Recap…

Candles are useful for illustrating the complicated physical (capillary action) and
chemical (oxygen reaction) processes that take place during combustion

Inputs Outputs
Fuel (wax) Light energy
Air (Oxygen) Heat energy
Ignition source By-products
(match stick) (emissions)
[Fuel] + [O2]  Products
[Fuel] + [O2]  Intermediate Compounds  Products
A candle, takes oxygen from the air,
combines it with the carbon in the candle wax,
and these form carbon dioxide and water Dismantle the LPG Stove and identify the components

Combustion is a field which involves fluid mechanics, heat

transfer, thermodynamics and chemical kinetics.
Also, knowledge of mathematics is essential
for establishing their inter-relationships

Occurrence Source
Nature Dry branches of trees rubbing against one another
Lava from an active volcano igniting the dry substance in its path

Cooking Primitive human witnessed heat and light of fire

Firewood with a bit of kerosene
LPG cylinder – gas stove – spark igniter
Industries Melting ores, creating new alloys from metals, burning coal
Propulsion Reciprocating engines – Hydrocarbon (Petrol/diesel), natural gases
Gas turbine engines – kerosene, jet fuel
Rockets – Exotic chemicals

Combustion has a million years of history

Fire has been an object of worship from Vedic times
 Differentiate…
Flame’s spatial heterogeneity:
The flame’s varying colors, brightness,
and temperatures arise because of
distinct actions occurring
in different parts of the flame

Flame colour indicates the temperature, type of fuel and the

completeness of combustion

Ignition occurs at – 8 deg.CA in the fuel-air mixture

The flame spreads rapidly along the outside of the

spray to the spray tip

Burns with a blue-green low-luminosity flame (colored

green by the copper fuel additive)
Diesel Flame
At this crank angle (-1 deg.), about 60 % of the fuel has
Visualized been injected
Inside a
The remainder is injected into this enflamed region,
combustion producing a very fuel-rich zone apparent as the dark
chamber brown cloud (11 deg.)

This soot cloud moves to the outer region of the

chamber ( 11 to 20 deg.); white-yellow flame activity
continues near the injector

Combustion continues well into the expansion stroke

(31 deg.CA)
• Combustion normally involves a flame. Which is a thin region of rapid
exothermic chemical reaction
Fuel is premixed with the oxidizer in a Carburettor
E.g., bunsen burner and a candle each exhibit a thin region in which the fuel and
oxygen react, giving off heat and light

• The conversion of chemical to sensible energy takes place in the flame and
causes the flame temperature to be high

• The bunsen burner is an example of premixed combustion and gives rise to a

premixed flame. (Carburetted Spark Ignited Engine)

• (Carburetted Spark Ignited Engine) – Propagating flame

• Bunsen burner – Stationary flame

Engineering Basics:
• A candle flame is different from a Bunsen burner flame in that the fuel is not
premixed with the oxidizer.
• The candle wax is heated by the flame, vaporizes and mixes with air which is  Heat Transfer
drawn into the flame by the buoyant motion of the upward flowing products,
 Chemistry (Chemical kinetics)
this type of flame is called a diffusion flame
• Combustion in spray combustors such as used in oil burners, gas turbines, and  Fluid Mechanics Tell about yourself and
diesel engines primarily involves diffusion flames.
 Physics (Evaporation…) Say some scientific facts about
the candle flame
• Hence, flames may be of either the premixed or diffusion type, and both types  Thermodynamics
may occur at different times and locations in a practical combustion chamber • List other physical and
 Instrumentation and
• Flames occur in both laminar and turbulent flows. Turbulent greatly increases chemical processes
the burning velocity. Measurements • Static or Transient Flame?
• The premixed laminar burning velocity for hydrocarbon-air flames is • Burning rate?
 Mathematical Modelling
approximately ½ m/s, whereas the turbulent burning velocity is 2 to 10 times • Ignition energy?
faster. • How much air and fuel?
• Energy Cost
• Efficiency?
 Examine... Recap

1. What is each movement of the piston from the top to  Combustion is a process of energy release in exothermic reactions,
bottom or from bottom to top called? which is accompanied by mass and heat transfer. Typical combustion
processes are inherently multi-scale, involving complex spatio-temporal
phenomena, associated with chemical reactions, molecular transport, and
turbulence
2. What operates both intake
and exhaust valves?  Chemical combustion is used for energy’s production in power plants,
gas turbines and engines. The chemical combustion involves a chemical
transformation between fuels and oxidizers. Thermonuclear combustion
is a heat source for the sun and stars

 Combustion is responsible for nearly all of the emission of NOx, CO,

HC, CO2 and aerosols and many other chemical species that are harmful
to human health and the environment

Delhi gets India's first smog tower

to combat pollution
Tata Projects Limited (TPL) built the smog tower with technical support from IIT-Bombay
and IIT-Delhi, which will analyse its data.
 Understanding the Combustion Outputs

Input 1 Input 2 Heat/

power
Fuel Oxidizer
(Energy) + (Air)
Emissions
Quality & Quantity

 The most important property is the energy content of the working fluid, which
decides how high the combustion temperature will be

It is also important to know the quantity of oxidizer required to be mixed with a
given amount of fuel in-order to obtain the peak combustion temperature • Conservation of Energy principle requires Einlet  Eoutlet
 The maximum amount of chemical energy that can be released from the fuel is
when it reacts with a stoichiometric amount of oxygen

Stoichiometry (Quantity)
 18 
Isooctane C8 H18  12.5(O2  3.76 N 2 )  8CO2    H 2O  3.76 N 2
 It is concerned with the relations between the composition of the reactants, e.g. 2
fuel and air, and the composition of the products.

