ γ̇=[ ẍ + Γ ij ẋ x˙ ]∂k =0
k k i j
k k i j
ẍ +Γ ij ẋ ẋ =0 ……….Geodesic equation, or:
d2 x k i
k dx dx
j
+Γ ij =0
dt 2 dt dt , or
d ẋ k k i j
+Γ ij ẋ ẋ =0
dt , or
d ẋ k k dx i dx j
+Γ ij =0
dt dt dt
D γ̇ ∇ γ̇
∇ γ̇ γ̇≡ ≡
dt dt
Normal Co-ordinates
………………………
For null geodesic as the path for the light ray propagation:
∇ Κ Κ =0
Where,
ω
Κ=( , k )=k ν ∂ν
c ’ hence:
μ
∇ k ν ∂ (k ∂μ )=0
ν
ν μ
k ∇ ∂ν (k ∂ μ )=0
ν μ μ
k (( ∇ ∂ν k )∂μ +k ∇ ∂ν ∂μ )=0
ν μ μ λ
k ((∂ ν k )∂ μ +k Γ νμ ∂ λ )=0
ν μ ν λ μ
(k ∂ ν k ∂μ +k k Γ νλ ∂ μ =0
ν μ ν λ μ
(k ∂ ν k +k k Γ νλ )∂ μ =0
Which is equivalent to a vector of general form:
μ
V ∂μ =0
Where,
μ ν μ ν λ μ
V ≡k ∂ ν k +k k Γ νλ
So all components of the vector, V, must equal to zero for all basis set: { ∂μ } :
Hence:
μ ν μ ν λ μ
V ≡k ∂ν k +k k Γ νλ =0
i.e,
ν μ ν λ μ
k ∂ν k +k k Γ νλ =0
Let, Μ , be a differentiable manifold.
{ei }𨠨 An arbitrary basis for vector field.
{ϑ i }≡¿ ¿ An arbitrary basis for 1-forms.
i
Γ
In analogy to Christoffel symbol, kj , for vector fields which is defined by the following equation:
i
∇ ∂k ∂ j =Γ kj ∂i
,
One may introduce the connection forms by the following equation:
i
∇ v e j=ω j (v )e i
Now in co-ordinate basis:
{∂i }≡¿ ¿ Co-ordinate basis for vector field.
{dx i}𨠨 Co-ordinate basis for 1-forms.
Then:
e i=∂i , And let:
v=∂k , Therefore,
i i
∇ v e j=ω j (v )e i ⇒ ∇ ∂k ∂ j =ω j (∂k )∂ j
And since,
∇ ∂k ∂ j =Γ ikj ∂i
, Then,
∇ ∂k ∂ j =ω j (∂k )∂i ⇒ Γ ikj ∂ i =ωij (∂k )∂i
i
,
Set:
ωij ≡Γ ijl dx l , Then:
i i l
Γ kj ∂i=Γ jl dx (∂k )∂i
⇒ Γ ikj ∂i =Γ ijk ∂i ..thus LHS=RHS…check correct.
l
⇒ Γ ikj ∂i =Γ ijl δ k ∂i ,
i i l
Thus, setting:
ω j ≡Γ jl dx , is correct.
i
∇ ∂k ∂ j =ω j (∂k )∂i
Therefore, the covariant derivative of a basis vector w.r.t. another basis vector (of the same set of basis
vectors) is equal to the sum of all the components of the connection forms acting on the basis vector
w.r.t. which the covariant derivative has been taken.
e.g.
ωij (∂k )=Γ ijl dxl (∂k )
l
ωij (∂ k )=Γ ijl δ k
ωij ≡Γ ijl dx l .. this is one component, vector-basis-wise in the i-th direction since it is the only contra-
variant index to be summed with
(∂i ) .
Now,
ωij ≡Γ ijl dx l , is a one-form ( dual vector) with components, Γ ijl , of the dual basis, {dx l } .
i.e;
i 1
ωj∈ Λ
And,
ωij ( v)=Re al Number ∈ ℜ
i.e;
ωij ( v k ∂k )=Γ ijl dx l ( v k ∂k )
ωij ( v k ∂k )=Γ ijl v k dx l (∂k )
l
ωij ( v k ∂k )=Γ ijl v k δ k
ωij ( v k ∂k )=Γ ijl vl = Number
One−Form(Vector )=Number=ℜ
⟨ϑ i , e j ⟩=⟨e j ,ϑ i ⟩≡ϑ i (e j )=δ ij
In co-ordinate basis:
Recall,
g(v ,w)≡⟨v ,w⟩ , scalar product of two vectors
e.g,
g(e i ,e j )≡⟨ei ,e j ⟩=±δ ij
Take the covariant derivative of,
⟨ϑ i ,e j ⟩ , to get:
i i
∇ v ⟨ϑ ,e j ⟩=∇ v δ j
i i
⟨∇ v ϑ ,e j ⟩+⟨ϑ , ∇ v e j ⟩=0
i i k
⟨∇ v ϑ ,e j ⟩+⟨ϑ ,ω j ( v)e k ⟩=0
v i , e j kj (v ) i , ek 0
v i , e j kj (v ) ki 0
v i , e j ij (v ) 0
ij ( k ) ijl dx l ( k )
ij (v k k ) ijl dx l (v k k )
ij (v k k ) ijl v k dx l ( k )
ij (v k k ) ijl v k l k
ij (v k k ) ijl v l
ij (v l l ) ijl v l
ij (v l l ) ij (v ) ijl v l
v l ij ( l ) ijl v l
v i , e j ijl v l 0
v l el i , e j ijl v l 0
v l el i , e j ijl v l 0
…..to be continued later
In coordinates basis:
v l l dx i , j ijl v l 0
Therefore, if one sets:
l dxi lmi dx m
, then one may get:
v l lmi dx m , j ijl v l 0
v l lmi dx m , j ijl v l 0
v l lmi jm ijl v l 0
v l lji ijl v l 0
v l ijl jm ijl v l 0
..check correct
Hence, setting (or guessing):
l dxi lmi dx m
…… is a correct guess.
Equivalently,
v l el i , e j ijl v l 0
el i , e j ijl
. For arbitrary coordinates
l dx i , j ijl
…make sure, though true!
Proof:
Since,
l dx i , j dx i ( j )
l … scalar product
Then:
l dx i ( j ) ijl
But,
l dxi lmi dx m
,
Hence:
lmi dx m ( j ) ijl
Therefore:
lmi m j ijl
lji ijl
lji ijl
.. which is true due to symmetry.
Components of curvature tensor in a local co-ordinate basis
i
First note that :
i ( j k ) i (ljk l )
i ( j k ) ( i ljk ) l ljk i l
i ( j k ) ( i ljk ) l ljk i l
Note that for a scalar function the covariant derivative is the usual p.d.e.,i.e:
i ljk i ljk
, then:
i ( j k ) i (ljk ) l ljk ilm m
i ( j k ) ljk ,i l ljk ilm m
i ( j k ) jkm ,i m ljk ilm m
i ( j k ) ( jkm ,i ljk ilm ) m
…………………….(*), similarly,
j ( i k ) (ikm, j ikl jlm ) m
………………………(**)
Subtract to get:
i j
j i k (jkm ,i ikm, j ljk ilm ikl jlm ) m
Set:
R ( i , j ) i j j i
R ( i , j ) k ( jkm ,i ikm, j ljk ilm ikl jlm ) m
Then:
dx n R ( i , j ) k (jkm ,i ikm, j ljk ilm ikl jlm ) m
dx n R ( i , j ) k dx n (jkm ,i ikm, j ljk ilm ikl jlm ) m
dx n R ( i , j ) k ( jkm ,i ikm, j ljk ilm ikl jlm ) dx n ( m )
dx n R ( i , j ) k ( jkm ,i ikm, j ljk ilm ikl jlm ) n m
dx n R ( i , j ) k ( jkn ,i ikn , j ljk iln ikl jln )
ik
j l
k j
ni
dummy l dummy m
dx i R ( k , l ) j (lji ,k kji ,l ljm km
i
kjm lmi )
The components of the curvature tensor.
Now in general non-co-ordinate representation of the curvature tensor, it is the map:
T M TM TM TM
(~ , x , y , v ) ~ R ( x , y ) v
Components of curvature tensor in a local co-ordinate basis
i , dxi :
dx i R ( k , l ) j (lji ,k kji ,l ljm km
i
kjm lmi )
Now , prove that:
X ~ (V ) X~ (V )
In general coordiates:
~
X ~ (V ) X i e (k kV j e j )
i
~
X ~ (V ) X i ei (kV j k e j )
X ~ (V ) X i
ei (kV j k j )
X ~ (V ) X i ei ( jV j )
( ei ( jV j ))
Now the covariant derivative of a scalar function is simply the regular partial differential
j
(( jV ))
derivative of the scalar function ( , hence:
X ~ (V ) X i ( jV j ) X i ei ( jV j ) X i i ( jV j )
Now:
~
X (~ V ) X i ei ( j jV k ek ) X i i ( j d~
x jV k k )
~
X (~ V ) X i ei ( jV k j (ek )) X i i ( jV k d~
x j ( k ))
X (~ V ) X i ei ( jV k j k ) X i i ( jV k j k )
X (~ V ) X i ei ( jV j ) X i i (kV k )
One may notice the notion of derivative in both arbitrary coordinates and local coordinates,
respectively:
ei ( jV j ) i (kV k )
i
Where, one may set, X 1
In the usual local coordinates:
X ~ (V ) X i i ( jV j )
Where,
X ~ (V ) ~ X (V ) ( X ~ )(V )
( X ~ )(V ) X ~ (V ) ~ X (V )
( X ~ )(V ) X ~ (V ) ~ X (V )
In local coordinates:
( X ~ )(V ) X i i (k d~
x k )(V j j ) k dx k X i (V j j )
i
( X ~ )(V ) X i i (k V j )d~
x k ( j ) k X i dx k i (V j j )
( X ~ )(V ) X i i (k V j ) k j k X i dx k i (V j j )
( X ~ )(V ) X i i ( j V j ) k X i dx k i (V j j )
( X ~ )(V ) X i i ( j V j ) k X i dx k ( i (V j ) j V j ( i j ))
( X ~ )(V ) X i i ( j V j ) k X i dx k ( i (V j ) j V j ijl l )
( X ~ )(V ) X i i ( j V j ) k X i ( iV j dx k ( j ) V j ijl dx k ( l ))
( X ~ )(V ) X i i ( j V j ) k X i ( iV j k j V j ijl k l )
( X ~ )(V ) X i i ( j V j ) k X i ( iV k V j ijk )
( X ~ )(V ) X i ( i j V j j iV j ) k X i ( iV k V j ijk )
( X ~ )(V ) X i ( i j V j k iV k ) k X i ( iV k V j ijk )
( X ~ )(V ) X iV j i j k X i iV k k X i iV k X iV j ijk k )
( X ~ )(V ) X iV j i j X iV j ijk k )
( X ~ )(V ) X iV j ( i j ijk k )
( X ~ )(V ) X i ( i j ijk k )V j
( X ~ )(V ) X i ( i j )V j
( X ~ )(V ) ( X i j )V j
i
one extra proof:
( X ~ )(V ) ( X i j d~
x j )V k k
i
( X ~ )(V ) X iV k ( i j d~x j ) k
( X ~ )(V ) X iV k (( i j ) d~x j j ( i d~x j )) k
But:
( i d~
x j ) ilj d~
xl
, therefore:
( X ~ )(V ) X iV k (( i j ) d~x j j (ilj d~
x l )) k
( X ~ )(V ) X iV k ( i j d~
x j j ilj d~
x l ) k
( X ~ )(V ) X iV k ( il d~
x l j ilj d~
x l ) k
( X ~ )(V ) X iV k ( il j ilj )d~x l ( k )
( X ~ )(V ) X iV k (l ,i j ilj ) l k
( X ~ )(V ) X i (l ,i j ilj )V l
( X ~ )(V ) X il ;iV l
From what we found earlier:
( X ~ )(V ) X ~ (V ) ~ X (V )
Specify:
X i , V k , ~ d~x j , Then, the above equation becomes:
( i d~
x j )( k ) i d~
x j ( k ) d~
x j i ( k )
( i d~
x j )( k ) i d~x
j
k
j
i ( k )
( i d~
x j )( k ) 0 d~
x j i ( k )
( i d~
x j )( k ) d~x j i ( k )
( i d~x j )( k ) d~x j ikl l
( i d~
x j )( k ) d~
x j ( l )ikl
( i d~x j )( k ) j l ikl
( i d~x j )( k ) ikj
( i d~
x j ) cov ector (dual vector ) k vector ikj scalar ( function )
Where, , ,
( i d~x j )( k ) ikj
Now,
d~
x i ( i d~
x j )( k ) ikj d~
xi
( i d~
x j )d~x i ( k ) ikj d~
xi
( i d~x j ) i k ikj d~
xi
( i d~x j ) i k ikj d~
xi
k d~x j kij d~
xi
To summarize, we found:
k d~x j kij d~
xi
j k ljk l
Covariant derivative of tensor fields:
Extending Co-variant derivatives to tensor fields , we start with a simple tensor of rank(1,1) which is the
tensor product of a vector field (V) and a dual vector field (W).
t v ~
X
Require , , satisfy:
1. Leibniz rule,
X (v ~ ) X v ~ v X ~
2. Commutes with Contraction, C.
~ ~
Where, contraction changes tensor product, (v ) to scalar product (v )
~ ~
i.e, C (v ) (v )
where LHS refers to the contraction of tensor product, while RHS refers to scalar (inner)
product.
