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Physical Education Department

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Physical Education Department

Central Mindanao University
www.cmu.edu.ph
cmupedept@gmail.com

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UNIT 3

GOAL SETTING AND PRINCIPLES OF

TRAINING
TIME ALLOTMENT
This learning guide will be discussed for (8) hours, equivalent to 4 weeks.

INTRODUCTION
In the last chapter we discussed the types of fitness training programs. These
programs target specific health-related components of physical fitness. When
participated regularly in a weekly basis, this may positively impact a person’s over-all
health and various components of physical fitness. However, the success of the fitness
training program that is specific to an individual’s fitness goal is also dependent on the
adherence of the program to principles of training and the goal-setting guidelines.
To aid you in making informed choices with participation in fitness training
programs or when creating and implementing your own fitness program, this learning
guide will tackle the different training principles that shape your fitness training program.
The guide will also help you set SMART fitness goals to increase the possibility of
achieving your fitness target.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit the students should:
1. Exhibit deep understanding of principles of training and goal setting;
2. Develop an exercise program following SMART principle;
3. Ascertain the principles of training, and;
4. Perform fitness exercise goals with fulfillment.

TOPICS

Principles of Training
The scientific principles of training is a framework that guide with planning fitness training
programs. It informs a training program on how to improve performance, skill, game
ability and the physical fitness. A successful training program will meet individual needs
based on age, gender, fitness level and fitness goals.

The following training principles that will be discussed include overload, specificity,
individuality, progression, diminishing returns, and reversibility.

OVERLOAD PRINCIPLE

The overload principle positions that physical fitness can be improved by putting our
bodies in additional stress by training more than you normally do. The principle states
that for strength or endurance to improve, demands placed on the muscles must be

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increased systematically and progressively over time, and the resistance (weight lifted)
must be of a magnitude significant enough to produce development. In simpler terms,
just like all other organs and systems of the human body, muscles must be taxed beyond
their accustomed loads to increase in physical capacity.

SPECIFICITY OF TRAINING
This principle states that the type of training should be specific to your individual needs
and goals. For example, muscular fitness has two components: muscular strength and
muscular endurance. Muscular strength is the ability to exert maximum force against
resistance. Muscular endurance (also referred to as localized muscular endurance) is the
ability of a muscle to exert submaximal force repeatedly over time.
To target one of the components would require specificity of training. A person
attempting to increase muscular strength needs a program of few repetitions and near-
maximum resistance. To increase muscular endurance, the strength-training program
consists primarily of many repetitions at a lower resistance. In like manner, if a person is
trying to improve a specific movement or skill through strength gains, the selected
strength-training exercises must resemble the actual movement or skill as closely as
possible. Ergo, this principle implies that in order to achieve gains in physical fitness,
there is a need to consider your goals and the right program conditions.

PRINCIPLE OF INDIVIDUALITY
Every individual is unique and will respond differently to the same training stimulus.
Some of these differences can be influenced by many characteristics: biological age,
training age, gender, body size and shape, past injuries and many more. For example, a
college student makes a copy of his exact fitness program and gives it to his 13-year-old
brother. The younger brother does not miss a workout, and at the end of the program,
he is disappointed in the results. Though many variables could play a role in the results,
the primary factor is most likely the large range in biological and training age.

PRINCIPLE OF PROGRESSION
To achieve the desired training adaptations for a certain activity or skill consistently the
training stimulus must gradually and constantly increase This implies that there is an
optimal level and time frame for the overload to occur. If overload increases too quickly,
poor technique, improper muscle firing patterns, and injury may result. If overload
progresses too slowly, improvements will be minimal or non-existent. Rest and recovery
must also be included in the progression, as training hard all the time could result in
chronic fatigue, a decrease in performance, and eventually injury.
For example, at the beginning of the fitness training program, a person may be able to
perform three sets of ten repetitions at 10 pounds (lbs.). At first, this may be a tough task
for the person to accomplish, but as the person consistently trains, the task will become
easier and the load must be increased. To progress, the load is increased to 12 lbs. until
all repetitions can be completed with correct technique. The person must progressively
overload the muscles to increase performance.