The stoichiometric quantity of air is just that amount needed to completely burn 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∗ 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
=
a given quantity of fuel 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 ∗ 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
Isooctane main
21 % O2, component in petrol 12.5 ∗ 4.76 ∗ 28.8
= = 15: 1
79 % N2 C8H18 1 ∗ 114

The stoichiometric air-fuel ratio (by mass) is determined by writing element Composition of dry air
conservation expressions, assuming that the fuel reacts to from an ideal set of is 79% Nitrogen, 21%
products. Oxygen by vol. basis

 y
C x H y  a(O2  3.76 N 2 )  xCO2    H 2O  a(3.76) N 2
2 Average Molecular
Weight of Air = (.79 *
28) + (.21 * 32) =
 y
stoichiometric coefficients
a  x  28.8 g/mol

4 9 10
A simpler hydrocarbon

 The balanced chemical equation of the simplest hydrocarbon fuel Write down the balanced chemical equation for the
(methane CH4) burning with stoichiometric oxygen is: complete combustion of a candle

CH4 + 2(O2 + 3.76N2)  CO2 + 2H20 + 7.52N2

Candle wax is the fuel burned by a candle. The wax is a

mixture of long-chain hydrocarbons with the formula
CnH2n+2. Typically the composition of the various
hydrocarbons averages to C25H52.

11

(Quality)  The minimum amount of air needed for the complete combustion of a fuel
E20 is called the stoichiometric or theoretical air or 100 percent theoretical air.

 In practice, however, more air than this theoretical amount is required to be

supplied for complete combustion

Normal operating range

Spark Ignition (S.I.) Engine Compression Ignition (C.I.) Engine

12 ≤ AFR ≤ 18 18 ≤ AFR ≤ 70
 y Close to stoichiometric Characteristically very lean
C x H y Oz  a(O2  3.76 N 2 )  xCO2    H 2O  3.76 N 2
2
 The amount of air in excess of the stoichiometric amount is called excess air
C H  y z (Fuel Lean combustion) and is usually expressed in terms of the stoichiometric air
a  x  as percent excess air or percent theoretical air.
O 4 2 For e.g., 150% theoretical or 50% excess air = 100% theoretical + 50% excess air

The stoichiometric FAR depends on the fuel composition and in the case of fuel Amounts of air less than the stoichiometric is called as deficiency of air and are is
bound oxygen, the fuel oxygen is included in the oxygen balance between expressed as % deficiency of air (Fuel Rich combustion)
reactants and products 13 For e.g., 90% theoretical or 10% deficienct air = 100% theoretical - 10% deficient
14 air
 Equivalence ratio – An important parameter
 The amount of air used in combustion processes is also expressed in terms of
the Equivalence Ratio


 AF stoic ( FA) act
 AF act  ( FA) stoic

Subject of
our interest

16

Emissions : The conversion of energy from one form to another often affects the environment and
thus the study of energy is not complete without considering its
Equivalence ratio
Max NOx.: Peak combustion temperature impact on the environment
A fuel rich AFR HC & CO NOx
and there is an excess of oxygen to react
with the nitrogen does not have Increases Increases
enough oxygen to
HC emissions also react with all the
increase at very lean carbon, hydrogen,
mixtures due to poor and both HC and
combustion and CO emissions
misfires. increase.

Richer 14.7:1 Leaner

AFR

NOx HC & CO
Decreases Decreases

18
 Take home exercise

Engineering Basics:

 Heat Transfer
 Chemistry (Chemical kinetics)
 Fluid Mechanics Tell about yourself and
 Physics (Evaporation…) Say some scientific facts about
the candle flame
 Thermodynamics
 Instrumentation and • List other physical and Engine
chemical processes specification
Measurements • Static or Transient Flame? required ?
 Mathematical Modelling • Burning rate?
• Ignition energy?
• How much air and fuel?
• Energy Cost
• Efficiency?

Recap Equivalence ratio – An important parameter

 It is concerned with the relations between the composition of the reactants, e.g.  The amount of air used in combustion processes is also expressed in terms of
fuel and air, and the composition of the products. the Equivalence Ratio

The stoichiometric quantity of air is just that amount needed to completely burn

 AF stoic 
( FA) act
 AF act
a given quantity of fuel
( FA) stoic
Isooctane main
21 % O2, component in petrol
79 % N2 C8H18

The stoichiometric air-fuel ratio (by mass) is determined by writing element

conservation expressions, assuming that the fuel reacts to from an ideal set of
products.
 y
C x H y  a(O2  3.76 N 2 )  xCO2    H 2O  a(3.76) N 2
2
 y
stoichiometric coefficients
a  x 
4 2 3
The conversion of energy from one form to another often affects the environment and
thus the study of energy is not complete without considering its PG Studies: Enhance your research perspective
impact on the environment
HC & CO NOx
Increases Increases