C X (v ~ ) X C (v ~ ) X ~ (v )
Also, from:
X (v ~ ) X v ~ v X ~
Take contraction to both sides:
C ( X (v ~ )) C ( X v ~ ) C (v X ~ )
X C (v ~ ) C ( X v ~ ) C (v X ~ )
But:
X C (v ~ ) X ~ (v )
C ( X v ~ ) ~ X v
C (v X ~ ) X ~v
Hence, contracted equation above becomes:
X ~ (v ) ~ X v X ~v
The covariant derivative of a tensor field.
: sr sr1
(t )(~1 ,..~r , v1 ,..vs , vs 1 ) (~1 ,..., ~r , v1 ,..., vs 1 )
t sr , and t sr1
In local co-ordinates, tensor, t, may read:
t t 1 .. r 1 ... s 1 .. r .. d~
x 1 .. d~
x s
It needs r-covectors, and s-vectors to be turned into a function “neutralized”,
First tensor multiplication of those r+s convectors and vectors and t, to allow for Leibniz rule
when taking covariant derivative,then taking contraction.
X (~1 .. v s t ) ( X ~1 ) .. vs t ) ... (~1 .. X vs t ) (~1 .. v s ( X t ))
Take contraction, C, to both sides:
C X (~1 .. v s t ) C ( X ~1 ) .. vs t ) ... C (~1 .. X vs t ) C (~1 .. v s ( X t ))
X C (~1 .. v s t ) C ( X ~1 ) .. v s t ) ... C (~1 .. X v s t ) C (~1 .. v s ( X t ))
X C (~1 .. v s t ) X (t (~1 ,.., v s )
t (~1 ,.., v s ) function
But,
Hence,
X (t (~1 ,.., v s ) Xt (~1 ,.., v s )
Similarly,
C ( X ~1 ) .. v s t ) t ( X ~1 ,.., v s )
Similarly,
C (~1 .. X v s t ) t (~1 ,.., X v s )
Finally,
C (~1 .. v s ( X t )) ( X t )(~1 ,..., v s )
Therefore,
X (t (~1 ,.., v s ) Xt (~1 ,.., v s ) t ( X ~1 ,.., v s ) t (~1 ,.., X v s ) ( X t )(~1 ,..., v s )
=
Rearranging to get:
( X t )(~1 ,..., v s ) Xt (~1 ,.., v s ) t ( X ~1 ,.., v s ) t (~1 ,.., X v s )
…(A)
Now for, local coordinate basis,
i , d~x i :
Example(1): tensor of rank(1,1)
t t 1 .. r 1 ... s 1 .. r .. d~
x 1 .. d~
x s
t t i j ( i d~
x j)
,
And the result of its application to:
(~1 ,.., v s ) (~1 , v1 ) (d~
x 1 , 1 )
Therefore,
t (~1 , v1 ) t i j ( i d~
x j ) (d~
x 1 , 1 )
t (~1 , v1 ) t i j d~
x 1 ( i ) d~
x j (1 )
t (~1 , v1 ) t i j 1 i j 1
t (~1 , v 1 ) t 1 1
……………(i)
Hence
( X t )(~1 ,..., v s ) Xt (~1 ,.., v s ) t ( X ~1 ,.., v s ) t (~1 ,.., X v s )
…(A)
to get:
( X t )(~1 , v 1 ) Xt (~1 , v 1 ) t ( X ~1 , v1 ) t (~1 , X v 1 )
…(A)
( X t )( d~
x 1 , 1 ) X c ct 1 1 t i j ( i d~x j ) ( X d~ x j ) (d~
x 1 , 1 ) t i j ( i d~ x 1 , X 1 )
x 1 , 1 ) X ct 1 1 ,c t i j ( i d~x j ) ( X d~
( X t )( d~ x j ) (d~
x 1 , 1 ) t i j ( i d~ x 1 , X 1 )
( X t )( d~
x 1 , 1 ) X ct 1 1 ,c t i j ( i d~x j ) ( X d~ x j ) (d~
x 1 , 1 ) t i j ( i d~ x 1 , X 1 )
X d~
x 1 X c c d~
x 1
X d~x 1 X c c1 d~x
t i j ( i d~x j ) ( X c1 d~
x , 1 ) t i j X c c1 d~
x ( i )d~
c
x j ( 1 )
t i j ( i d~x j ) ( X c1 d~
c
x , 1 ) t i j X c c1 i j 1
t i j ( i d~x j ) ( X c1 d~
c
x , 1 ) t i1 X c ci1
t i j ( i d~x j ) ( X c1 d~
c
x , 1 ) X c ci1 t i1
x j ) (d~
t i j ( i d~ x 1 , X 1 )
x j ) (d~
t i j ( i d~ x 1 , X c c 1 )
t i j c1 d~
x 1 ( i )d~
x j ( )
t i j c 1 1 i j
t 1 c 1
Therefore,
( X t )( d~
x 1 , 1 ) X ct 1 1 ,c ( t i 1 X c ci1 ) (t 1 c 1 )
Therefore,
( X t )( d~
x 1 , 1 ) X ct 1 1 ,c t i1 X c ci1 t 1 c 1
Example(2): tensor of rank(1,0)
t t 1 .. r 1 ... s 1 .. r .. d~
x 1 .. d~
x s
t v vi i
,
And the result of its application as tensor product then contraction to:
(~1 ) (d~
x 1 )
Therefore,
v (~1 ) v i i (d~
x 1 )
v (~1 ) v i d~
x 1 ( i )
v (~1 ) v i 1 i
v (~1 ) v 1
……………(i)
Hence
( X v )(~1 ) Xv (~1 ) v ( X ~1 )
…(A)
Hence
( X v )(~1 ) X c c v 1 v ( X c c d~
x 1 )
Hence
( X v )(~1 ) X c v 1 ,c v ( X c c1 d~
x)
( X v )(~1 ) X c v 1 ,c v d~
x ( ) X c c1
( X v )(~1 ) X c v 1 ,c v X c c1
( X v )(~1 ) X c v 1 ,c v X c c1
( X v )(~1 ) X c v 1 ,c v c1
( X v )(~1 ) X c v 1 ;c
Example(3): tensor of rank(0,1)
t t 1 .. r 1 ... s 1 .. r .. d~
x 1 .. d~
x s
t ~ d~
x v1 1
,
And the result of its application to:
(~1 ,.., v s ) (v1 ) (1 )
, Therefore,
~ (v1 ) d~x (1 )
~ (v 1 ) 1
~ (v 1 ) 1
……….(i),Hence
( X ~ )(v 1 ) X~ (v1 ) ~ ( X v1 )
…….…(A)
( X ~ )(v 1 ) X c c 1 d~
x ( X c c 1 )
…….…(A)
( X ~ )(v 1 ) X c1 ,c d~
x ( X c c 1 )
…….…
( X ~ )(v 1 ) X c1 ,c X c c 1 d~
x ( )
( X ~ )(v 1 ) X c1 ,c X c c 1
( X ~ )(v 1 ) X c1 ,c X c c 1
( X ~ )(v 1 ) X c 1 ,c c 1
( X ~ )(v 1 ) X c 1 ;c
( X c c dx )(1 ) X c 1 ;c
X c (( c )dx ( c d~
x ))( 1 ) X c 1 ;c
X c (( c )dx (c d~
x ))( 1 ) X c 1 ;c
X c ( c dx c d~
x )(1 ) X c 1 ;c
X c ( c dx c d~
x )( 1 ) X c 1 ;c
X c ( ,c c )d~
x (1 ) X c 1 ;c
X c ( ,c c ) 1 X c 1 ;c
X c ( 1 ,c c 1 ) X c 1 ;c
c
Or since X , is arbitrary, then:
1 ;c 1 ,c c1
Torsion
Torsion maps two vector fields, X,Y, into another vector field.
: TM TM TM
Such that:
( X , Y ) X Y Y X X , Y
If the affine connection is symmetric, then, as found earlier:
X Y Y X X , Y ,
Hence:
X Y Y X X , Y 0
( X , Y ) 0, if , ijk kji
Now:
X g X (g )
LHS X i g X i i g
j
RHS X ( g ) X i i ( g )
Setting:
LHS RHS , X i i g X i i g
Therefore,
X i i g X i i g 0
X i ( i g i g ) 0
i
But since , X , is arbitrary and not equal to zero in general, then:
i g i g 0
i g i g for g functions
See that, X ,Y , is a vector by noting its action on a function, f:
X ,Y f ( XY YX ) f
X ,Y f ( X Y Y X ) f
i
i
j
j
j
j
i
i
X ,Y f ( X Y
i
i
j
j Y j j X ii ) f
Now:
( X , Y ) X Y Y X X , Y
( X , Y ) X i Y j j Y j X i i X , Y
i j
( X , Y ) X i Y j j Y j X i i ( X i iY j j Y j j X i i )
i j
( X , Y ) X i i Y j j Y j j X i i ( X i iY j j Y j j X i i )
( X , Y ) X i (( i Y j ) j Y j ( i j )) Y j (( j X i ) i X i ( j i )) ( X i iY j j Y j j X i i )
( X , Y ) X i ( iY j j Y j ijk k ) Y j ( j X i i X i jik k ) ( X i iY j j Y j j X i i )
X i iY j j Y j j X i i X iY j ,i j Y j X i , j i
First notice that:
Therefore:
( X , Y ) X i ( iY j j Y j ijk k ) Y j ( j X i i X i jik k ) X iY j ,i j Y j X i , j i
( X , Y ) X iY j ,i j X iY j ijk k Y j X i , j i Y j X i jik k X iY j ,i j Y j X i , j i
( X , Y ) X iY j ijk k Y j X i jik k
( X , Y ) X iY j (ijk jik ) k X iY j (ijk jik ) k
, this is a vector with components, in the direction, .
ijk jik ( X , Y ) 0 , i.e, the space is torsion-free.
, i.e, symmetric affine connection, then the torsion,
Torsion is Linear in, X,Y, vectors:
( X , Y ) X Y Y X XY YX
( fX , gY ) fX gY gY fX fXgY gYfX
( fX , gY ) f X gY gY fX fX ( gY ) gY ( fX )
X g X i g X i i g X i i g X (g )
i
Hence,
X g X (g )
( fX , gY ) f (( X g )Y g X Y ) g ((Y f ) X fY X ) f ( X ( g )Y gX (Y )) g (Y ( f ) X fY ( X ))
( fX , gY ) fX ( g )Y fg X Y gY ( f ) X gf (Y X ) fX ( g )Y fgXY gY ( f ) X gfYX
( fX , gY ) fg X Y gf (Y X ) fg XY gfYX
( fX , gY ) fg ( X Y Y X ) fg ( XY YX )
( fX , gY ) fg ( X Y Y X ) fg X , Y
( fX , gY ) fg X Y Y X X , Y
Finally,
( fX , gY ) f g ( X , Y ) ( X ,Y ) .
, which shows the linearity of
It just remains to show that ( X , Y Z ) ( X , Y ) ( X , Z ) …later!!!
(~, X , Y ) ~, ( X , Y ) real number
Two vectors and a convector map to a real number:
Definition of the torsion
Torsion tensor:
(~, X , Y ) ~, ( X , Y )
Linearity:
(h~, gX , fY ) h~, ( fX , gY )
(h~, gX , fY ) h~, fg ( X , Y )
(h~, gX , fY ) hfg ~, ( X , Y )
Now:
(~, X , Y ) ~, ( X , Y )
T d~x d~x
A (1,2)rank tensor:
T d~x d~x
Let: , a (1,2) tensor, i.e, one contavariant component and two covariant
(~, X , Y ) (d~x , , )
components which can operate on a covector and two vectors:
to produce a real number.
Hence:
(~, X , Y ) T d~x d~x ( d~x , , )
(~, X , Y ) T d~x ( )d~x ( )d~x ( )
(~, X , Y ) T
(~, X , Y ) T
But:
(~, X , Y ) d~x , ( , )
And,
( X , Y ) X iY j (ijk jik ) k
Becomes:
( , ) ( )
Therefore:
(d~x , , ) d~x , ( )
(d~x , , ) ( ) d~x ,
(d~x , , ) ( )
(d~x , , ) ( )
But:
1
( )
2
2 ( )
Therefore:
(d~x , , ) 2 ( )
If affine connection is symmetric then:
2 0
(d~x , , ) 0
Hence:
(~, X , Y ) T 2 , Therefore:
(~, X , Y ) T 0 .for symmetric affine connection.
(~, X , Y ) T 2 = tensor, while , is not a tensor.
T 2 , is a tensor
i.e,
2
, is a tensor
, is a tensor
while , is not a tensor
now the affine connection is a combination of symmetric part and anti-symmetric part:
, where,
1
( )
2 , and,
1
( )
2
When the affine connection is symmetric, then the anti-symmetric part is zero:
0
,and,
, becomes:
0
1
( )
2
1
( )
2
1
(2 )
2
While When the affine connection is anti-symmetric, then the symmetric part is zero:
0
,and,
, becomes:
0
1
( )
2
1
( ( ))
2
1
(2 )
2
Now:
X Y Y X X Y Y X
X Y Y X X Y Y X
X Y Y X X (( Y ) Y ( )) Y (( X ) X ( ))
X Y Y X X ( Y Y ) Y ( X X )
X Y Y X X ( Y Y ) Y ( X X )
X Y Y X ( X Y X Y Y X Y X )
X Y Y X ( X Y X Y Y X Y X ) ( X Y Y X )
Where use has been made of the fact:
Y X Y X
, by switching, ,Hence,
Y X X Y
, substitute in the following equation derived above:
X Y Y X ( X Y X Y Y X Y X ) ( X Y X Y )
X Y Y X ( X Y X Y Y X Y X )
X Y Y X
Therefore, , depends only on the symmetric part , , as the anti-symmetric
part, , disappears from the final equation:
X Y Y X ( X Y X Y ) (Y X Y X )
X Y Y X ( X Y ) Symmetric (Y X ) Symmetric
To prove that:
0
Proof:
( ) 0
..check ok!