PRINCIPLE OF DIMINISHING RETURNS

Performance gains are related to the level of training (how long you have been training)
of an individual. A person that has never participated in a fitness training program before
can see huge initial performance gains in their program. On the other hand, a person

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who have been lifting for several years will see smaller gains over longer periods of time.
As a person nears their genetic potential, the gains in performance will be much harder
to obtain. The key is to continue to show progress in the areas which they have
weaknesses. For example, when a person first starts a training programs as a freshman
athlete in college, the person’s vertical jump height may improve from 22 inches to 30
inches in the first year. As the person continues to train through the next three years,
their vertical jump height performance may increase from 30 in. to 38 in. Achieving the
eight-inch improvement in the final three years is much more significant and difficult than
the eight inches in the first year.

PRINCIPLE OF REVERSIBILITY
When a training stimulus is taken away from a person for an extended time, they will not
be able to maintain a certain level of performance. Over time, the gains that were
achieved will return to the original level. For example, when a person takes 2-month
break from training, they can expect to become detrained. The decrease in performance
is directly related to inactivity of the muscles that have been atrophied from nonuse.
In other words, any improvement or fitness adaptation brought by training will be lost
when you stop training.

Muscular Strength Training Prescription

Several factors or variables must be considered to improve muscular strength and
endurance. These are mode of training, resistance, sets and frequency of training.

MODE OF TRAINING
Two basic training methods are used to improve strength: isometric and dynamic.
Isometric Exercise involves pushing or pulling against immovable objects. Dynamic
Exercise requires movement with the muscle contraction, such as extending the knees
with resistance (weight) on the ankles.
Although isometric training does not require much equipment, it is not a very
popular mode of training. Because strength gains with isometric training are specific to
the angle of muscle contraction, this type of training remains beneficial in sports such as
gymnastics that require static contractions during routines. Isometric training, however,
is a critical component of health conditioning programs for the lower back.

Can you think of an exercise that can be included in your isometric training
program?

Dynamic exercise can be conducted without weights or with free weights (barbells
and dumbbells), fixed resistance machines, variable-resistance machines, and isokinetic
equipment. When performing dynamic exercises without weights (for example, pull-ups,
push, ups), with free weights, or with fixed resistance machines, a constant resistance
(weight) is moved through a joint’s full range of motion. The greatest resistance that can
be lifted equals the maximum weight that can be moved at the weakest angle of the
joint, because of changes in muscle length and angle of pull as the joint moves through
it range of motion.

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 Dynamic training has two action phases: concentric or positive resistance and
eccentric or negative resistance. In the concentric phase, the muscle shortens as it
contracts to overcome the resistance. For example, during the bench press exercise,
when the resistance is lifted from the chest to full arm extension, the triceps muscle on
the back of the upper arm contracts and shortens to extend the elbow. During the
eccentric phase, the muscle lengthens as it contracts. In the case of the bench press
exercise, the same triceps muscles contracts to lower the resistance during elbow flexion,
but it tightens to avoid dropping the resistance.

Eccentric muscle contractions allow us to lower weights in a smooth, gradual, and

controlled manner. Without eccentric contractions, weights would be dropped on the
way down. Because the same muscles work when you lift and lower a resistance, you
should be sure to always execute both actions in a controlled manner. Failure to do so
diminishes the benefits of the training program and increases the risk of injuries.

The mode of training depends mainly on the type of equipment available and the
specific objective of the training program. Dynamic training is the most popular mode
for strength training. Its primary advantages are that strength is gained through the full
range of motion. Most daily activities are dynamic in nature. We constantly lift, push, and
pull objects, which requires strength through given range of motion. Another advantage
of dynamic exercise is that improvements are measured easily by the amount lifted.

Plate-loaded barbells (free-weight) were the most popular weight training

equipment available during the first half of the 20th century. Strength training machines
were developed in the middle of the century but did not become popular until the 1970s.
With the advent of, and subsequent technological improvements to, these machines, a
stirring debate surfaced over which of the two training modalities was better.

Free weights require that the individual balance the resistance through the entire
lifting motion. Thus, a logical assumption could be made that free weights are a better
training modality because of the involvement of additional stabilizing muscles needed
to balance the resistance as it is moved through its range of motion. Research, however,
has not shown any differences in strength development between the two exercise
modalities. Although each modality has pros and cons, the muscles do not know whether
the source of a resistance is a barbell, a dumbbell, a Universal Gym Machine, a Nautilus
machine, or simple cinder block. What determines the level of a person’s strength
development is the quality of the program and the individual’s effort during the training
program itself – not the type of equipment used.