Richer 14.7:1 Leaner

AFR

NOx HC & CO
Decreases Decreases

Candle: On-going Research Studies Parametric studies

 Searching for the existing literature in your area of study
Parametric studies To search effectively for the literature in your field of enquiry, it is
imperative that you have at least some idea of the broad subject area
and of the problem you wish to investigate, in order to set parameters
Flame on Earth Flame in microgravity for your search. Next, compile a bibliography for this broad area.
There are three sources that you can use to prepare a bibliography (A
Gravity-driven buoyant convection where convective flows are list of writings with time and place of publication ):
causes a candle flame to be teardrop- absent, the flame is
shaped and carries soot to the flame's spherical, soot-free and blue  Books (The material published in books is usually important and of
tip, which makes it yellow good quality, the main disadvantage is that the material is not up
to date, as it can take a few years between the completion of a
work and its publication in the form of a book.)

https://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/microgravity/mu  Journals (most up-to-date information); and

ltimedia/me-candleFlame.html
 Internet (Authenticated webpages).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9zdD7lfB0Fs

(MEE5011) Engine Combustion & Emission - Syllabus

Recommended Books Authors Unit I : Introduction to Engines
Construction and working, Engine operating Cycles – Ideal and Fuel Air Cycles, Engine Classifications

Internal Combustion Engine John B Heywood Unit II : SI Engine Combustion

Fundamentals Stages of Combustion, Phases of Ignition, Flame Propagation – Factors, Flame Structure, Burning Velocity,
Cycle to Cycle Variations.

Engine Emissions Measurement
Handbook
Horiba Automotive Test Systems
An Introduction to Combustion
Masayuki Adachi and Unit III : CI Engine Combustion
Stages of Combustion, Heat Release Rate analysis, Ignition Delay – Factors, Fuel spray structure, Spray
Hiroshi Nakamura Penetration, Spray angle, Droplet distribution and Evaporation.
Unit IV : Abnormal Combustion
Stephen R Turns Knocking and Detonation Concepts, Knock types, Surface Ignition, Fuel Ratings

Unit V : Oxides of Nitrogen Emission

Introduction to Internal Combustion Kinetics of NO formation, NO formation in SI and CI Engines – Controlling Techniques – SCR
Richard Stone
Engines Unit VI : Unburned Hydrocarbon and CO Emission
Carbon Monoxide Formation, Flame Quenching and Oxidation, HC emissions in SI Engine, HC emissions
Engineering Fundamentals of the Mechanism in Diesel Engines – Controlling Techniques – Catalytic Converters
Willard W Pulkrabek
Internal Combustion Engine Unit VII : Particulate Emissions & Exhaust gas Treatment
SI Engine Particulates, Diesel Engine Particulates, Particulate Distribution, Soot Formation,
Adsorption and Condensation, Emission Testing Methods, Thermal reactors, DPF, DOF
 Recap
Combustion is an exothermic chemical reaction in which a
Engineering Basics:
substance (fuel) reacts rapidly with oxygen and gives off
thermal energy - Heat
 Heat Transfer
 Chemistry (Chemical kinetics)
Fuels (electron donor)
 Fluid Mechanics
 Physics (Evaporation…)
Tell about yourself and
Say some scientific facts about
Heat
the candle flame Rapid oxidation
 Thermodynamics Reactants generating heat Products
 Instrumentation and • List other physical and
chemical processes
Measurements • Static or Transient Flame? Exhaust!
 Mathematical Modelling • Burning rate?
• Ignition energy? Oxidizers(electron acceptor)
• How much air and fuel?
• Energy Cost Components that exist before the Components that exist after
• Efficiency? chemical reaction the chemical reaction
2

(MEE5011) Engine Combustion & Emission - Syllabus Problem

Unit I : Introduction to Engines
Construction and working, Engine operating Cycles – Ideal and Fuel Air Cycles, Engine Classifications  Isoocatane is burned with 120% theoretical in a small three culinder
turbocharged automobile engine. Calculate the air–fuel, fuel–air ratios
Unit II : SI Engine Combustion
Stages of Combustion, Phases of Ignition, Flame Propagation – Factors, Flame Structure, Burning Velocity, and equivalence ratio.
Cycle to Cycle Variations.
Refer to Page 124 in
Unit III : CI Engine Combustion
Stages of Combustion, Heat Release Rate analysis, Ignition Delay – Factors, Fuel spray structure, Spray
Eng. Fundamental of IC Engines
Penetration, Spray angle, Droplet distribution and Evaporation. (Williard W. Pulkrabek)

Unit IV : Abnormal Combustion

Knocking and Detonation Concepts, Knock types, Surface Ignition, Fuel Ratings

Unit V : Oxides of Nitrogen Emission

Kinetics of NO formation, NO formation in SI and CI Engines – Controlling Techniques – SCR

Unit VI : Unburned Hydrocarbon and CO Emission

Carbon Monoxide Formation, Flame Quenching and Oxidation, HC emissions in SI Engine, HC emissions
Mechanism in Diesel Engines – Controlling Techniques – Catalytic Converters

Unit VII : Particulate Emissions & Exhaust gas Treatment

SI Engine Particulates, Diesel Engine Particulates, Particulate Distribution, Soot Formation,
8
Adsorption and Condensation, Emission Testing Methods, Thermal reactors, DPF, DOF
 Take home Refer to Page 130

Butane is burned with dry air and the volumetric analysis of the
products on dry basis (H2O is not measured) gives 11% CO2, 1% CO,
3.5% O2 and 84.5% N2. Determine the % theoretical air.