Riemann Curvature Tensor:
Lie bracket commutator for vector fields
u , v u (v ) v (u )
Therefore,
e , e e (e ) e (e )
i j i j j i
e , e 0
i j
u (v ) derivative of, v , in the, u , direction
v (u ) derivative of, u ,in the, v , direction
R(u , v ) u v v u u ,v
R(u , v ) w u v w v u w u ,v w
u u i ei , linearity in u .
R (u i ei , v ) w u ie v w v u i e w u i e ,v w
i i i
Note that:
u , v u (v ) v (u )
u e , v u e (v ) v (u e )
i
i
i
i
i
i
u e , v u e (v ) (v (u )e u v (e ))
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
u e , v u e , v v (u )e
i
i
i
i
i
i
Also
v (u i ) j u i u,i j scalar function
v u i j u i j u i u,i j scalar function
Hence,
v u i v (u i ) j u i u,i j scalar function
In short:
v u i v (u i )
Therefore,
R(u i ei , v ) w u ie v w v u i e w (u i e ,v v (u i ) e ) w
i i i i
R(u i ei , v ) w u i ei v w v (u i ei w) u iei ,v w v (u i ) ei w
R(u i ei , v ) w u i ei v w ( v (u i ) ei w) u i v ei w) u iei ,v w v (u i ) ei w
R(u i ei , v ) w u i ei v w v (u i ) ei w u i v ei w u iei ,v w v (u i ) ei w
R(u i ei , v ) w u i ei v w v (u i ) ei w u i v ei w u iei ,v w v (u i ) ei w
R(u i ei , v ) w u i ei v w u i v ei w u iei ,v w
R(u i ei , v ) w u i ei v w v ei w ei ,v w
Therefore:
R(u i ei , v ) w u i R(ei , v ) w … linearity in first vector, u u i ei
Similarly for the linearity in linearity in the vectors,
v v i ei , and , w wi ei
Note that as mentioned above:
v (u ) v j j (u i i ) v j j u i i (v j u,i j ) i vector
Torsion tensor:
We found above that:
(u , v ) u v ( )
Or, equivalently:
(u , v ) u v (2 )
We also arrived at:
Hence:
(u , v ) T d~x d~x (u , v )
(u , v) T u v d~x ( )d~x ( )
(u, v) T u v
(u , v) T u v
Compare with:
(u , v ) u v (2 )
One may get:
T u v u v (2 )
Hence:
(T u v 2u v ) 0
But since the basis vectors
are not zero, then the components are each equal to zero:
T u v 2u v 0
T u v 2u v
W, vector linearity:
R(u , v ) w u v w v u w u ,v w
w wi ei i
, linearity in w .let, w f function
R(u , v ) w u v ( wi ei ) v u ( wi ei ) u ,v ( wi ei )
The first two terms become:
u v ( wi ei ) v u ( wi ei )
u (( v wi )ei wi v ei ) v (( u wi )ei wi u ei )
i i i i
=(∇ u ∇ v w )e i +( ∇ v w )( ∇ u e i )+( ∇ u w )( ∇ v e i )+w ∇ u ∇ v ei
−( ∇ v ∇ u wi )ei −(∇ u wi )( ∇ v ei )−( ∇ v wi )( ∇ u e i )−w i ∇ v ∇ u e i
i i i i
=(∇ u ∇ v w )e i +w ∇ u ∇ v ei −( ∇ v ∇ u w )ei −w ∇ v ∇ u ei
The third term:
∇ [u ,v ] w=∇ [u ,v ] wi ei
i i
∇ [u ,v ] w=( ∇ [ u ,v ] w )e i +w ( ∇ [u , v ] ⃗e i
Therefore:
R(u , v ) w u v w v u w u ,v w
, becomes:
i i i i i i
R(u,v)w= (∇ u ∇ v w )e i +w ∇ u ∇ v ei −( ∇ v ∇ u w )ei −w ∇ v ∇ u ei −( ∇ [ u ,v ] w )e i−w ( ∇ [u ,v ] ⃗e i
i
R(u,v)w= (∇ u ∇ v w −∇ v ∇ u w −∇ [u ,v ] w )ei +w ( ∇ u ∇ v ei −∇ v ∇ u ei −∇ [u ,v ] ⃗e i )
i i i
But:
∇ u ∇ v f −∇ v ∇ u f −∇ [ u ,v ] f =0
..see proof below.
Therefore:
i i i
∇ u ∇ v w −∇ v ∇ u w −∇ [ u , v ] w =0
Hence:
R(u,v)w= w (∇ u ∇ v ei −∇ v ∇ u ei −∇ [u ,v ] ⃗e i ) , linear in vector, w, since:
i
R(u,v)e i=∇ u ∇ v e i−∇ v ∇ u e i−∇ [u ,v ] ei
Now see proof that:
∇ u ∇ v f −∇ v ∇ u f −∇ [ u ,v ] f =0
Or,
u v f v u f u ,v f
Proof:
LHS u i v j f v j u i f
i j j i
Taking the first term, one may get:
u i v j f u i i (v j j f )
i j
u i v j f u i i (v j j f )
i j
u i v j f u i i (v j j f ) (v j j f ) i i
i j
, since, , is a function, then,
Similarly,
Taking the second term, one may get:
v j u i f v j j (u i i f )
j i
v j u i f v j j (u i i f )
j i
v j u i f v j j (u i i f ) (u i i f ) , is a function, then, j j
j i
, since,
Hence,
LHS u i v j f v j u i f u i i (v j j f ) v j j (u i i f )
i j j i
i j i j
LHS (u i v j f v i u ) j f )
Therefore,
i j i j
LHS u v f v u f (u i v j f v iu ) j f )
RHS (u i ( v j j
j (u i i )
f
i j ) v
RHS u i ( v j ) j
( ju i ) i
f
i j v
RHS u i ( v j ) f v j ( u i ) f
i j j i
RHS (u i i v j ) j f (v j j u i ) i f
RHS (u i i v j ) j f (v j j u i ) i f
switch i j
, in second term to get:
RHS (u i i v j ) j f (v i i u j ) j f
RHS u ,v f (u i i v j v i iu j ) j f
But we just found that:
i j i j
LHS u v f v u f (u i v j f v iu ) j f )
Hence,
But we just found that:
LHS RHS
i.e:
u v f v u f u ,v f
( u v v u ) f u ,v f
u , v f u ,v f
“side note”
Polar to Cartesian co-ordinate transformation
j
∂ =∂ P ∂
∂Ci ∂C i ∂ P j
∂ Pa ∂ Pb ~
gc = gp
ij ∂C i ∂C j ab
k j k
∇ ∂i u=(∂i u +u Γ ij )∂k
∂C k ∂ Pa ∂ P b d ∂C k ∂2 Pd
Γ kij = Γ ab + d
∂ P d ∂C i ∂ C j ∂ P ∂ Ci ∂C j
Therefore, the Riemann C.T.is linear in all three inputs (3 vectors):
R(u,v)w= w (∇ u ∇ v ei −∇ v ∇ u ei −∇ [u ,v ] ⃗e i ) , linear in vector, w, since:
i
R(u,v)e i=∇ u ∇ v e i−∇ v ∇ u e i−∇ [u ,v ] ei
And so on for the other two vectors, hence:
i j k
R(u,v)w=u v w R(e i ,e j )e k
In Cartesian co-ordinates:
i j k
R(u,v)w=u v w R(∂i ,∂ j )∂k
Now
R(∂a ,∂b )∂c = ∇ ∂a ∇ ∂b ∂c −∇ ∂b ∇ ∂a ∂c
Therefore:
R(∂a ,∂b )∂c = ∇ ∂a ( ∇ ∂b ∂c ) −∇ ∂b ( ∇ ∂ a ∂c )
i j
R(∂a ,∂b )∂c = ∇ ∂a ( Γ bc ∂i ) −∇ ∂b ( Γ ac ∂ j )
i i j j
R(∂a ,∂b )∂c = ∇ ∂a ( Γ bc )∂i +Γ bc ( ∇ ∂a ∂i ) −∇ ∂b ( Γ ac )∂ j −Γ ac ( ∇ ∂b ∂ j )
R(∂a ,∂b )∂c = ∂a( Γ ibc )∂i +Γ ibc ( Γ kai ∂k ) −∂b ( Γ acj )∂ j −Γ acj ( Γ lbj ∂l )
R(∂a ,∂b )∂c = ∂a ( Γ ibc )∂i −∂b ( Γ acj )∂ j +Γ ibc ( Γ kai ∂k ) −Γ acj ( Γ lbj ∂l )
R(∂a ,∂b )∂c = ∂a ( Γ dbc )∂d −∂b ( Γ dac )∂d +Γ ibc ( Γ dai ∂d ) −Γ acj ( Γ dbj ∂d )
j d
R(∂a ,∂b )∂c = [∂a ( Γ dbc ) −∂b( Γ dac ) +Γ ibc Γ dai −Γ ac Γ bj ]∂d
d d i d j d
This is a vector with a big “ugly” expression in brackets
[∂a ( Γ bc ) −∂b ( Γ ac ) +Γ bc Γ ai −Γ ac Γ bj ]
for the magnitude of its components in any particular direction
(∂d ) .
d
R(∂a ,∂b )∂c = R cab
∂d
Therefore, in order to compute the result for any combination of input vectors, one really just needs to
know how it acts on its basis vectors:
m
kij
R e m=R(e i , e j )e k
In Cartesian co-ordinates:
m
kij
R ∂ m=R(∂ i , ∂ j )∂k
Thus:
m
R( u , v )w=ui v j wk R kij
em
In Cartesian co-ordinates:
m
R(u , v )w=ui v j wk R kij
∂m
R(u,v)w=∇ u ∇ v w−∇ v ∇ u w−∇ [u ,v ] w
Closed parallelogram of u, v vectors if [ u,v ] =0
[ e i , e j ] =0
e i (e j )−e j (e i )=0
Or,in Cartesian co-ordinates:
∂i (∂ j )−∂ j (∂i )=0 , since partial derivatives commute.
For flat surface(space), the separation vector rate of change is constant:
∇ v s=c ,
s𨠨 the separation vector
c𨠨 constant vector
v𨨠tangent vector to the geodesic curve.
∇ v ∇ v s=0 , geodesic deviation for flat space equals zero.
∇ v ∇ v s≠0 , geodesic deviation for curved space is not equal to zero.
For torsion-free space,
∇ v s−∇ s v=[ v , s ] =0
Therefore:
∇ v s=∇ s v , for torsion-free space.
Geodesic equation:
∇ v v=0
∇ s ∇ v v=0
(∇ s ∇ v v−∇ v ∇ s v)+∇ v ∇ s v=0
R(s ,v)v+∇ v ( ∇ s v)=0
But:
∇ v s=∇ s v
Hence:
R(s ,v)v+∇ v ( ∇ v s)=0
R(s ,v)v=−∇ v ∇ v s , Riemann curvature tensor is equal to the negative of the geodesic deviation
Recall:
R(u,v)w=∇ u ∇ v w−∇ v ∇ u w−∇ [u ,v ] w
Hence:
R(u,v)=∇ u ∇ v −∇ v ∇ u−∇ [u ,v ]
R(u,v)=∇ u ∇ v −∇ v ∇ u−∇ [u ,v ]
Therefore:
R(v ,u)=∇ v ∇ u −∇ u ∇ v−∇ [ v,u ]
Thus:
R(v ,u)=∇ v ∇ u−∇ u ∇ v−∇ −[u ,v ]
R(v , u)=∇ v ∇ u −∇ u ∇ v +∇ [ u ,v ]
R(v ,u)=−( ∇ u ∇ v −∇ v ∇ u −∇ [ u,v ] )
Hence:
R(v ,u)=−R(u,v )
Or, in terms of basis vectors in Cartesian co-ordinates:
R(∂b ,∂a )=−R( ∂a ,∂b )
Thus:
R(∂b ,∂a )∂c =−R(∂a ,∂b )∂c
Now, recall:
d
cab
R ∂ d =R( ∂ a , ∂ b ) ∂c , and
d
cba
R ∂d =R( ∂ b , ∂ a )∂ c
Hence:
d d
cab cba
R ∂ d =−R ∂d
∂
But this is true if each component of, d , on LHS of above equation :
Is equal to its corresponding counter-part on RHS, since the different components are independent, i.e.