Two additional modes of strength training that have gained extensive popularity
in recent years are stability ball exercises and elastic-band resistive exercises. Stability
exercises are specifically designed to develop abdominal, hip, chest, and spinal muscles,
by addressing core stabilization while the exerciser maintain a balanced position over
the ball. Although the primary objective is core strength and stability, many stability
exercises can be performed to strengthen other body areas as well. Elastic bands and
tubing can also be used for strength training. This type of constant-resistance training
has been shown to help increase strength, mobility, functional ability (particularly older
adults), and aid in the rehab of many types of injuries. Some advantages to using this

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type of training include low-cost, versatility, use of a few exercises to work all joints of
the body, and that they provide a great way to work out while travelling.

RESISTANCE
Resistance in strength training is the equivalent of intensity in cardiorespiratory exercise
prescription. To stimulate strength development, the general recommendation has been
to use a resistance of approximately 80 percent of the maximum capacity (1 RM). For
example, a person with a 1 RM of 150 lbs. should work about 120 lbs. (150 x .80).

The number of repetitions that one can perform at 80 percent of the 1 RM varies
among exercises. Data indicate that the total number of repetitions performed at a
certain percentage of the 1 RM depends on the amount of muscle mass used (bench
press versus triceps extension) and whether it is a single joint or a multi-joint exercise
(leg press versus knee extension). In both trained and untrained subjects, the number of
repetitions is greater with larger muscle mass involvement and multi-joint exercise.

Because of the time factor involved in constantly determining the 1 RM on each

lift to ensure the person is indeed working around 80 percent, the accepted rule for many
years has been that individuals perform between 8 and 12 repetitions maximum (or 8-12
RM zone) for adequate strength gains. For example, if a person is training with a
resistance of 120 lbs. and cannot lift more that 12 times – that is, the person reaches
volitional fatigue at or before 12 repetitions- the training stimulus (weight used) is
adequate for strength development. Once the person can lift the resistance more than
12 times, the resistance is increased by 5-10 lbs. and the person again should build up
to 12 repetitions. This is referred to as progressive resistance training.

Strength development, however, can also occur when working with less that 80
percent of the 1 RM. Although 8 to 12 RM is the most prescribed resistance, benefits do
occur when working below 8 or above 12 RM. If the main objective of the training
program is muscular endurance, 15 to 25 repetitions per set are recommended. Older
adults and individuals susceptible to musculoskeletal injuries are encouraged to work
with 10 to 15 repetitions using moderate resistances (about 50 percent to 60 percent of
the 1 RM)

From a general fitness point of view, working near a 10-repetition threshold seems
to improve overall performance most effectively. We live in a dynamic world in which
muscular strength and endurance are both required to lead an enjoyable life. Working
in an 8 to 12 RM zone produces good results in terms of strength, endurance, and
muscular hypertrophy. For older and more frail individuals (50 to 60 years of age and
above), 10 to 15 repetitions of moderate to high intensity of effort are recommended.

SETS
Strength training is done in sets. For example, a person lifting 120 lbs eight times
performs one set of eight repetitions (1/8/120). For general fitness, the recommendation
is one to three sets per exercise. Some evidence suggests greater strength gains using
multiple sets as opposed to a single set for a given exercise. Other research, however,
concludes that similar increases in strength, endurance, and hypertrophy are derived

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between single- and multiple-set strength training; as long as the single set, or at least
one of the multiple sets is a heavy (maximum) set performed to volitional exhaustion
using an RM zone (for example, 9 RM using an 8 to 12 RM zone). Strength gains may be
lessened by performing too many sets.
A recommended program for beginners is one or two light warm-up sets per
exercise using about 50 percent of the 1 RM followed by one to three sets per exercise.
Maintaining a resistance and effort that will temporarily fatigue the muscle (volitional
exhaustion) in the number of repetitions selected in at least one of the sets is critical to
achieve optimal progress. Because of the lower resistance used in body building, four to
eight sets can be done for each exercise.
To make the exercise program more time-effective, two or three exercises that
require different muscle groups may be alternated. In this way, a person will not have to
wait 2-3 minutes before proceeding to a new seat of a different exercise. For example,
the bench press, leg extension and abdominal curl-up exercises may be combined so
the person can go almost directly from one set to the next.
To avoid muscle soreness and stiffness, new participants ought to build up
gradually to the three sets of maximal repetitions. This can be done by performing only
one set of each exercise with a lighter resistance on the first day. During the second
session, two sets of exercise can be done: the first light and the second with the regular
resistance. During the third session, three sets could be performed – one light, and two
heavy sets. After that a person, should be able to do all three heavy sets.