Answer : % theoretical air = 115 %

One kmol of ethane is burned with an unknown amount of air

during a combustion process. An analysis of the combustion
products reveals that the combustion is complete, and there are
3 kmol of free oxygen in the products.
Determine (a) the air–fuel ratio and
(b) the percentage of theoretical air used during this process

Answer : % theoretical air = 186 % & AFR = 29:1 9 10

How
efficiently to
Recommended Books Authors trap this
energy?
1 Air
Internal Combustion Engine John B Heywood
Fundamentals
1 2
Engine Emissions Measurement Masayuki Adachi and
Handbook Hiroshi Nakamura
Horiba Automotive Test Systems 2
An Introduction to Combustion Stephen R Turns
3 3
Introduction to Internal Combustion Richard Stone Combustion engines are specialized energy conversion plant, in which
Engines
the chemical energy bound in the fuel is at first transformed into
thermal energy in the combustion chamber, this being then
Engineering Fundamentals of the Willard W Pulkrabek
Internal Combustion Engine transformed into mechanical energy

Internal Combustion Engine (ICE)

 Energyin = Energyout

massin = massout
Internal Combustion Engine

The internal combustion engine is a heat

engine that converts chemical energy
in a fuel into mechanical energy, usually
made available on a rotating output shaft

Compression Ignition Spark Ignition Engine

Engine (Diesel) (Petrol)
• Method of charging (NA or TC)
16
Single cylinder V engine
The Oval Piston Engine / 1979

In-line or Straight

Opposed cylinder
W engine

Dual piston
engine
Opposed piston https://global.honda/heritage/episodes/1979pistonengine.html
17 18
Radial engine

Power output per liter displacement Engine weight per power output

19 20
 Compression ratio (r)

Compression ratio
= 9.5 : 1

9.5

Volume bottom dead center Volume top dead center 22

Piston Cylinder Geometry Read and practice the Chapter 2

(Operating Characteristics)
Abbreviations Represents
TDC & BDC Top dead center & Bottom dead center

Vc Minimum cylinder volume

(Clearance volume)
Vt Maximum cylinder volume
(Total volume)

Vs Swept volume
(difference between total volume and
clearance volume)
r Compression ratio
(ratio of maximum to minimum volume)

Calculate the clearance volume and theoretical

efficiency for a SI engine with compression ratio
of 8.8, Bore and Stroke is 5.70 cm

Ideal Efficiency = 58% &

Vc = 0.0000186 m3 24
 Recap Recap

Abbreviations Represents
TDC & BDC Top dead center & Bottom dead center

Vc Minimum cylinder volume

(Clearance volume)
Vt Maximum cylinder volume
(Total volume)

Vs Swept volume
(difference between total volume and
clearance volume)
r Compression ratio
(ratio of maximum to minimum volume)

Calculate the clearance volume and theoretical

efficiency for a SI engine with compression ratio
of 8.8, Bore and Stroke is 5.70 cm

Ideal Efficiency = 58% &

Vc = 0.0000186 m3

Recap… Four Stroke Engine Cycle

First Stroke:
•The piston travels from TDC to BDC with the intake
valve open and exhaust valve closed

•This creates an increasing volume in the combustion

chamber, which in turn creates a vacuum

•The resulting pressure differential through the intake

system from atmospheric pressure on the outside to
the vacuum on the inside causes air to be pushed into
the cylinder

•As the air passes through the intake system, fuel is

Intake Stroke
added to it in the desired amount by means of fuel
or Induction
injectors or a carburettor

Second Stroke:
• When the piston reaches BDC, the intake valve closes
and the piston travels back to TDC with all valves
closed.
• This compresses the air-fuel mixture, raising both the
pressure and temperature in the cylinder.
• Near the end of the compression stroke, the spark
plug is fired and combustion is initiated
Compression
stroke
Rotating mass with a large moment of inertia connected to the crankshaft
The purpose is to store energy and furnish a large angular momentum that keeps
the engine rotating between power strokes and smoothens engine operation.
Flywheel
This is the stroke which produces the work output of the engine cycle
Third Stroke: • Combustion of the air-fuel mixture occurs in a very
short time and propagates throughout the charge
• Combustion changes the composition of the gas
mixture to that of exhaust products and increases the
temperature in the cylinder to a maximum value.
(> 2500 deg.C)
• Which in turn, raises the pressure in the cylinder to a
very high peak value (> 80 bar)
•With all valves closed, the high pressure created by the
Expansion or combustion process pushes the piston away from TDC
Power stroke
•As the piston travels from TDC to BDC, cylinder volume
is increased, causing pressure and temperature to drop
Fourth Stroke:
• At the end of the power stroke the exhaust valve
opens and now the piston now travels from BDC to TDC
in the exhaust stroke
• This pushes most of the remaining exhaust gases out
of the cylinder into the exhaust system at about
atmospheric pressure, leaving only that trapped in the
clearance volume when the piston reaches TDC
•Near the end of the exhaust stroke bTDC, the intake
Exhaust Stroke valve starts to open, so that it is fully open by TDC when
the new intake stroke starts the next cycle
Since the cycle is completed only once every two revolutions the
valve gear have to be driven by mechanisms operating at
half engine speed
 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Fill the table… Engine Efficiencies ƞ=
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Indicated power (IP) 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 =
Engine Type Revolutions per cycle 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Output (Indicated power)
=
‫( ݐݑ݌݊ܫ‬Fuel energy content)
Two Stroke Engine
One Frictional power
(FP)
Four Stroke Engine Two Brake power (BP)
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Six Stroke Engine Three =
Output (Brake power)
‫( ݐݑ݌݊ܫ‬Fuel energy content)
(Two added stroke for additional
exhaust removal)
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑴𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Brake power
= Indicated power 11