d d
cab cba
R =−R
Recall that “Geodesic equation” is:
∇ v v=0
∇ v i ∂ v j ∂ j =0
i
v i ( ∇ ∂i v j ∂ j )=0
i j
v ((∇ ∂i v )∂ j +∇ ∂i ∂ j )=0
v i ((∇ ∂i v j )∂ j +v j ∇ ∂i ∂ j )=0
i j j k
v ( ∂i v ∂ j +v Γ ij ∂ k )=0
i k k i j
(v ∂i v + Γ ij v v )∂k =0
Hence this sum of k-linearly independent components must be identically equal to zero; therefore, each
component should equal to zero; i.e.:
v i i v k ijk v i v j 0
dx i v k
i
ijk v i v j 0
dt x
dv k
ijk v i v j 0
dt
v k ijk v i v j 0
Or,
dv k
ijk v i v j 0
dt
Becomes:
d dx k k dx i dx j
ij 0
dt dt dt dt
x k ijk x i x j 0
v v s R( s , v )v 0
( v v s ).s ( R( s , v )v ).s 0 ……….no spreading
If:
( v v s ).s 0 , then, ( R ( s , v )v ).s 0 ………converging geodesics
But if:
If:
( v v s ).s 0
, then ( R ( s , v )v ).s 0 ………diverging geodesics
Recall that area is given by:
A Base Height
A u w sin
A uw
2
A2 u w
2 2
A2 u w sin 2
2 2
A2 u w (1 cos 2 )
2 2 2 2
A2 u w u w cos 2
2 2
A2 u w ( u w cos ) 2
A2 (u.u )( w.w) (u.w) 2
2
A2 (u.u )( w.w) (u.w) 2 u w
R(e1 , e2 ) R(1 , 2 ) , in Cartesian co-ordinates
Then:
R(1 , 2 )(u , v ) 0 R(1 , 2 ) s 0, where, s scalar
,
Proof:
R(1 , 2 ) s 1 2 s 2 1 s , s
R(1 , 2 ) s 1 ( 2 s ) 2 ( 1 s ) 1 , 2 s
R(1 , 2 ) s 1 ( 2 s ) 2 (1s) 1 , 2 s
R (1 , 2 ) s 1 ( 2 s ) 2 (1s ) 1 , 2 s
R(1 , 2 ) s 1 2 s 21s 1 , 2 s
R (1 , 2 ) s (1 2 21 ) s 1 , 2 s
R ( , ) s , s , s
1 2 1 2 1 2
R ( 1 , 2 ) s 0
Let:
u.w s
R(1 , 2 ) s R(1 , 2 )(u , w) 0
( R(1 , 2 ) u ).w u .( R(1 , 2 ) w) 0
( R(1 , 2 ) u ).w ( R(1 , 2 ) w).u
Now, let:
u au bw, w cu dw
……normalization
Therefore:
( R(1 , 2 ) w).u R(1 , 2 )(cu dw).( au bw)
( R(1 , 2 ) w).u R(1 , 2 )(cu ).( au bw) R(1 , 2 )( dw).( au bw)
R(1 , 2 )(cu ).( au ) R(1 , 2 )(cu ).(bw) R(1 , 2 )( dw).( au ) R(1 , 2 )( dw).(bw)
caR(1 , 2 )u.u cbR(1 , 2 )u.w daR(1 , 2 ) w.u dbR(1 , 2 ) w.w
Now, note that:
( R(1 , 2 )u ).u 0 , ( R(1 , 2 ) w).w 0
While,
( R(1 , 2 ) u ). w ( R(1 , 2 ) w). u
, ,
Therefore:
( R(1 , 2 )(cu dw)).( au bw) = ca(0) cbR(1 , 2 ) w.u daR (1 , 2 ) w. u db(0)
Finally:
R(1 , 2 )(cu dw).( au bw) = (ad bc) R(1 , 2 ) w. u
Note that since:
R(u , v ) w u i v j wk R m kij m
Then,
R(u , v ) w.w (u i v j wk R m kij m ).( wl l )
v , w gijv i w j
( wk k ).( wl l ) ( k . l ) wk wl
( w, w) ( wk k ).( wl l ) g k l wk wl
Hence:
R(u , v ) w.w (u i v j wk R m kij m ).( wl l )
Becomes:
R(u , v ) w.w (u i v j wl wk R m kij ( m . l )
R(u , v ) w.w (u i v j wl wk R m kij ( g m l )
R(u , v ) w.w u i v j wl wk Rlkij
Switch l and k to get:
R(u , v ) w.w u i v j wl wk Rlkij u i v j wk wl Rklij
Changing places of k and l introduces a minus sign:
R(u , v ) w.w u i v j wl wk Rlkij u i v j wk wl ( Rlkij )
R(u , v ) w.w u i v j wl wk Rlkij u i v j wk wl Rlkij
l k k l
Interchanging w w w w
R(u , v ) w.w u i v j wl wk Rlkij u i v j wl wk Rlkij
So a quantity is equal to its negative, therefore, it is equal to zero:
R(u , v ) w.w u i v j wl wk Rlkij u i v j wl wk Rlkij 0
So we proved that:
R(u , v ) w.w 0
While,
Note that since:
R(u , v ) w u i v j wk R m kij m
Then,
R(u , v ) w.u (u i v j wk R m kij m ).(u l l )
v , w gijv i w j
( wk k ).( wl l ) ( k . l ) wk wl
( w, w) ( wk k ).( wl l ) g k l wk wl
Hence:
R(u , v ) w.u (u i v j wk R m kij m ).(u l l )
Becomes:
R(u , v ) w.u u i v j u l wk R m kij ( m . l )
R(u , v ) w.u u i v j u l wk R m kij ( g m l )
R(u , v ) w.u u i v j u l wk Rlkij
Switch l and k to get:
R(u , v ) w.u u i v j u l wk Rlkij u i v j u k wl Rklij
Changing places of k and l introduces a minus sign:
R(u , v ) w.u u i v j u l wk Rlkij u i v j u k wl ( Rlkij )
R(u , v ) w.u u i v j u l wk Rlkij u i v j u k wl Rlkij
And the second and third quantities are not identical so not equal to zero.
So we proved that:
R(u , v ) w.u 0
R ( 1 , 2 ) s 0
Let:
s w.u u .w
R(1 , 2 ) (u .w) 0
( R(1 , 2 ) u ).w u.R(1 , 2 ) w) 0
( R(1 , 2 ) u ). w ( R(1 , 2 ) w). u
Recall:
Finally:
R(1 , 2 )(cu dw).( au bw) = (ad bc) R(1 , 2 ) w. u
R( s , v )v . s v v s . s
The geodesic deviation
1. Sign tells converging/ diverging.
2. Size depends on, s , and , v .
Normalize:
R(s , v )v . s
A2
Recall that area is given by:
A Base Height
A s v sin
A s v
2
A2 s v
2 2
A2 s v sin 2
2 2
A2 s v (1 cos 2 )
2 2 2 2
A2 s v s v cos 2
2 2
A2 s v ( s v cos ) 2
A2 ( s .s )(v .v ) ( s .v ) 2
2
A2 ( s .s )(v .v ) ( s .v ) 2 s v
Therefore, the Normalized geodesic deviation becomes:
R(s , v )v . s R( s , v )v . s
A2 ( s .s )(v .v ) ( s .v ) 2
R(s , v )v . s R(s , v )v . s R(s , v )v . s
sec tional curvature ( s, v) ˆ ?
2 s v2 s v 2
( s .s )( v .v ) ( s .v )
Now, let:
s s as bv , v v cs dv
……normalization
Substitute to get:
R(s , v )v . s R(as bv , cs dv )(cs dv . (as bv )
ˆ ? 2
s v2 (as bv ) (cs dv
, then
R(as bv , cs dv ) R(as , cs dv )) R(bv , cs dv )
R(as , cs ) R(as , dv ) R(bv , cs ) R(bv , dv )
But:
R( s , v ) R(v , s ) , R( s , s ) 0
Hence,
R(as bv , cs dv ) acR( s , s ) adR ( s , v ) bcR(v , s ) bdR (v , v )
R(as bv , cs dv ) ac(0) adR ( s , v ) bcR( s , v ) bdR(0)
R(as bv , cs dv ) (ad bc) R( s , v ) …….*
Then RHS becomes
R(as bv , cs dv )(cs dv . (as bv )
ˆ ? 2
(as bv ) (cs dv
(ad bc)( R( s , v )(cs dv )).( as bv )
2
(as bv ) (cs dv )
(ad bc)(caR( s , v ) s .s cbR ( s , v ) s .v daR ( s , v )v .s dbR ( s , v )v .v )
2
(ac( s s ) ad ( s v ) bc(v s ) bd (v v )
(ad bc)(ca (0) cbR ( s , v ) s .v daR ( s , v )v .s db(0))
2
(ac (0) ad ( s v ) bc(v s ) bd (0)
(ad bc)( cbR( s , v )v .s daR ( s , v )v .s )
2
ad ( s v ) bc( s v )
(ad bc)( ad cb) R( s , v )v .s
2
(ad bc) 2 ( s v )
R( s , v )v .s
2
(s v )
, which is the LHS of equation (**)
Hence: LHS=RHS
Ricci curvature:
First assume orthonormal basis vectors:
, ,........, x
1 2 n i
i ei Basis direction vectors
R(s , v )v . s
sec tional curvature ( s , v )
( s .s )(v .v ) ( s .v ) 2
Choose a direction vector be:
n en v
D
R(ei , v )v . ei
Ric (v , v ) (ei , v ) ( i , n ) 2
i 1 i i (ei , ei )( v .v ) (ei .v )
No need for the sum notation since a repeated index means sum over the repeated index.
D
R(ei , v )v . ei
Ric (v , v ) (ei , v )
i 1 (ei .ei )(v .v ) (ei .v ) 2
= some sort of average or sum.
(e1 , v ) (e1 , en ) 0 , where, e1 en
(e2 , v ) (e2 , en ) 0 , where, e2 en
R(ei , v )v . ei
sec tional curvature (ei , v )
(ei .ei )(v .v ) (ei .v ) 2
d
R(ei , v )v . ei
Ric (v , v ) (ei , v )
i 1 (ei .ei )(v .v ) (ei .v ) 2 , sum over i is implied
R(ei , v )v . ei
Ric (v , v ) (ei , v )
i i (1)(1) (0 2 for orthonormal basis vectors
Ric (v , v ) (ei , v ) R(ei , v )v .e
i i i
Ric (v , v ) (ei , v ) R(ei , v j e j )v k ek .ei
i i
Ric (v , v ) (ei , v ) v j v k R l kij el .ei
i i
Ric (v , v ) (ei , v ) v j v k R l kij (el .ei )
i i
Ric (v , v )
(e , v ) v v R
i
j k l
kij gl i
i i 1 , summing over (l) and only when l=i ,then we have
g l i g ii 1 ,hence:
d
Ric (v , v )
i
i
( e , v ) v j k
v Ri kij (1)
i 1
Ric (v , v )
(e , v ) v v R
i
j k i
kij
i , and we said that we sum over repeated I, from the beginning.
d
Ric (v , v )
(e , v ) v v R
i 1
i
j k
kj
Where,
Rkj R i kij
..Ricci tensor.
Now:
j d
R d cab d R( a , b ) c a (bcd ) b (acd ) bci aid ac bj d
d d
j
R d cab a (bc ) b (ac ) bcai ac bj
i d d
j a
Rcb R a cab a (bca ) b (aca ) bci aia ac bj
1 ad g bd g cd g bc
bca g ( c b d)
2 x x x
r2 0
Gij
0 r 2 sin 2
a,b,c,d=1,2
x1 , x 2
To calculate:
R11 ??
Calculation and solution:
1 11 g11 g11 g11
111 g ( 1 1 1)
2 x x x
1 11 g11
111 g
2 x1
1 1 1 (r 2 )
11
2 r 2
1 1
111 (0)
2 r2
111 0
1 22 g12 g12 g11
112 g ( 1 1 2)
2 x x x
1 1 (0) (0) (r 2 )
112 ( )
2 r 2 sin 2
112 0
1 ad g bd g cd g bc
bca g ( c b d)
2 x x x
1 1 11 g 21 g11 g 21
21 g ( 1 2 1)
2 x x x
1 1 11 g11
21 g
2
1 1 1 (r 2 )
21
2 r 2
1 1
21 0 , 21 121 0
1 ad g bd g cd g bc
bca g ( c b d)
2 x x x
1 22 g 22 g 22 g 22
222 g ( 2 2 2)
2 x x x
1 22 g 22
222 g
2 x 2
2 1 1 (r 2 sin 2 )
22
2 r 2 sin 2
222 0
1 ad g bd g cd g bc
bca g ( c b d)
2 x x x
1 1 11 g 21 g 21 g 22
22 g ( 2 2 1)
2 x x x
1 1 g
22 g 11 221
2 x
1 1 1 ( r 2 sin 2 )
22
2 r2
1 1 1
22 2
2r 2 sin cos
2r
1
22 sin cos
1 ad g bd g cd g bc
bca g ( c b d)
2 x x x
1 22 g12 g 22 g12
122 g ( 2 1 2)
2 x x x
1 22 g 22
122 g
2 x1
1 1 (r 2 sin 2 )
122
2 r 2 sin 2
1 1
122 2 2
2r 2 sin cos
2 r sin
cos
122
sin
To summarize:
cos
1 122
0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , sin cos ,
11
2
11
1
21
1
21
1
12
2
22
1
22 sin
j a
Rcb R a cab a (bca ) b (aca ) bci aia ac bj
Rcb a (bca ) b (aca ) bci aia aci bia
a a
i a
R11 a (11 ) 1 (a1 ) 11ai a1 1i
i a
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
i 1 i 1 i 2
R11 1
1
11 1
1
11 11 1i 11 1i 2
2
11 1
2
21 11 2 i 21i 12i
R11 ( ) ( )
2
2
11 1
2
21
1 2
11 21
1 2
21 11
2 2
11 22
2 2
21 12
2 2 cos 2
R11 (
2 (11 ) 1 (21 ) (0)212 (0)(0) (0)(0) sin 2
)
cos cos 2
R11 (
2 (0) sin
) ( 2 )
sin
sin ( sin ) cos (cos ) cos 2
( ) ( )
R11 sin 2 sin 2
sin 2 cos 2 cos 2
( ) ( )
R11 sin 2 sin 2
1 cos 2
( )
R11 sin 2
sin 2
( )
R11 sin 2
R11 1 ….OK!!!
now:
cos
111 0 112 0 21 1 1 1 2 1 122
, , 0
, 21 12 0
, 22 0
, 22 sin cos , sin
a a
i
a i a
R22 a (22 ) 2 (a 2 ) 22ai a 2 2i
R ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 i 1 i 1 2 2 i 2 i 2
22 1 22 2 12 22 1i 12 2 i 2 22 2 22 22 2i 22 2 i
R ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
22 1
1
22 2
1
12
1 1
22 11
2 1
22 12
1 1
12 21
2 1
12 22 2
2
22 2
2
22
1 2
222 222
22 21
1 2
22 21
2 2
22 22
R ( ) (0) ( )(0) (0) (0)
22 1
1
22 2
1
22
1
12
1
21
2 1
12 22
1 2
22 21
1 2
22 21
R ( )
22 1
1
22
2 1
12 22
( sin cos )
R22 cos 2
R22 (( sin 2 cos 2 ) cos 2
R22 sin 2 cos 2 cos 2
R22 sin 2 …..OK!!!!