FREQUENCY OF TRAINING
Strength Training should be done either with a total body workout two or three times
per week. Or more frequently if using a split body routine (push-pull training). After a
maximum strength workout, the muscles should be rested for about 48 hours to allow
adequate recovery. If not recovered completely in 2 to 3 days, the person most likely is
overtraining and therefore not reaping the full benefits of the program. In that case a
decrease in the total number of sets or exercises, or both, performed during the previous
workout is recommended. A summary of strength training guidelines for health fitness
purposes is provided in Table 3.1. Significant strength gains require a minimum of 8
weeks of consecutive training. After achieving the recommended strength level, one
training session per week will be sufficient to maintain the new strength level.

STRENGTH TRAINING EXERCISES

Refer to Unit II Learning Guide for a list Strength Training Exercises and Core Strength
and Stability Exercises.

Table 3.1 Strength training guidelines

Mode: Select 8 to 10 dynamic strength-training exercises that involve the
body’s major muscle groups and include opposing muscle groups
(chest and upper back, abdomen, and lower back, front and back of
the legs)
Resistance Sufficient resistance to perform 8 to 12 RM for muscular gains and 15
to 25 repetitions to near fatigue for muscular endurance.
Older adults and injury prone individuals should use 10 to 15
repetitions with moderate resistance (50%- 60% of their RM)

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 Table 3.1 Strength training guidelines
Sets 2 to 4 sets per exercise with 2 to 3 minutes recovery between sets for
optimal strength
30 seconds to 2 minutes recovery per set if exercises are alternated
that require different muscle groups (chest and upper back) or
between muscular endurance sets
Frequency 2 to 3 days per week on non-consecutive days
More frequent training can be done if differing muscle groups are
exercised on different days (allow at least 48 hours between strength-
training sessions of the same muscle group)
SOURCE: Adapted from American College of Sports Medicine. ACSM’s Guidelines for
Exercise Testing and Prescription. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwert/Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins, 2010.

Strength-Training Exercise Guidelines

To design a strength-training program, here are several guidelines to keep in mind:
1. Select exercises that will involve all major muscle groups: chest, shoulders, back,
legs, arms, hips, and trunk.
2. Warm up properly prior to lifting weights by performing a light-to-moderate
intensity aerobic activity (5-7 minutes) and some gentle stretches for a few
minutes. The mobility exercises learned during Unit II can be used as warm-up
exercises.
3. Exercise large muscle groups first, such as those in the chest, back, and legs. Then
proceed to smaller muscle groups (arms, abdominals, ankles, and neck). The
bench press exercise works the chest, shoulders, and back of the upper arms,
whereas the triceps extension works the back of the upper arms only.
4. Exercise opposing muscle groups for a balanced workout. When you work the
chest (bench press), work the back (rowing torso). If you work the triceps, work the
biceps.
5. Perform all exercise in a controlled manner. Avoid fast and jerky movements, do
not throw the entire body into the lifting motion, which would increase the risk of
injury and decrease the effectiveness of the exercise. Do not arch the back when
lifting weight.
6. Perform each exercise through the entire possible range of motion.
7. Breathe naturally, do not hold your breath as you lift the resistance. Inhale during
the eccentric phase (bringing the weight down) and exhale during the concentric
phase (lifting or pushing the weight up). Practice proper breathing with lighter
weights when you are learning a new exercise.
*Avoid holding your breath while straining to lift a weight. Holding your
breath greatly increases the pressure inside the chest and abdominal cavity,
making it nearly impossible for the blood in the veins to return to the heart.
Although rare, a sudden high intrathoracic pressure may lead to dizziness, a
blackout, a stroke, a heart attack, or a hernia.
8. Based on the program selected, allow adequate recovery time between sets of
exercises (see Table 3.2).
9. Discontinue training if you experience unusual discomfort or pain. High-tension
loads used in strength training can exacerbate potential injuries. Discomfort and

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 pain are signals to stop and determine what’s wrong. Be sure to properly evaluate
your condition before you continue training.
10. Cool down by doing static stretches for a few minutes at the end of each training
work-out. This helps the muscle to return to their normal resting length and to
minimize muscle soreness and risk of injury.