Classification of the efficiency in a four-

Volumetric efficiency
stroke SI engine
One of the most important processes that governs how much power and performance
can be obtained from an engine is getting the maximum amount of air into the cylinder
during each cycle. More air means more fuel can be burned and more energy can be
converted to output power. The power output of an engine depends on the amount of
charge which can be inducted into the cylinder and it is referred to as the breathing
capacity of the engine and is expressed quantitatively as the volumetric efficiency;

12 13
 Problem

A four-cylinder petrol engine has a bore of 57 mm and a stroke of 90 Brake Power

mm. Its rated speed is 2800 rpm and the brake torque is 55.2 Nm. The
fuel consumption is 6.74 litres/hour. The specific gravity of the
petrol/isooctane is 0.735 and has a calorific value of 44200 kJ/kg. The
engine was tested in an atmosphere at 1.013 bar and 15 deg.C,
determine the brake thermal and the volumetric efficiency of the
engine.
Brake thermal efficiency = Brake power/mass of fuel * calorific value
Given Bore D = 57 mm
Stroke L = 90 mm
Speed N = 2800 rpm
Torque T = 55.2 Nm
Fuel consumption = 6.74 litres/hour
Specific gravity of fuel = 0.735
Calorific value of fuel = 44.2 MJ/kg
14 15

Swept volume
Volumetric efficiency = Actual volume of air drawn /Swept volume

Actual volume of air drawn per unit time = (actual mass flow rate of air * R * T) / P

16 17
 Take Home
A four-cylinder, 2.5 liter, S.I engine operates at WOT on a four-stroke
air-standard Otto cycle at 3000 rpm. The engine has a compression
ratio of 8.6:1, a mechanical efficiency of 86%, and a stroke to bore
ratio of 1.025.
Fuel is isooctane with a heating value of 44.3MJ/kg and operates
stoichiometrically with an combustion efficiency of 100%. Indicated thermal
At the start of the compression stroke, conditions in the cylinder
combustion chamber are 100 kPa and 60 deg.C. It can be assumed efficiency = 51.5%
that there is a 4 % exhaust residual left over from the previous cycle
and the value of R as 287 J/kgK, Cv as 0.821 kJ/kgK
Determine the indicated fuel conversion efficiency for one cylinder
during one cycle.

Recap ƞ=
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 Engine parametric effects on
Volumetric efficiency
Indicated power (IP) 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Output (Indicated power) • Compression ratio
=
‫( ݐݑ݌݊ܫ‬Fuel energy content)
• Valve timing
Frictional power • Induction and port design
(FP) • Mixture strength
Brake power (BP) • Specific enthalpy of
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 vaporization of fuel
𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 • Heating of the induced charge
Output (Brake power)
=
‫( ݐݑ݌݊ܫ‬Fuel energy content) • Cylinder temperature
• Atmospheric conditions

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑴𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Brake power
= Indicated power 2 3
 Power α mass of air (Volumetric efficiency )

4 5

Coupling an engine with a dynamometer

Typical performance curve of an automotive AC dynamometer

 Shaft failure at different locations

Specific Fuel Consumption

11
 The working point of an engine is defined by its speed and
Engine Maps its torque. The full range of all possible working points in a Engine Combustion Parameters
two-dimensional presentation
gives the "engine map."
► SOI – Start of Injection

► SOC – Start of Combustion

► ID –Ignition Delay

► Combustion Phasing

► Combustion Duration
Consumption map
(DI diesel engine) ► HRR – Heat release rate

► d2 HRR – Second derivative of HRR

► Pmax – Peak cylinder pressure

► Occurrence of Pmax

► Qmax – Peak Heat release rate

12 13

► SOI(Pi) – Start of Pilot Injection

Pmax

► SOC(Pi) – Start of Pilot Engine as a thermodynamic system

Qmax
Combustion
EOPMC(Pi)
► ID(Pi) – Pilot injection Ignition
Delay

► EOPMC(Pi) – End of Premixed

Combustion from Pilot injection EOPMC(M)
SOC(
Pi)
► SOI(M) – Start of Main Injection SOC(
SOI( M)
► SOC(M) – Start of Main M)

Combustion
SOI( SOI(Po)
Pi)
► ID(M) – Main injection Ignition
Delay
ID (M)

► EOPMC(M) – End of Premixed ID (Pi)

Combustion from Main

injection

► SOI(Po) – Start of Post Injection

14
Fig. Fuel injection and combustion parameters for a Multiple injection
 Test engine setup

Recap
The air standard efficiency deduced from this analysis can hardly
be regarded as an approximation; it is always from
10 to 25 % higher than the efficiency
obtained from more accurate analyses

 actual  0.85(ideal )OTTO

Eddy current dynamometer (150 kW)

Butanol contains
21.6% of oxygen and
latent heat is 2.34 times
larger than
that of diesel fuel
Your Senior SET Projects