R12 R i1i 2
R12 R1112 R 2122
R12 0 0 due to anti symmetry of first two indices and anti-symmetry of last two indices
And since:
R21 R12 , hence, R21 0
Therefore the Ricce tensor as a matrix for the 2-sphere is:
1 0
Rij
2
0 sin
d
Ric (v , v )
(e , v ) v v R
i
j k
kj
i 1 …Ricci Curvature
Rkj dx i dx j
Riccci Tensor:
Ricci Curvature Ric (v , v ) Rkj dx k dx j (v l l v m m )
Ricci Curvature Ric (v , v ) Rkj vl v m dx k ( l ) dx j ( m )
Ricci Curvature Ric (v , v ) Rkj v l v m k l j m
Ricci Curvature Ric (v , v ) Rkj v k v j
For the 2-sphere example, the Ricci curvature becomes:
Ricci Curvature Ric (v , v ) Rkj v k v j
Ricci Curvature Ric (v , v ) R11v1v1 R12v1v 2 R21v 2 v1 R22v 2 v 2
Ricci Curvature Ric (v , v ) (1)(v1 ) 2 (0)v1v 2 (0)v 2v1 (sin 2 )(v 2 ) 2
Ricci Curvature Ric (v , v ) (v1 ) 2 (sin v 2 ) 2 0
Since, for the 2-sphere example, the Ricci curvature is greater than zero the geodesics always converge
when going towards north or south poles.
Volumes:
2-D volume (Area) = ( a ,b)
Orthonormal basis,
e1,....., en :
volume (e1 ,......, en ) 1
Examples:
volume (e1 , e2 ) 1 volume (e1 , e2 , e3 ) 1
,
Let u,w vectors be the neighboring edges of of a parallelogram, then:
u1 w1 1 2 2 1
volume (u , w) det 2 u w u w
u w2
u1 w1
volume (u , w) det 2 2
iju i w j
u w
u1 w1
volume (u , w) det 2 2
11u1w1 12u1w2 21u 2 w1 22u 2 w2
u w
u1 w1
volume (u , w) det 2 2
(1)u1w2 (1)u 2 w1
u w
u1 w1 1 2 2 1
volume (u , w) det 2 u w u w
u w2
u1 w1 t1
volume (u , w, t ) det u 2 w2 t 2 ijku i w j t k
u3 w3 t 3
Let, S , be a displacement 4-vector:
dS
u
d
dS
m mu
d
But:
P mu
Therefore,
dS
Pm
d
Now, the 4-acceleration is defined as:
du
A
d ,
But the 4-force is defined as the rate of change of 4-momentum with respect to the proper time:
d d d dS
F ( P ) ( mu ) (m )
d d d d
dP dm du
F um
d d d
Or,
dP dm
F u mA
d d
Or,
dP dm dS d 2S
F m 2
d d d d
u u i ei
u u 0e0 u1e1 u 2e2 u 3e3
Or,
u u t et u x ex u y e y u z ez
d d
A u (u t et u x ex u y ey u z ez )
d d
du d t t det
A (u )et u ......
d d d
et , ex ,.......
But in an inertial frame of reference , , are constant basis vectors, therefore:
det dex
, ,...... 0,0,....
d d
Therefore,
du du t
A et ......
d d
Hence:
du du i
A ei sum over i 0,1,2,3
d d
For 2-D space time:
x1 x 0 , 45 degrees line through the origin
Where,
x 0 ct ,
x1 x , hence:
x ct ,45 degrees line through the origin
For Euclidean geometry:
L2 t 2 x 2
With basis vectors:
ex .ex 1 et .et 1 et .ex 0
, ,
Metric matrix:
1 0
ij
0 1
While, For Minkawskian geometry:
S 2 (ct ) 2 x 2
With basis vectors:
ex .ex 1 , et .et 1 , et .ex 0
Metric matrix:
1 0
ij
0 1 ,
Or, sometimes, the following alternative convention is followed for Minkawskian geometry:
S 2 (ct ) 2 x 2
With basis vectors:
ex .ex 1 , et .et 1 , et .ex 0
Metric matrix:
1 0
ij
0 1 ,
Basis vectors for non-inertial frames are not constant in general and may be represented by:
~e , ~e , ~e , ~e
t x y z
~ ~ ~ ~
et , ex , ey , ez
For inertial frames:
S S e S S
et ex y e
ct , x , y , z z
While for non-inertial frames:
~ S ~ S e ~
S ~ S
et ~ ex ~ y e
c t , x , ~y , z ~z
Euclidean geometry: circular trigonometry;
e.g. circular rotations in 2-d space.
cos sin
RE ij
sin cos
Minkowskian geometry: hyperbolic trigonometry;
e.g. hyperbolic rotations in 2-d space time.
cosh sinh
RH ij Lorentz Matrix
sinh cosh
ct s sinh
x s cosh
(ct ) 2 x 2 s 2
s 2 (ct ) 2 x 2
Hence:
( s sinh ) 2 ( s cosh ) 2 s 2
Simplifying to get:
s 2 sinh 2 s 2 cosh 2 s 2
sinh 2 cosh 2 1
Example 1:
s 5et 3ex
Where:
et , ex ,is a basis vectors attached to a stationary RF relative to the moving particle.
Spacetime coordinates of the moving particle RT the stationary RF relative to the moving particle
(ct , x) (5,3)
Applying Minkawskian geometry (not Pythagorean Euclidean geometry for length measurement) by the
stationary reference frame relative to the moving particle:
s 2 (ct ) 2 x 2
s 2 (5) 2 (3) 2
s 2 16
s 16 4
For reference frame attached to the moving particle:
Where:
~e , ~e ,is a basis vectors of the RF attached to the moving particle.
t x
Spacetime coordinates of the moving particle RT the RF attached to the moving particle
~
(c t , ~x ) (c ,0)
Therefore:
~ ~
s (c~t )et ( ~x )ex
~ ~
s (c )et (0)ex
s 2 (c ) 2 (0) 2
s 2 (c ) 2
s c
c s
c 4
1 0 ct
s T s ct x
0 1 x
ct
s T s ct x
x
s 2 s T s ij x i x j (ct ) 2 ( x) 2
Where:
x i x 0 , or , x1 , and:
x 0 ct
x1 x
Invariance of the spacetime interval for all frames:
s 2 (c~t ) 2 ( ~x ) 2
Lorentz transformation:
c~t (ct x)
~x ( ct x)
Where:
1
1 2
v
c
So our goal is to show that:
(c~t ) 2 ( ~x ) 2 (ct ) 2 x 2
Proof:
(c~t ) 2 2 (ct x) 2
( ~x ) 2 2 ( ct x) 2
(c~t ) 2 2 (ct ) 2 2 2 ctx 2 2 x 2
( ~x ) 2 2 2 (ct ) 2 2 2 ctx 2 x 2
Subtracting:
(c~t ) 2 ( ~x ) 2 2 (ct ) 2 2 2 x 2 2 2 (ct ) 2 2 x 2
(c~t ) 2 ( ~x ) 2 2 ((ct ) 2 x 2 ) 2 2 ((ct )2 x 2 )
(c~t ) 2 ( ~x ) 2 ( 2 2 2 )((ct ) 2 x 2 )
(c~t ) 2 ( ~x ) 2 2 (1 2 )(( ct ) 2 x 2 )
1
(c~t ) 2 ( ~x ) 2 ( ) 2 (1 2 )(( ct ) 2 x 2 )
2
1
1
(c~t ) 2 ( ~x ) 2 2
(1 2 )(( ct ) 2 x 2 )
(1 )
Hence:
(c~t ) 2 ( ~x ) 2 (ct ) 2 x 2 s 2 ……….check OK!
For,
s 2 0 (ct ) 2 ( x) 2
(ct ) 2 x 2
x ct
s2 0
(ct ) 2 x 2
x2
1
(ct ) 2
x
1
ct
vt
1
ct
v
1
c
v
1, sin ce
c ..space-like
Take,
~
ct 0
Then,
s 2 (c~t ) 2 ( ~x ) 2 , becomes:
s 2 (0) 2 ( ~x ) 2
s 2 (x~ ) 2 , negative interval means space-like interval.
s ( ~x ) 2 L0 ,….the length of an object in its own reference frame.(proper length)
Example 2:
s (ct )et ( x)ex
s 3et 5ex
Similarly,
~ ~
s (c~t )et ( ~x )ex
Where:
et , ex ,is a basis vectors attached to a stationary RF relative to the moving particle.
Spacetime coordinates of the moving particle RT the stationary RF relative to the moving particle
(ct , x) (3,5)
Applying Minkawskian geometry (not Pythagorean Euclidean geometry for length measurement) by the
stationary reference frame relative to the moving particle:
s 2 (ct ) 2 x 2
s 2 (3) 2 (5) 2
s 2 16
For reference frame attached to the moving particle:
Where:
~e , ~e ,is a basis vectors of the RF attached to the moving particle.
t x
Space-time coordinates of the moving particle RT the RF attached to the moving particle
~
(c t , ~x ) (0, ~x )
Therefore:
~ ~
s (c~t )et ( ~x )ex
~ ~
s (0)et ( ~x )ex
s 2 (0) 2 ~x 2
~x 2 s 2
~x s 2
~x (16)
~x 16
~x 4 L
0
2-d space interval in Cartesian geometry:
R xex ye y
2
R R 2 R.R ( xex ye y ).( xex ye y )
R.R xx(ex .ex ) xy (ex e y ) yx(e y .ex ) yy (ey .ey )
2
R R.R g xx xx g xy xy g yx yx g yy yy
1 2
Or, x x , y x , then:
2
R R.R x1 x1 (e1.e1 ) x1 x 2 (e1.e2 ) x 2 x1 (e2 .e1 ) x 2 x 2 (e2 .e2 )
R.R g11 x1 x1 g12 x1 x 2 g 21x 2 x1 g 22 x 2 x 2
2 g g12 x1
R R.R x1 x 2 11
g g
2
21 22 x
2 1 0 x
1
1
R.R x x
2
0 1 x
x1
R.R x1 x 2 2
x
2
R R 2 R.R ( x1 ) 2 ( x 2 ) 2
2-d space-time interval in Minkawskian geometry:
s (ct )et xex
2
s s .s (ctet xex ).(ctet xex )
2
s s .s (ct )(ct )(et .et ) (ct )( x)(et ex ) ( x)(ct )(ex .et ) xx(ex .ex )
2
s s .s g tt (ct )(ct ) g tx (ct )( x) g xt ( x)(ct ) g xx xx
0 1
Or, ct x , x x , then:
2
s s .s x 0 x 0 (e0 .e0 ) x 0 x1 (e0 .e1 ) x1 x 0 (e1.e0 ) x1 x1 (e1.e1 )
2
s s .s g 00 x 0 x 0 g 01x 0 x1 g10 x1 x 0 g11 x1 x1
Therefore:
2 g g x 0
s s .s x 0
x1 00 01 1
g10 g11 x
2 1 0 x 0
s s .s x 0 1
x
0 1
1
x
2
s s 2 s .s ( x 0 ) 2 ( x1 ) 2
2
s s 2 s .s (ct ) 2 ( x) 2
e ,e
Lorentz transformed basis; i.e. from stationary frame Basis vectors t x (relative to the moving
particle) to the moving frame Basis vectors
e , e (attached to the moving particle):
~ ~
t x
~
et ( ) et ( ) ex
~
ex ( ) et ( ) ex
~ ~
et .et (( ) et ( ) ex ) (( ) et ( ) ex )
~ ~
et .et 2 et .et 2 et .ex 2 ex et 2 2 ex .ex
~ ~
et .et 2 (1) 2 (0) 2 (0) 2 2 (1)
~ ~
et .et 2 2 2
~ ~
et .et 2 (1 2 )
, therefore:
1
~ ~ 2
et .et 1 , since: 1 2
Similarly:
~ ~
et .ex (( ) et ( ) ex ) (( ) et ( ) ex )
~ ~
et .ex 2 et .et 2 et .ex 2 2 ex et 2 ex .ex
~ ~
et .ex 2 (1) 2 (0) 2 2 (0) 2 (1)
~ ~
et .ex 2 2
~ ~
et .ex 0
likewise:
~ ~
ex .et (( ) et ( ) ex ) (( ) et ( ) ex )
~ ~
ex .et 2 et .et 2 2 et .ex 2 ex et 2 ex .ex
~ ~
ex .et 2 (1) 2 2 (0) 2 (0) 2 (1)
~ ~
ex .et 2 2
~ ~
ex .et 0
finally:
~ ~
ex .ex (( ) et ( ) ex ) (( ) et ( ) ex )
~ ~
ex .ex 2 2 et .et 2 et .ex 2 ex et 2 ex .ex
~ ~
ex .ex 2 2 (1) 2 (0) 2 (0) 2 ( 1)
~ ~ ~ ~
ex .ex 2 2 2 , ex .ex 2 (1 2 ) , and since:
1
2 ~ ~
1 2 , then: ex .ex 1
Therefore, in the new coordinate basis attached to the moving particle, one gets the following:
~ ~
s (c~t )et ~x ex
2 ~ ~ ~ ~
s s .s (c~t et ~x ex ).(c~t et ~x ex )
2 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
s s .s (c~t ) 2 (et .et ) (c~t )( ~x )( et ex ) ( ~x )(c~t )(ex .et ) ~x ~x (ex .ex )
2
s s .s g tt (ct )(ct ) g tx (ct )( x) g xt ( x)(ct ) g xx xx
0 1
Or, ct x , x x , then:
2
s s .s x 0 x 0 (e0 .e0 ) x 0 x1 (e0 .e1 ) x1 x 0 (e1.e0 ) x1 x1 (e1.e1 )
2
s s .s g 00 x 0 x 0 g 01x 0 x1 g10 x1 x 0 g11 x1 x1
Or, in Einstein summation notation:
2
s s .s g x x , 0,1, 0,1
Therefore:
2 g g x 0
s s .s x 0
x1 00 01 1
g10 g11 x
2 1 0 x 0
s s .s x 0 1
x 1
0 1 x
2 x0
s s 2 s .s x 0
x1 1
x
2
s s 2 s .s ( x 0 ) 2 ( x1 ) 2
2
s s 2 s .s (ct ) 2 ( x) 2
~ ~
s (c~t )et ~x ex
Lorentz transformation for space-time components :
ct c~t ~x x 0 ~x 0 ~x 1
…..