Table 3.2 Guidelines for Various Strength-Training Programs

Strength Resistance Sets Rest Between Frequency
Training Sets* (workouts per
Program week)**
General 8-12 RM 2-4 2-3 minutes 2-3
Fitness
Muscular 15-25 reps 2-4 1-2 minutes 2-3
Endurance
Maximal 1-6 reps 2-5 3 minutes 2-3
Strength
Body Building 8-20 reps near 3-8 Up to 1 min 4-12
max
*Recovery between sets can be decreased by alternating exercises that use different
muscle groups
**Weekly training sessions can be increased by using a split-body routine

Designing Your Own Muscular Fitness Program

DEVELOPING YOUR FITNESS PLAN

Deciding what you want to achieve is your first step, however, to reach your fitness goal
you need write SMART goals.

SMART GOALS

SPECIFIC. When writing goals, clearly state positively what you would like to accomplish.
Include the details of what you want to achieve.

For Example: “I will be able to perform 20 pike crunches after 4 weeks”. Once you have
written a specific goal, write the specific objectives that will help you reach this goal (e.g.,
perform pike crunches 4 times a week, supplement core strength by executing the
following strength and core exercises 4 times a week)

MEASURABLE. Whenever possible, goals and objectives should be measurable. You can
measure your progress toward the goal by tracking your days per week or the number
of repetitions.

ATTAINABLE. Your goals should challenge you. If you set it yourself, it will keep you
motivated to accomplish your goal.

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For example, we focused on pike crunches and set a repetition higher that we can
currently perform to make it attainable. But not too high that we can’t achieve it in four
weeks. Let’s say, you can already perform 5 pike crunches, setting the goal of 20 pike
crunches at the end of four weeks is achievable compared to 100 pike crunches after
four weeks.

REALISTIC. Goals should be achievable. Given time and effort and the necessary
resources, you should be able to attain your goal. However, you need to consider various
commitments, restrictions, and availability of equipment. These should all be examined
so that your goal has a chance to be realized.

TIME BOUNDED. A goal should always have a specific date set for completion. With a
deadline, a task is easier to plan for and accomplish. For the example above, 4 weeks is
time specific. The chosen date is realistic but not too distance in the future.

DESIGNING AN EXERCISE ROUTINE/PROGRAM

Once you have established your goals and objectives you need to prepare a detailed
written plan (see task sheet) for example.

You need to decide the exercises to include in your exercise program. When selecting
which exercises to include, choose exercise movements that support the group of
muscles you are targeting.

You need to decide the frequency for your training program. Remember the guidelines
for fitness training given in the previous pages. In general, it is good to allocate 4-6 hours
per week for fitness training. The hours can be spread throughout the week and hours
of the day.

Keep the principles of training in mind when plotting your exercise sets and repetitions.
Start with a volume load that you can already do then progress by increasing the
repetitions, sets, or resistance. Always keep your end goal in mind.

Also, you need to allocate the best time when to perform your exercises. Think about
when your free time is- when you will not be interrupted, and the time when you most
enjoy exercising.

Keep a log and evaluate your program.

After you’ve tried your program for some time, evaluate it. Did you meet your goals?
Was the program good? What could have been improved?

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Let’s try it!
For PE 32 we have designed a muscular fitness program for all students to
follow. However, for individuals with specific needs, kindly contact your
instructor ASAP before beginning your muscular fitness program.

Muscular Fitness Plan

Instructions:
1. The main goal for this fitness plan is to improve your muscular endurance.
2. Choose the exercise you’ll perform when it’s indicated.

Fitness Goal:
I will be able to improve my muscular endurance after four (4) weeks.