Air-Standard Cycles
The actual gas power cycles are complex. To reduce the analysis to a
Engine as a thermodynamic system manageable level, we utilize the air-standard assumptions:

 The working fluid is air (constant specific heats), which

continuously circulates in a closed loop and behaves as an ideal gas.
 All the processes that make up the cycle are isentropic.
 The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process
from an external source

 The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection process that

restores the working fluid to its initial state
A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are
applicable is referred to as an air-standard cycle
 Carnot cycle (A reversible cycle)
Carnot Cycle Proposed in 1824 by French engineer Sadi Carnot

The four reversible processes that make up the Carnot cycle

are as follows

– Reversible Isothermal (T = constant) Expansion

– Reversible Adiabatic Expansion
– Reversible Isothermal Compression
– Reversible Adiabatic (Q = 0) Compression

The theoretical / hypothetical heat engine Friction, Unrestrained expansion, Mixing of two
that operates on the Carnot cycle is called the Carnot heat engine fluids, Heat transfer across a finite temperature
Irreversibilities
difference, Electric resistance, Inelastic
(Factors that cause a deformation of solids, and Chemical reactions
Q High
  1 L
process to be
temperature
irreversible)
QH Source

QH A friction force that opposes the motion develops at the interface

of these two bodies
Reversible Wnet
Heat
Some work is needed to overcome this friction force
Engine
The energy supplied as work is eventually converted to heat
Highest efficiency a heat engine operating QL In reversed direction, but the interface does not cool, and
between the two thermal energy reservoirs
heat is not converted back to work
at temperatures TL and TH
TL Low
 reversible  1  temperature Since the system and the surroundings cannot be returned to
TH Sink their original states, this process is irreversible
 Otto Cycle - Constant-volume process –
Homogeneous charge SI Engines Recap The theoretical / hypothetical heat engine
It is called the constant-volume process because the heat supply (instead of combustion) that operates on the Carnot cycle is called the Carnot heat engine
ensues in constant space, i.e. under constant volume. Because the piston moves
continuously, the heat supply would have to occur infinitely fast, i.e. abruptly.
QL High
It consists of two isentropic and two isochores.   1 temperature
QH Source

QH

Reversible Wnet
Heat
Engine

Highest efficiency a heat engine operating QL

between the two thermal energy reservoirs
at temperatures TL and TH
TL Low
 reversible  1  temperature
TH Sink

Otto Cycle - Constant-volume process –

Homogeneous charge SI Engines
It is called the constant-volume process because the heat supply (instead of combustion)
ensues in constant space, i.e. under constant volume. Because the piston moves
continuously, the heat supply would have to occur infinitely fast, i.e. abruptly.
Ideal cycle for a four stroke SI Engine
It consists of two isentropic and two isochores.
 An ideal cycle that resembles the actual cycle of a petrol engine
3 Four processes

1-2  Isentropic compression

2-3  Constant-volume heat addition

2 3-4  Isentropic expansion

4
4-1  Constant-volume heat rejection
1

Working fluid : Air (Ideal gas)

CP = 1.005 kJ/kg K R = Cp – Cv = 0.287 kJ/kg K
CV = 0.718 kJ/kg K K = Cp / Cv = 1.4

Useful expressions

Diesel Cycle - Constant-pressure heat addition –

Heterogeneous charge C.I. Engines
Real PV diagram
In the case of high-compressing engines (like diesel), the compression pressure P2 is
already very high. In order not to let the pressure climb any higher, heat supply (instead
of combustion) is carried out at constant pressure instead of constant volume.

The process is thus composed of two isentropes, an isobar, and an isochore

Turbocharged engine coupled to

Eddy current Dynamometer

Cylinder pressure sensor

 Dual Cycle / Seiliger Cycle / Limited Pressure Cycle Modeling Expansion or Compression (moving boundary or PdV) Work

Modern compression ignition engines resemble neither the constant-volume nor the
constant-pressure cycle, but rather an intermediate cycle in which some of the heat is The area under the process curve on a
added at constant volume and then remaining heat is added at constant-pressure PV diagram represents the boundary work
processes.

Piston usually moves at very high speeds,

making it difficult for the gas inside to
maintain equilibrium.

The heat distribution added in the two processes can be specified approximately by choice For expansion process dV is positive when volume increases, the work is positive
of fuel, fuel injection system and engine geometry, usually to limit the peak pressure in For a compression process, dV is negative, and so is work
the cycle. Consequently this cycle is also referred to as the limited-pressure cycle.

Work Done for different process

Recap..
Process Relation Work done

Isochoric V=Constant 0

Isobaric P=Constant P(V2-V1)

Isothermal PV=Constant V 
P1V1 ln  2 
 V1 
Polytropic PVn=Constant P2V2  P1V1
1 n
Isentropic PVγ=Constant P2V2  P1V1
1 
9/30/2021 4:52:16 PM MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 12
 Air standard efficiencies
Real cycle for a four stroke SI Engine
Real system/cycle Ideal cycle Efficiency analysis

Spark ignition engine Otto

Compression ignition Diesel

engine

Combination of SI Dual
and CI process   1  1 r k 1  k  1 K  1    1

Cut-off ratio (rc / β )

Pressure ratio ( α )
Rise in pressure during combustion Ideal cycle for a four stroke SI Engine