x c~t ~x x1 ~x 0 ~x 1
…….
x 0 x 0
~1
~x 0 , x
x1 x1
~1
~x 0 , x
x 0 x 0
~0
J x 1 ~x 1
x x1
~0
x ~x 1 ,
J
~ x x
g ~ ~ g
x x
~ x 0 x 0 x1 x1
g ~ ~ g 00 () g 01 () g10 ~ ~ g11
x x x x
g 01 0, g10 0
Therefore:
~ x 0 x 0 x1 x1
g ~ ~ g 00 ~ ~ g11
x x x x
Hence,
~ x 0 x 0 x1 x1
g 00 ~ 0 ~ 0 g 00 ~ 0 ~ 0 g11
x x x x
2 2
x 0 x1
g~00 ~ 0 g 00 ~ 0 g11
x x
g~00 (1) (1)
2 2
g~00 2 2 2
g~00 2 (1 2 )
g~00 1
Likewise:
~ x 0 x 0 x1 x1
g11 ~1 ~1 g 00 ~1 ~1 g11
x x x x
2 2
~ x 0 x1
g 00 ~1 g 00 ~1 g11
x x
g~00 (1) (1)
2 2
g~00 2 2 2
g~00 2 (1 2 )
g~00 1
Similarly:
x 0 x 0 x1 x1
g~01 ~ 0 ~1 g 00 ~ 0 ~1 g11
x x x x
g~01 ( )(1) ( )( )( 1)
g~01 2 2
g~01 0
By symmetry,
g~01 g~10 0
Hence:
1 0
g (ij ) g~(ij )
0 1
One may write the metric tensor as a nested row of rows, then followed by two column vectors
representing space-time vector.the result is the space-time interval.
s 2 s .s GSS …where RHS symbols represent matrix notation for the matrices and the matrices are
under matrix multiplication:
ct ct
GSS (e .e )
t t
(et .ex ) (ex .et ) (ex .ex )
x x
ct x 0 , x x1 , et e0 , ex e1
Or using number index notation,
x0 x0
GSS (e0 .e0 ) (e0 .e1 ) (e1.e0 ) (e1.e1 ) 1 1
x x
x0
GSS ( x (e0 .e0 ) (e0 .e1 ) x1 (e1.e0 ) (e1.e1 ) )
0
1
x
x x
0 0
GSS x 0 (e0 .e0 ) (e0 .e1 ) 1 x1 (e1.e0 ) (e1.e1 ) 1
x x
x0 x0
GSS g 0 0 x 0 0
g 01 x 1 g10 x1 g11 x1 1
x
x
GSS g 0 0 x 0 x 0 g 01 x 0 x1 g10 x1 x 0 g11 x1 x1
Removing unnecessary brackets to get:
GSS g 00 x 0 x 0 g 01x 0 x1 g10 x1 x 0 g11 x1 x1
Writing it more compactly using Einstein summation notation:
GSS g x x
For circular rotations:
(~e x y x y
sin ϑ cosϑ (
~e ) =( e e ) cos ϑ −sin ϑ
)
The inverse rotation is found from above by switching barred and unbarred symbols and changing the
angle by its negative; i.e:
(e x e y ) =(~e x ~
ey)
(
cos(−ϑ ) −sin(−ϑ )
sin (−ϑ ) cos(−ϑ ) )
(e x e y ) =(~e x e ) (cos ϑ
~
y
sin ϑ
)
−sin ϑ cosϑ
For hyperbolic rotations:
(~e t ~
(
e x ) =( e t e x ) cosh ϕ sinh ϕ
sinh ϕ cosh ϕ )
The inverse rotation is found from above by switching barred and unbarred symbols and changing the
angle by its negative; i.e:
(e t e x ) =(~
et ~
ex)
(
cosh(−ϕ) sinh(−ϕ)
sinh(−ϕ) cosh(−ϕ) )
(et e x ) =(~e t ~ (
e x ) cosh ϕ −sinh ϕ
−sinh ϕ cosh ϕ )
Since:
2 2
cosh ϕ−sinh ϕ=1
Then, by setting:
ct=scosh ϕ
x=ssinh ϕ
One may get:
2 2 2 2
(ct ) −x =(scosh ϕ) −(ssinh ϕ)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
⇒(s cosh ϕ ) −(ssinh ϕ ) = s (cosh ϕ−sinh ϕ)= s (1 )=s
Therefore:
2 2 2
(ct ) −x =s
Now
1
γ=
√ 1−β 2
1
γ 2=
1− β2
2 2
γ (1− β )=1
2 2 2
γ −γ β =1 , comparing with:
2 2
cosh ϕ−sinh ϕ=1
One may set:
γ=cosh ϕ
γβ=sinh ϕ
Therefore:
γβ sinh ϕ
=
γ cosh ϑ
Hence:
β=tanh ϕ
Therefore, the Lorentz matrix becomes:
γ ( 1β −β
1
= )(
γ −γβ
−γβ γ
=
cosh ϕ −sinh ϕ
−sinh ϕ cosh ϕ)( )
Curve of constant acceleration in special relativity is called a hyperbola, parameterized as:
ct=scosh ϕ
x=ssinh ϕ
i. Constant acceleration implies:
A 2 = A . A=−α 2 , where, α , is a constant.
ii. Acceleration is orthogonal to the velocity of the particle which is tangential to the path of
the particle:
U . A=0
iii. Derive Equations of Motion(Hyperbola):
2
c α
ct= sinh ( τ )
α c
2
c α
x= cosh ( τ )
α c
d dU dU
(U .U )= .U +U .
dτ dτ dτ
d dU
(U .U )=2U .
dτ dτ
d dU
(U .U )=2(U . )
dτ dτ
dU
A=
dτ
d
(U .U )=2(U . A )
dτ
U .U =c 2 =cons tant
Therefore:
d
(U . U )=0
dτ
Therefore:
2(U . A)=0 , hence:
U . A=0 , which implies that:
U⊥A
e~
Let t , be tangent to world line
e ~ e ~
And let, x , be orthogonal to , t , such that:
~e . ~e =0
t x
~e // {U¿ U=c ~e +0 ~e +0 ~e +0 ~e ~~~
t , t x y z , so the observer always thinks he is stationary in space, ( x , y , z )
,where these components are constants.
Hence his time (~t ) , is the proper time; (~t =τ ) ,
~
dX d
U= = (cτ ,~x , ~y , ~z )=(c ,0,0,0 )
dτ dτ
U .U =(c ~
e ).(c ~e )=c 2 ~e . ~e =1
t t , since: t t
To summarize:
U=c ~e t
~e . ~e =1
t t
2
U .U =c
~e // { A¿
x
Since the length of U is always constant, the acceleration cannot increase or decrease the magnitude of
U; it can only change the direction of U.
Newtonian acceleration:
x y z
a=a e x +a e y +a e z
Where,
xd2 x y d2 y 2
z d z
a = 2 a = 2 a= 2
dt , dt , dt which are constants, but their values depend on the reference frame
measuring them.
While proper acceleration is the acceleration measured by an accelerometer carried with the observer
who is moving with the particle.
Since,
A ⊥U , and
U=c ~e t , i.e, U=c ~e t +0 ~e x +0 ~e y +0 ~e z
then:
A=0~e t +~a ~e x +~
a ~e y + ~
a ~e z
x y z
Now:
Rindler as observer in his reference frame (2-d):
A=α ~e x .. always, since assumed 2-d
Stationary Einstein watching Rindler riding in his reference frame (2-d), (see figure):
Three cases depending on time and location:
A=−a e t +be x
A=0 et +α e x
A=a e t +b e x
Analyze Rindler’s motion from Einstein stationary frame:
t x
U=u e t +u e x
then:
t x
A= A e t +A e x
2
U .U =c .. always true for all reference frames, since it is an invariant quantity.
t x t x 2
U .U =(u e t +u e x ).(u et +u e x )=c
t 2 x 2 2
U .U =(u ) −(u ) =c
t 2 x 2 2
(u ) −(u ) =c
U . A=0
t x t x
U . A=(u e t +u e x ).( A et + A e x )=0
t t x x
U . A=(u A )−(u A )=0
ut A t −u x A x=0
t x t x 2
A . A=( A e t + A e x ).( A e t + A e x )=−α
t 2 x 2 2
A . A=( A ) −( A ) =−α
t 2 x 2 2
( A ) −( A ) =−α
To summarize, for stationary Einstein watching Rindler observer riding with the particle:
t 2 x 2 2
(u ) −(u ) =c
t 2 x 2 2
( A ) −( A ) =−α
ut A t −u x A x=0
In metric tensor notation:
α β 2
U .U =gαβ u u =c
α β 2
A . A=gαβ A A =−α
U . A=gαβ u α A β =0
Solving for the relationship between these quantities:
To summarize, for stationary Einstein watching Rindler observer riding with the particle:
t 2 x 2 2
(u ) −(u ) =c
t 2 x 2 2
( A ) −( A ) =−α
t t x x
u A −u A =0
One might get:
x 2 t 2 2
( A ) =( A ) +α
x 2 t 2 2
(u ) =(u ) −c
t t x x
u A =u A
t 2 t 2 x 2 x 2
(u ) ( A ) =(u ) ( A )
t 2 t 2 t 2 2 t 2 2
(u ) ( A ) =((u ) −c )(( A ) +α )
t 2 t 2 t 2 t 2 2 t 2 2 t 2 2 2
(u ) ( A ) =(u ) ( A ) −c ( A ) +α (u ) −c α
2 t 2 2 t 2 2 2
c ( A ) =α (u ) −c α
2 t 2 2 t 2 2
c ( A ) =α ((u ) −c )
2 t 2 2 x 2
c ( A ) =α (u )
α2 x 2
( A t )2 = (u )
c2
α
A t= ux
c …(*)
Now since we already found that:
t t x x
u A =u A …(**)
Then substituting(*) into (**) to get:
α
ut ( u x )=u x A x
c
α
ut =A x
c
Rearranging to get:
α
A x = ut
c
Therefore:
α
A t= ux
c
α
A x = ut
c
dU
A=
dτ
For the inertial frame:
d t d
A= (u et )+ (u x e x )
dτ dτ
du t du x
A= et + e
dτ dτ x , but
t x
A= A e t +A e x
dut α x
At= = u
dτ c
x
du α t
x
A = = u
dτ c
Therefore:
x
tc du
u=
α dτ
t
α x du
u =
c dτ
α x d c du x
u= ( )
c dτ α dτ
2 2 x
α x d u
u= 2
c2 dτ
or
d 2 ux α 2 x
= u
dτ 2 c 2
Function is proportional to its second derivative or vice versa. Solution of the form:
x
u (τ )=e
( c)
α
τ
x
, or , u (τ )=e
−( )τ
α
c
,
So the general solution is of the form:
x
u ( τ )=k 1
(e αc ) τ + k e−( αc ) τ
2
Need initial conditions:
x
u (τ =0 )=0
t x
U (τ =0 )=u (τ =0)e t +u (τ=0)e x
t
U (τ =0 )=u (τ =0)e t
Therefore:
x
u ( 0 )=k 1
(e αc )( 0)+ k − ( αc )( 0)=0
2e
k 1 +k 2 =0
k 1 =−k 2
x
u ( τ )=k 1
( c)
α
( e −e
τ −( ) τ
α
c
) …………..(^)
x
t c du
u (τ )=
α dτ
t
u (τ )=
c d ( c ) τ −( c ) τ ))
(k 1 (e −e
α α
α dτ
t
u ( τ )=
cα ( c ) τ −( c ) τ )
k 1 ( e +e
α α
α c
t
u ( τ )=k 1 (e
( c)
α
τ
+e
−( )τ
α
c
) ………….(^^)
We already found out that:
t 2 x 2 2
(u ) −(u ) =c
t 2 x 2 2
(u (τ )) −(u (τ )) =c ..for all, τ ,including τ =0
t 2 x 2 2
(u (τ=0)) −(u (τ =0)) =c
2 2
(2 k 1 ) −0=c
c
k 1=
2
Substituting into above equations(^),(^^) to get:
1 ( c )τ −( c ) τ
α α
x
u (τ )=c ( e −e )
2 …………..(^)
1 ( c ) τ −( c )τ
α α
t
u (τ )=c (e +e )
2 ………….(^^)
Let:
α
ϕ= τ
c
Then:
x (e ϕ−e−ϕ )
u (τ )=c
2
(e ϕ +e−ϕ )
ut (τ )=c
2
Since:
ϕ −ϕ ϕ −ϕ
(e −e ) (e +e )
sinh ϕ= cosh ϕ=
2 , 2 , then
α
x ⇒u x ( τ )=c sinh( τ )
u (τ )=c sinh ϕ , c
α
t ⇒u t ( τ )=c cosh ( τ )
u (τ )=c cosh ϕ , c
We found that:
t 2 x 2 2
U .U =(u ) −(u ) =c
To verify that the above equations are complying , see that:
2 2 2 2 2
U .U =(c cosh ϕ) −(c sinh ϕ ) =c (cosh ϕ−sinh ϕ )
2
U .U =c (1)
U .U =c 2 ..proof completed
X =(ct ,x ), ⇒ ,
d (ct ) α
⇒u t ( τ )= =c cosh ( τ )
dτ c
dt α 1 dt α
⇒u t ( τ )=c =c cosh( τ ) ⇒ ut (τ )= =cosh ( τ )
dτ c , c dτ c
t t
du ( τ )
t d2 t α α du ( τ ) d2 t α
⇒A = =c 2 =c sinh ( τ ) ⇒ A t = =c 2 =α sinh( τ )
dτ dτ c c , dτ dτ c
dx α 1 1 dx α
⇒u x ( τ )= =c sinh( τ ) ⇒ u x ( τ )= =sinh( τ )
dτ c , c c dτ c
x x
du ( τ ) d 2 x α α du ( τ ) d 2 x α
⇒ Ax= = 2 =c cosh ( τ ) ⇒ A x = = 2 =α cosh( τ )
dτ dτ c c , dτ dτ c
But:
t 2 x 2 2
A . A=( A ) −( A ) =−α ….negative quantity implying space-like quantity
α α
A . A=( A t )2−( A x )2 =(α sin sh τ )2−(α cosh τ )2
c c
α α
A . A=α 2 (sin sh2 τ−cosh 2 τ )
c c
2
A . A=α (−1)
A . A=−α 2 …QED
Again, we have found that:
d (ct ) α
⇒u t ( τ )= =c cosh ( τ )
dτ c
α
⇒ ct=∫ ut (τ )dτ =∫ c cosh ( τ )dτ
c
c α
⇒ ct=∫ ut (τ )dτ =c sinh( τ )+k t
α c
2
c α
⇒ ct=∫ ut (τ )dτ = sinh( τ )+k t
α c
d( x) α
⇒u x ( τ )= =c sin sh ( τ )
dτ c
α
⇒ x=∫ u x ( τ )dτ=∫ c sin sh( τ )dτ +k x
c
c α
⇒ x=∫ u x ( τ )dτ=c cosh ( τ )+k x
α c
2
c α
⇒ x=∫ u ( τ )dτ= cosh ( τ )+k x
x
α c
To summarize:
2
c α
⇒ ct= sinh( τ )+k t
α c
2
c α
⇒ x= cosh ( τ )+k x
α c
Set,
k t =0 , k x=0 , then:
2
c α
⇒ ct= sinh( τ )
α c
c2 α
⇒ x= cosh ( τ )
α c
We found earlier:
2 2 2
s . s=s =(ct ) −x
2 2
c α c α
s . s=s 2 =( sinh( τ ))2 −( cosh( τ ))2
α c α c
2
c α α
s . s=s =( )2 (sinh 2 ( τ )−cosh 2 ( τ ))
2
α c c
2
c
s . s=s =−( )2
2
α ……negative always, hence, space-like.