Fitness Objective:
• For resistance exercises, increase the number of repetitions in a set by 300%.
(from 8 repetitions to 24 repetitions)
• For core exercises, increase the number of repetitions in a set by 200%
(from 8 repetitions to 16 repetitions)

Proposed Exercise Program:

CORE Exercise
1. ________________________ from Abdominal Curl Push
(Choice) Through, Foot to Foot
Crunch, Flutter Kick
2. Alternate Arm and Leg
Extension
3. ________________________ from Side Plank Crunches, Pike
(Choice) Crunches
Resistance Exercise
1. ________________________ from Shoulder Dumbbell Press,
(Choice) Lateral Arm Raise
2. ________________________ from Dumbbell Floor Press,
(Choice) Dumbbell Floor Fly
3. ________________________ from Biceps Curl, Hammer Curl
(Choice)
4. ________________________ from Triceps Kickback,
(Choice) Overhead Triceps
Extension
5. Goblet Squat
6. ________________________ from Mini-band Kickback,
(Choice) Weighted Heel Raise

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Implementing the Muscular Fitness Plan
Here’s the recommended exercise log for you 4-week training program
This training program reflects a four-week fitness plan that adheres to the progression
and overload principle.
1. Write your chosen exercise from the proposed exercise program.
2. Perform one (1) set of the prescribed number of repetitions
3. For weight we recommend 1-2 lbs for females, 3-4 lbs for males
a. please weigh your alternative resistance (if using), and make sure it falls on
the recommended weight range
b. For goblet squat and weighted heel raise, we recommend 6 lbs- 10 lbs for
male and female.
c. Use the same weight you used from week 1 to week 4
4. Warm-up and Cool-down for every exercise session you’ll do.
5. Rest between exercises is 1-2 minutes.
6. Stay hydrated throughout the exercise sessions.

EXERCISE LOG
CORE Exercise Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4
Reps Weight Reps Weight Reps Weight Reps Weight

________________________ 8 10 14 16
(Choice)
Alternate Arm and Leg 8 10 14 16
Extension
________________________ 8 10 14 16
(Choice)
Resistance Exercise
________________________ 8 14 20 24
(Choice)
________________________ 8 14 20 24
(Choice)
________________________ 8 14 20 24
(Choice)
________________________ 8 14 20 24
(Choice)
Goblet Squat 8 14 20 24
________________________ 8 14 20 24
(Choice)

WARM-UP 5-7 MINUTES

COOL DOWN 5 MINUTES

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Guidelines in Submitting your Psychomotor Task

1. Fill-up your Exercise Log, include the chosen exercises (see choices in page 12 of
learning guide) and weight of your resistance.

EXERCISE LOG
CORE Exercise Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4
Reps Weight Reps Weight Reps Weight Reps Weight

________________________ 8 10 14 16
(Choice)
Alternate Arm and Leg 8 10 14 16
Extension
________________________ 8 10 14 16
(Choice)
Resistance Exercise
________________________ 8 14 20 24
(Choice)
________________________ 8 14 20 24
(Choice)
________________________ 8 14 20 24
(Choice)
________________________ 8 14 20 24
(Choice)
Goblet Squat 8 14 20 24
________________________ 8 14 20 24
(Choice)

2. Perform one (1) set of Week 1’s recommended repetitions.

3. Shoot the video in real-time. Editing/Video cuts are accepted in between
exercises.
4. Include your name and the name of exercise being performed in your video.
Insert a photo of your exercise log in the beginning of your video as a guide for
instructors.
5. DO NOT DOUBLE THE SPEED of your video.
6. Submit through video sharing platforms. Make sure the links are accessible.

RUBRICS:

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Link for videos:
• Core Stability Exercises: Start at the 4:00 minute mark:
https://youtu.be/LAIFNFfPyto

• Resistance/Strength Exercises: https://youtu.be/son9-voMOrU

REFERENCES:
1. Hoeger W. W., and Hoeger, S.A. (2011). Fitness & Wellness. Wadsmorth:
Belmont, CA.
2. National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) (2012. Basics of strength
and conditioning manual.
https://www.nsca.com/contentassets/116c55d64e1343d2b264e05aaf158a91/ba
sics_of_strength_and_conditioning_manual.pdf Accessed: January 25, 2019

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