Real engines operate on an open cycle with changing composition. Air-standard

analysis treats the fluid flow through the entire engine as air (ideal gas). In a real
engine inlet flow may be all air, or it may be air mixed with fuel, either gaseous or
as liquid droplets, or both.
The actual cycle experienced by an engine is not, in the true sense, a
thermodynamic cycle. Major differences include:
 Heat Transfer (There are heat losses during the cycle of a real engine
which are neglected in air-standard analysis)

 Finite Combustion Time (Combustion requires a finite time to occur,

and heat addition is not instantaneous at TDC, as approx. in an Otto cycle)

 Exhaust Blowdown Loss (does not occur at constant volume as in

air-standard analysis )

 Crevice Effects and Leakage

 Incomplete Combustion (about 95 %)

 The mass flow rate is not the same (Crevice flow, blowby…) Exhaust Blowdown:
Late in the power stroke, the exhaust valve is opened and exhaust blow down occurs.
Pressure and temperature in the cylinder are still high relative to the surroundings at this
point, and a pressure differential is created through the exhaust system which is open to
atmospheric pressure. This pressure differential causes much of the hot exhaust gas to be
pushed out of the cylinder and through the exhaust system when the piston is near BDC.
This exhaust gas carries away a high amount of enthalpy, which lowers the cycle thermal
efficiency. Opening the exhaust valve before BDC reduces the work obtained during the
power stroke but is required because of the finite time needed for exhaust blowdown.

Blowby:
The gas that gets totally past the piston and ends up in the crankcase is called blowby.
Blowby raises the pressure in the crankcase and contaminates the oil with fuel and
exhaust gases. As much as 1% of the fuel is forced into the crankcase in some engines. To
keep crankcase pressure down, it must be ventilated.

Crankcase blowby gases can be an important source of particulate emissions.

They can also contribute to the loss of lubricating oil and to fouling of surfaces and engine
components.
Reverse Blowby:
Late in the power stroke, when the exhaust valve opens, pressure between the
compression rings will be greater than in the combustion chamber, and some gases will
be forced back into the chamber.

Actual Valve Timing Diagram  Engine valves require a finite time to actuate. Ideally, valves would open and
close instantaneously, but this is not possible when using a camshaft.

The valve timing is dictated

by the camshaft & the
follower system

 In an actual engine, the exhaust valve is opened before bottom-dead centre to

reduce the pressure during the first part of the exhaust stroke in four stroke
engine and to allow time for scavenging in two stroke engines.
 The air standard efficiency deduced from this analysis can hardly
be regarded as an approximation; it is always from
10 to 25 % higher than the efficiency
obtained from more accurate analyses

 actual  0.85(ideal )OTTO

Real engines operate on an open cycle with changing composition. Air-standard

3
analysis treats the fluid flow through the entire engine as air (ideal gas). In a real
engine inlet flow may be all air, or it may be air mixed with fuel, either gaseous or
as liquid droplets, or both.
The actual cycle experienced by an engine is not, in the true sense, a
thermodynamic cycle. Major differences include:
2
4  Heat Transfer (There are heat losses during the cycle of a real engine
which are neglected in air-standard analysis)
1
What
happened  Finite Combustion Time (Combustion requires a finite time to occur,
to this and heat addition is not instantaneous at TDC, as approx. in an Otto cycle)
loop? The justification is that
these two processes
cancel each other  Exhaust Blowdown Loss (does not occur at constant volume as in
thermodynamically and air-standard analysis )
hence not required in
the cycle analysis  Crevice Effects and Leakage
Recap
 Incomplete Combustion (about 95 %)
 Typical values for S.I Engine with compression ratio of 10:1

Factors Percentage loss

Mechanical losses 3
The air standard efficiency deduced from this analysis can hardly Finite speed of combustion
be regarded as an approximation; it is always from 40 degree (10 to 90 % burn) 3
10 to 25 % higher than the efficiency
obtained from more accurate analyses Blow-by and un-burnt fuel in the exhaust 1

 actual  0.85(ideal )OTTO Cycle-by-cycle variations in combustion 2

Exhaust blow-down and gas exchange 2

Heat transfer 7

Working Fluid Constituents

From the figure, it becomes clear that, at a constant given compression ratio ε , it is the
constant-volume process, and at a constant given pressure ratio π , it is the constant-
Process Spark Ignition Compression Ignition pressure process which has the highest efficiency

Intake Air + Fuel + Residual gas Air + Residual gas

(Recycled exhaust) (Recycled exhaust)

Compression Air + Fuel vapour + Residual gas Air + Residual gas

(Recycled exhaust) (Recycled exhaust)

Expansion Combustion products (mixture of Combustion products (mixture of

N2, H2O, H2, CO2, CO, OH, H, O, N2, H2O, H2, CO2, CO, OH, H, O,
NO…) NO…)

Exhaust Combustion products (mainly N2, Combustion products (mainly N2,

H2O, CO2 and either O2 (ɸ <1) or H2O, CO2 and O2)
CO and H2 (ɸ >1)
 Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual Cycles Better way of Comparison

Similar Peak pressure –

diesel   dual  otto
otto   dual  diesel
Similar compression ratio realistic case
and inlet conditions

Problem

Air is compressed in a piston–cylinder device from 100 kPa and 17

deg.C to 800 kPa in a reversible, adiabatic process.
Determine the final temperature and the work done during this Specific heat of air
process, assuming
(a) constant specific heats and Cp = 1.004 kJ/kgK at 300K
(b) variable specific heats for air. Cp = 1.292 kJ/kgK at 3000K
 Property Tables and Charts

This relation, represented in Figure, makes it clear that, after a certain compression ratio,
no significant increase in the thermal efficiency is achievable

Isentropic relation s and the specific heats are taken as constant.