While,
d (ct ) α
ut (τ )= =c cosh ( τ )
dτ c
d(x) α
u x (τ )= =c sin sh( τ )
dτ c
And found that :
2
U .U =c ………time-like
2
A . A=−α ……space-like
τ = Rindler’s proper time
A= constant proper acceleration
Note carefully that:
s(t )=ct e t +x e x
s(t=0 )=(0 )e t +x e x
And we found that the equations of motion in terms of proper time are:
c2 α
ct (τ )= sinh( τ )
α c
2
c α
x (τ )= cosh( τ )
α c
Therefore:
2 2
c α c α
s(τ )= sinh ( τ )et + cosh( τ )e x
α c α c
c2
s (τ =0 )= e
α x
d s(τ ) c 2 α α
2
c α α
U (τ )= = cosh ( τ )e t + sinh ( τ )e x
dτ α c c α c c
d s(τ ) α α
U (τ )= =c(cosh( τ )e t +sinh( τ )e x )
dτ c c
d s( τ=0 )
U (τ =0 )= =c (cosh(0 )e t +sinh(0 )e x )
dτ
d s( τ=0 )
U (τ =0 )= =c ((1)e t +(0 )e x )
dτ
d s( τ=0 )
U (τ =0 )= =c et
dτ
U (τ =0 )=c et
2
d U (τ ) d s( τ ) α α α α
A (τ )= = =c ( sinh( τ )e t + cosh ( τ )e x )
dτ dτ 2 c c c c
2
d U (τ ) d s( τ ) α α
A (τ )= = =α (sinh( τ )e t +cosh ( τ )e x )
dτ dτ 2 c c
2
d U ( τ=0 ) d s (τ =0)
A (τ =0 )= = =α e x
dτ dτ 2
A (τ =0)=α e x
A (τ =0). A (τ =0 )=( α e x )(α e x )
2
A (τ =0 ). A (τ =0 )=α (e x . e x )
2
A (τ =0 ). A (τ =0)=−α …as it should be
2
c
s(τ =0 )=(0 )et +( )e x
α
t x
U (τ )=u (τ )et +u ( τ )e x
U (τ =0 )=c et +0 e x
t
u (τ =0)=c
x
u (τ =0 )=0
New separate Topic
μ
U ν ≡−u μ u ν , Tensor projecting parallel to, u , which is a unit time-like vector field such that:
μ μ 2
u μ u =−1 (time-like since negative value for the magnitude of , u ,which is: u μ u =u =−1
Tensor projecting parallel to, u is:
μ
U ν u ν ¿−u μ u ν u ν
μ
ν ν μ
⇒U u ¿−u (−1)
μ
ν
⇒U uν ¿ uμ
Also:
μ
U μ≡−uμ uμ
μ
U μ=−(−1)
μ
U μ=1
Similarly, defining :
μ μ
h ν≡ δ ν
+u μ uν ,
μ
as a tensor projecting orthogonal to, u since projecting, h onto, u ,gives:
ν
μ μ
ν
h uν =δ ν
u ν +u μ uν u ν
μ
ν
h uν =u μ +u μ (−1 )
μ
h ν uν =u μ−uμ
μ
h ν uν =0
Hence,
μ
uν ⊥ h ν
Hence, all (1+3) tensor decomposition of all geometrical objects of physical interest can be made with
μ
the help of the parallel projecting tensor to, u , which is, U
ν
,and the orthogonal projecting tensor to,
μ
u , which is, h ν
.
μ μ
h ν≡ δ ν
+u μ uν
μ μ
gσμ h ν =gσμ δ ν + g σμ u μ u ν
hσν =g σν +u σ u ν
Or,
gσν =h σν −uσ uν
Or,
gσν =−u σ u ν +h σν
h
So, σν , is the transverse metric tensor, (space-like), since it satisfies the orthogonality condition with
the time-like vector, u :
σ σ σ
u h σν=u gσν +u uσ u ν
σ
u h σν=u ν +(−1 )u ν
σ
u h σν=u ν −uν
σ
u h σν=0
Or, similarly,
ν ν ν
hσν u =gσν u +u σ u ν u
ν
hσν u =uσ +u σ (−1)
ν
hσν u =uσ −uσ
ν
hσν u =0
Lie Derivatives:
1.
α α
Lv A α = A ,β
v β −v ,β
Aβ
Which is equivalently equal to:
α α
Lv A α = A ;β
v β −v ;β
Aβ
2.
β
Lv Pα =Pα , β v β +v ,α
Pβ
Which is equivalently equal to:
β
Lv Pα =Pα ; β v β + v ;α
Pβ
3.
μ μ
Lv Aαβ = A αβ , γ v γ +v ,α
A μβ + v ,β
Aαμ
Which is equivalently equal to:
μ μ
Lv Aαβ = A αβ; γ v γ + v ;α
A μβ +v ;β
A αμ
Recall:
α α α
dA ≡A (Q )− A ( P)
α
Where, dA , is non-tensorial
α α α
δA ≡ AT ( P )− A (Q)
Set:
DA α ≡dA α + δA α
α α
And substitute for dA ,and ,δA , to get:
α α α α α
DA =( A (Q)−A ( P ))+( A T ( P)− A (Q ))
Simplifying to get:
α α α
DA =− A ( P)+ AT ( P )
Rearranging to get:
α α α
DA =A T ( P )− A (P )
α
Now, DA , turns out to be a tensorial quantity independent of coordinates since it measures the
infinitesimal difference in the vector between P, and Q by parallel transporting the new vector from Q
back to point P.
Now, let:
δA α ∝ A μ , also,
α β
δA ∝dA , therefore:
α μ β
δA ∝ A dx , let the “constant” of proportionality (constant at that point, but it is point dependent)
α
Γ
be, μβ , then, one may get:
α α μ β
δA =Γ μβ A dx
Hence:
DA α ≡δA α +dA α , becomes:
α α μ β α
DA =Γ μβ ( P) A dx +dA
Let, λ , be the parameter which is changing along the curve (world line) , and if it is equal to the proper
time, λ=τ :
λ=τ ,
Then:
β β
dx dx
= =u β =4−velocity
dλ dτ
Dividing the following equation by dλ( or ,dτ ) :
α α μ β α
DA =Γ μβ ( P) A dx +dA
One may get:
α α β
DA dA dx
= + Γ αμβ (P ) A μ
dλ dλ dλ
dx β DA α dx β ∂ A α α μ dx
β
= +Γ μβ ( P ) A
dλ dx β dλ ∂ x β dλ
DA α β DA α
=u =u β (∂ β A α + Γ αμβ ( P ) A μ )
dλ dx β
α
DA
β
=∂ β A α +Γ αμβ ( P) A μ
dx
Setting:
α
α DA
∇ u A≡∇ uβ ∂ ( A ∂α )≡ ∂α
β dλ , one gets:
u β ∇ β ( A α ∂ α )=( u β (∂β A α +Γ αμβ ( P ) A μ ) ) ∂α
α
DA
u β ∇ β ( A α ∂ α )= ∂
dλ α
∇ β ( A α ∂α )=( ∂β A α +Γ αμβ ( P ) A μ ) ∂α
DA α
∇ β ( A α ∂ α )= ∂α
dx β
∇ β ( A α ∂α )=( ∂β A α +Γ αμβ ( P ) A μ ) ∂α
Sometimes, the following is written in a loose manner (not rigorously correct):
∇ β A α =( ∂ β A α +Γ αμβ (P ) A μ )
Also noting that actually:
α β α β α ,β
u β ∇ β A α =u β ∇ ∂ β A =u ∂ β A =u A
,then one may get:
α α α ,β
∇ β A α=∇ ∂ β A =∂β A = A
(rigorously correct)
∇ ∂β , acting on a scalar , A
α
∂ α
Since, , is the same as, β , acting on the scalar , A ,i.e;
Sometimes, the following is written in a loose manner (not rigorously correct):
α α μ α;β
∇ β A α=∇ ∂ β A + Γ μβ A =A
(not rigorously correct):
DA α α α μ α
β
=∇ ∂ β A +Γ μβ A = A ;β
dx (rigorously correct)
α
DA α
β
=∂ β A α +Γ αμβ A μ = A ; β
dx (rigorously correct)
α
DA α
,β α μ
α
;β
β
= A +Γ μβ A =A
dx (rigorously correct)
New subject:
Dt α
=κ ( λ )t α
dλ ….1
Where,
α
dx
t α=
dλ
Now(1):
dx β Dt α
=κ( λ )t α
dλ dx β
dx β ∂t α
( + Γ α t γ )=κ ( λ )t α
dλ ∂ x β βγ
β α
dx ∂t
( β + Γ αβγ t γ )=κ ( λ )t α
dλ ∂ x
α α
∂t ∂t
( β
+ Γ αβγ t γ )t β =κ ( λ )t α β
+Γ αβγ t γ =κ ( λ )t α −β
∂x ………… ∂ x
Now let:
α
dx
uα = ¿
dλ
Then it follows that:
α
dx dλ
uα =
dλ dλ ¿
dλ
uα =t α ¿
dλ
Hence:
¿
α dλ α
t =u
dλ
Therefore,
α
∂t
( β + Γ αβγ t γ )t β =κ ( λ )t α
∂x , becomes:
¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
dλ dλ dλ dλ
(∂β (uα +Γ αβγ u γ )u β =κ ( λ )uα
dλ dλ dλ dλ
¿ ¿
dλ α dλ
(∂β (u +Γ αβγ u γ )u β =κ ( λ )u α
dλ dλ
¿ ¿ ¿
dλ α dλ
α dλ
(∂β u +u ∂ β ( )+Γ αβγ u γ )u β =κ ( λ )u α
dλ dλ dλ
¿ ¿
dλ β dλ
(∂ β uα ++ Γ αβγ uγ ) u =( κ( λ )−u β ∂β ( ))uα
dλ dλ
Now, let:
dλ¿ ∫ κ( λ ) d λ
λ ' '
=e
dλ , then
dλ¿
λ
∫ κ( λ ) d λ ' '
∂β ( )=∂ β ( e )
dλ
Let:
λ
y=∫ κ ( λ )d λ
' '
¿
dλ
∂ β ( )=∂ β ( e y )
dλ
y y
∂e de ∂ y
=
∂ x β dy ∂ x β
y
∂e y ∂ λ
∂x β
=e
∂x β
( ∫ '
κ ( λ )d λ
'
y
∂e y dλ d λ
∂x β
=e
dx β dλ
(∫ '
κ ( λ )d λ
'
∂e y y 1 d λ
=e β ( ∫ κ ( λ )d λ
' '
∂x β
t dλ
∂e y y 1
=e β κ( λ )
∂ xβ t
¿ ¿
dλ dλ 1
∂β ( )=( ) β κ( λ )
dλ dλ t
Therefore, our equation:
¿ ¿
α dλ dλ
(∂ β u ++ Γ αβγ uγ ) u =( κ( λ )−u ∂β ( ))uα
β β
dλ dλ
Becomes:
dλ¿ β dλ¿ 1
(∂ β uα ++ Γ αβγ uγ ) u =( κ( λ )−u β ( ) κ( λ ))uα
dλ dλ t β
Now:
¿
β dλ β
t =u
dλ
Therefore, equation becomes:
dλ¿ β 1
(∂ β uα ++ Γ αβγ uγ ) u =( κ( λ )−t β β κ( λ ))uα
dλ t
¿
α dλ
(∂β u ++ Γ αβγ uγ ) u β =( κ( λ )−κ( λ ))u α
dλ
¿
α dλ
(∂β u ++ Γ αβγ uγ ) u β =( 0)uα
dλ
¿
α dλ
(∂β u ++ Γ αβγ uγ ) u β =0
dλ
But,
¿ λ
dλ ∫ κ( λ' )d λ'
=e ≠0
dλ
α α γ β
(∂β u +Γ βγ u )u =0
And so :
α Duα
uβ u ;β
=0⇒ ¿ =0
dλ
Note, if:
α
;β β
u u =0 , this may loosely be written symbolically as:
α β
(∇ β u )u =0 , then
α β
gγα (∇ β u )u =0 , in which case the metric slides inside the cov. Differential like a constant to get:
α β
∇ β ( g γα u )u =0
(∇ β uα )u β =0 , which may, alternatively, be written as:
uα ; β u β =0
α α
Let, A (P )= A ( x ) , be the vector components of a vector field at point P or x, on the curve
parameterized by, λ , and we have the corresponding components of the same field at point Q, or
α α '
'
x =x+ dx as, A (Q)= A ( x ) ..
Where the tangent to the curve is:
α
α dx
u = ,⇒ dx α =u α dλ
dλ
Now this can be interpreted as an infinitesimal transformation from coordinate system x , to coordinate
'
system x =x+ dx .
Under this transformation:
¿ ∂ x¿ β
A= A
∂ xβ
Now from,
¿ α α
x =x + dx
¿ α α
x =x + u dλ
∂ x ¿ ∂ x α ∂u α
= + dλ
∂ xβ ∂ x β ∂ x β
∂ x¿ α
α
,β
β
=δ β +u dλ
∂x ,
Therefore,
α
¿
A =( δ αβ +u ,β
dλ) A β
α
A ( x )= A α ( x )+u ,β
A β ( x ) dλ
¿ ¿
Or equivalently,
α
A ( Q )= A α ( P)+u ,β
A β ( P) dλ , value of vector field as a result of infinitesimal transformation from
¿
point P to point Q…….(1)
Now:
α α
A (Q)= A ( x +dx ) , By Taylor expansion, this is equal to:
∂ Aα β
A α (Q)= A α ( x )+ dx
∂ xβ
And since,
β
β dx
u = ,⇒ dx β =u β dλ
dλ
Then:
∂ Aα β
A α (Q)= A α ( x )+ u dλ
∂ xβ ………(2)
α
A α ( Q )= A α ( x )+ A ,β
u β dλ
Now define:
α Aα (Q)− A ¿
Lu A (P )=
dλ
α α
α Aα ( P )+u β A ,β
( P )dλ−A α ( P )−u ,β
A β ( P) dλ
Lu A (P )=
dλ
α α
α uβ A ,β
( P ) dλ−u ,β
A β ( P )dλ
Lu A ( P )=
dλ
α α
Lu A α ( P )= A ,β
( P )u β −u ,β
A β( P )
Or simply, taking values at P:
α α
Lu A α ( P )= A ,β
u β −u ,β
Aβ
Lw
Fluid flow for, v :
'
r (t )+ λ w (r(t ))=r (t )
Componentwise:
α α ¿
x (t )+λw (r(t ))=x (t )
To be continued….
α α β ¿
dx (t ) ∂ w (r (t )) dx ( t ) d x (t )
+λ =
dt ∂ xβ dt dt
α μ β α ¿ μ μ
v ( x )+λv ∂ β w =v =v( x +λw )
α β α ¿
v + λv ∂ β w =v
Lie derivative in fluid flow:
Along f=constant curve, one may write:
df ( r (t ) ) dx β (t ) ∂f
= =0
dt dt ∂ x β
Or, equivalently:
df ( r (t ) ) β
=u (t )∂ β f ( x(t ))=0
dt
Or, in vector notation:
df ( r(t ))
=u(t ). ∇ f (r (t ))=0
dt
Lu f =u.∇ f =0
Writing it in all forms, one may write:
df ( r (t ) )
=Lu f =u . ∇ f =uα ∂α f =0
dt
Next:
α α α
Lu f =Lu ( ρ α η )=(Lu ρα )η + ρ α ( Lu η )
But the Lie derivative of a scalar function is simply the directional derivative:
Lu f =Lu ( ρ . η)=u.∇( ρ .η)=u.∂( ρ .η )
α α
Lu ( ρ . η)=u. ∇ ( ρ . η)=u . ∂α ( ρ .η )=u ∂α f
However,
α β α β α β
Lu ( ρ . η)=u. ∇( ρ . η)=u ∇ α ( ρβ η )=u η (∇ α ρ β )+u ρ β ∇ α η
α α α α β α β
Lu ( ρ α η )=(Lu ρα )η + ρα ( Lu η ) =u η ( ∇ α ρ β )+u ρ β ∇ α η
α β α β α α β α β
( Lu ρα )η =−ρα (u ∇ β η −η ∇ β u ) +u η ( ∇ α ρβ )+u ρ β ∇ α η
α β α β α α β α β
( Lu ρα )η =−ρα u ∇ β η + ρα η ∇ β u ) +u η ( ∇ α ρβ )+u ρ β ∇ α η
α β α β α α β β α
( Lu ρα )η =−ρα u ∇ β η + ρα η ∇ β u ) +u η ∇ α ρ β +u ρ α ∇ β η
α β α α β
( Lu ρα )η =ρα η ∇ β u ) +u η ∇ α ρ β
( Lu ρα )ηα =ρ β η α ∇ α u β ) +u β ηα ∇ β ρ α
β β
( Lu ρα )=ρ β ∇ α u ) +u ∇ β ρα
β γ
( Lu ρα )=ρ β ∇ α u ) +u ∇ γ ρ α …same as above
Or, equivalently:
β γ
( Lu ρα )=ρ β ∂α u ) +u ∂γ ρα , since Christoefel symbols cancel from both covariant derivatives.
Now:
Lu (T αβ )=Lu (ωα ν β )=ν β Lu ω α +ω α Lu ν β
From:
β γ
( Lu ρα )=ρ β ∇ α u +u ∇ γ ρ α
One may get:
κ κ κ κ
Lu (T αβ )=Lu (ωα ν β )=ν β (ω κ ∇ α u +u ∇ κ ω α )+ωα (ν κ ∇ β u +u ∇ κ ν β )
κ κ κ κ
Lu (T αβ )=Lu (ωα ν β )=ν β ωκ ∇ α u +ν β u ∇ κ ωα +ωα ν κ ∇ β u +ωα u ∇ κ ν β
κ κ κ
Lu (T αβ )=Lu (ωα ν β )=u ( ν β ∇ κ ωα +ωα ∇ κ ν β ) +ν β ωκ ∇ α u +ω α ν κ ∇ β u
κ κ κ
Lu (T αβ )=Lu (ωα ν β )=u ∇ κ (ω α ν β ) +ν β ωκ ∇ α u +ω α ν κ ∇ β u
κ κ κ
Lu (T αβ )=Lu (ωα ν β )=u ∇ κ T αβ +T κβ ∇ α u +T ακ ∇ β u ……Good for gαβ ,metric:
κ κ
Lu ( g αβ )=uκ ∇ κ gαβ +gκβ ∇ α u +g ακ ∇ β u
But:
∇ κ g αβ =0 , hence:
κ κ
Lu( g αβ )= g βκ ∇ α u +g ακ ∇ β u
Lu( g αβ )= ∇ α g βκ uκ +∇ β gακ u κ
Lu( g αβ )= ∇ α u β +∇ β u α
κ κ κ κ
Lu (T αβ )=Lu (ωα ν β )=ν β ωκ ∇ α u +ν β u ∇ κ ωα +ωα ν κ ∇ β u +ωα u ∇ κ ν β
κ κ κ κ
Lu (T αβ )=Lu (ωα ν β )=ν β ωκ ∂ α u +ν β u ∂κ ω α +ω α ν κ ∂β u +ωα u ∂κ ν β
κ κ
Lu (T αβ )=Lu (ωα ν β )=uκ ( ν β ∂κ ω α +ωα ∂κ ν β )+ +ν β ωκ ∂ α u +ω α ν κ ∂β u
κ κ κ
Lu (T αβ )=Lu (ωα ν β )=u (∂ κ ωα ν β ) +ν β ωκ ∂α u +ω α ν κ ∂β u
κ κ
Lu (T αβ )=Lu (ωα ν β )=uκ (∂κ T αβ ) +T κβ ∂α u +T ακ ∂ β u
For the metric , it may be written as:
κ κ
Lu ( g αβ )=uκ (∂κ gαβ ) +gκβ ∂ α u +gακ ∂ β u
A tensor field is Lie transported along a curve, γ , if:
α 1 . .. . . α n β .... .β
Lu T 1 m
=0 , for “Lie transported” tensor only
μ
where,
u=u ∂ μ , is the tangent to the curve.
1 2 3 0
Suppose that the coordinates are chosen such that , x , x , x , are constants while , x =t ≡λ=τ ,
varies along γ .
Since space coordinates are constants the time is the proper time, and hence:
dx α ¿ dx α ¿ dx α
uα = = =
dλ dx 0 dτ
α dx α ¿ dx α ¿ dx α
u = = =
dλ dx 0 dτ
0
0dx ¿ dλ
u= = =1
dλ dλ
1 2 3
dx ¿ d (cons tant ) dx ¿ d( cons tan t ) dx ¿ d( cons tan t )
u1 = = =0 u2 = = =0 u3 = = =0
dλ dλ , dλ dλ , dλ dλ
Hence one may write the above values in a single equation:
α
α dx ¿ α
u = = δ0
dλ , in the special coordinate system:
κ κ κ
Lu ( g αβ )=u ∇ κ gαβ +gκβ ∇ α u +g ακ ∇ β u
But:
∇ κ g αβ =0 , Hence:
κ κ
Lu( g αβ )= gκβ ∇ α u +gακ ∇ β u
Since
u cons tan t 0 , then:
u 0 , u 0 ,Hence:
Lu ( g ) 0 Lu ( g )
, and since this quantity ( )is tensorial, and is zero in this special frame, then it is
zero in all reference frames.
Now Lie derivative for a general tensor is as follows:
.. ..
LuT 1 .. n 1 .. m u ( T 1 .. n 1 ..m ) T n 1 .. m u 1 .. T 1 1.. m u n
T 1.. n .. m 1 u . T 1 .. n 1 .. m u
dx
u 0 u 1 0,..., u n 0
For the special coordinates: d , hence: ,
1 u 0,...., m u 0
,this simplifies the above equation to:
Lu T 1 .. n 1 .. m u ( T 1 .. n 1 ..m )
dx
u 0
Since, in this special coordinates: d , then:
LuT 1 .. n 1 .. m 0 ( T 1 .. n 1 ..m )
LuT 1 .. n 1 .. m ( 0T 1 .. n 1 ..m )
LuT 1 .. n 1 .. m ( T 1 .. n 1 ..m ) , only in the special coordinates where only , is a variable:
d 1 .. n
Lu T 1 .. n 1 .. m T 1 .. m
d
So , in general lie derivative of the metric is zero for all
g
For the metric
1 , 2 , then:
Lu g u ( g ) g u g u
……*
Lu g u (( g )
g g ) g u u g g u u g
Lu g u g g u u g g u u g
Lu g u g g ( u u ) g ( u u )
Lu g u g g u g u
……….**
But:
g 0
, then:
Lu g g u g u
Lu g ( g u ) ( g u )
Lu ( g ) 0
, always.
For the special coordinates:
Lu ( g ) u g g u g u
Lu ( g ) 0
, for all coordinate systems, including the special one.
u 0 , for the special coordinate system.
u 0
, for the special coordinate system
Hence,
u g 0
, for the special coordinate system
0 g 0
, for the special coordinate system
d
0 g t g g 0
d , for the special coordinate system. proper time since space coordinates
are constants in this frame.
i g g ?
x i , since space coordinates are constants in this frame. Hence for getting the change
in the metric, g, one may go to another coordinate system:
Lu ( g ) u g g u g u
0 u g g u g u
Hence:
u g ( g u g u )
, which relates the change in, g, to the change in,u.
While:
But:
g 0
, hence:
Lu ( g ) g u g u
Lu ( g ) g u g u
Lu ( g ) u u
Lu ( g ) 0 u u
Hence:
u u 0
, for all coordinate systems except the special one in which case the equation is still
valid as it should be but trivial; i.e: 0=0, since , u , is constant and hence, del (u)=0.
therefore,
u u
……antisymmetric
Sometimes, the above is written with u ,hence:
Lu ( g ) g g g
Since:
∇ μ g αβ =0 , hence:
Lu ( g ) gμβ ∇ α ξ μ +g αμ ∇ β ξ μ
μ μ
Lu ( g ) ∇ α g μβ ξ +∇ β gαμ ξ
Lu ( g ) ∇ α ξ β +∇ β ξ α
Lu ( g αβ )=0= ∇ α ξ β +∇ β ξ α
Hence:
∇ α ξ β +∇ β ξ α , for all coordinate systems except the special one in which case the equation is still valid
as it should be but trivial; i.e: 0=0, since , u , is constant and hence, del (u)=0.
therefore,
∇ α ξ β=−∇ β ξα ……antisymmetric
For the metric g
1 , 2 , then:
Lu g u ( g ) g u g u
note that the covariant derivative for a tensor is:
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