 Air is an ideal gas with
variable specific
heats

The properties:
Pr (relative pressure) and
vr (relative specific volume)
are dimensionless quantities
used in the analysis of
isentropic processes

T2 = 522 K
U2 = 376 kJ/kg

The variation of specific heat ratio with temperature is shown in Figure and the
typical values of ‘gamma’ for an otto air cycle calculation range from 1.3 to 1.4 to
correspond with measured cylinder temperature data

Drop in temperature = 3 K

Drop in work = 2 kJ/kg

 Take home

A four-cylinder, four-stroke, 2.2-liter gasoline engine operates on

the Otto cycle with a compression ratio of 10. The air is at 100 kPa
and 60°C at the beginning of the compression process and the
maximum pressure in the cycle is 8 Mpa. The compression and
expansion process may be modelled as polytropic with a polytropic
constant (n=1.3) using constant specific heats at 850 K,
Determine (a) the temperature at the end of the expansion process,
b) the net work output and the thermal efficiency c) mean effective
Similarly, the specific heats of a pressure d) the mass of fuel, if the AFR is 16:1 and the total mass of
gas mixture can be expressed as
mixture is 0.0025 kg.

Take home

A four-cylinder, four-stroke, 2.8-liter modern, high speed

compression-ignition engine operates on the ideal dual cycle with a
compression ratio of 14. The air is at 95 kPa and 55°C at the
beginning of the compression process and the engine speed is 3500
rpm. Equal amounts of fuel are burned at constant volume and at
constant pressure. The maximum allowable pressure in the cycle is 9
MPa due to material strength limitations. Using constant specific
heats at 850 K,
Determine (a) the maximum temperature in the cycle, (b) the total
heat input and the thermal efficiency

1. The P-V diagram corresponds
to an
(a) Naturally aspirated S.I engine
(b) Turbocharged S.I. engine
(c) Naturally aspirated C.I engine
(d) Turbocharged C.I. engine
2. As a car gets older, will its compression ratio change? – How?
Assuming no accumulation of carbon deposits on the piston face,
the compression ratio will remain the same (otherwise it will
increase)
3. Classify the engine based on the
Valve location
Valve in cylinder block –
L head engine –
Older automobiles & small size engines
4. An ideal Otto cycle with a specified compression ratio is executed 5. Express the ignition delay period of 13 deg.CA at 900 rpm on time-
using period basis
(a) Air [k=1.4] (a) 1.4 s
(b) Argon [k=1.66] (b) 2.4 s
(c) Ethane [1.186] & (c) 2.4 ms
(d) Octane [1.044] as the working fluid at 300 K. (d) 3.4 ms

For which case will the thermal efficiency be the highest?

Take home

A four-cylinder, four-stroke, 2.8-liter modern, high speed

compression-ignition engine operates on the ideal dual cycle with a
compression ratio of 14. The air is at 95 kPa and 55°C at the
beginning of the compression process and the engine speed is 3500
rpm. Equal amounts of fuel are burned at constant volume and at
constant pressure. The maximum allowable pressure in the cycle is 9
MPa due to material strength limitations. Using constant specific
heats at 850 K,
Determine (a) the maximum temperature in the cycle, (b) the total
heat input and the thermal efficiency
Recap
 Fuel-air cycle
A fuel-air cycle model includes
the effect of the change in
composition of the fuel-air
mixture as a result of
combustion.
The lost work can be mainly attributed to the following
 Heat transfer and Mass loss (crevice effects, leakages)
 Finite burn rate / combustion time
 Exhaust blowdown loss and
 Incomplete combustion

These losses result in actual efficiency being less than that of equivalent
Lost fuel-air cycle by a factor ranging from 0.8 to 0.9.
work

A comparison of an actual cycle with its

equivalent fuel-air cycle
 Otto -Fuel-air cycle In-cylinder Pressure Variation for rich,
stoichiometric and lean mixtures of a SI Engine
An equivalent fuel-air cycle is constructed
by matching the temperature, pressure
and composition (thereby entropy) at
some reference point after closing of the
intake valve and prior to firing of the
spark plug

1 to 2 Isentropic compression of fuel, air

and residual gases

2 to 3 Adiabatic, constant volume

combustion

3 to 4 Isentropic expansion of
equilibrium combustion products

A comparison of an actual cycle with its

14
equivalent fuel-air cycle

16

Normal operating range
Conventional S.I.Engine
• 12 ≤ AFR ≤ 18
• Close to stoichiometric
C.I. -Fuel-air cycle
Diesel engines are designed to limit both
the rates of pressure rise and the
maximum pressures to satisfy durability,
noise and emissions considerations.
C.I.Engine
Figure compares the actual pressure
volume diagram of a prechamber diesel
• 18 ≤ AFR ≤ 70 engine with their ideal limited-pressure
counterparts.
• To avoid excessive smoke
formation, the AFR at peak
torque is usually maintained 1 to 2 Isentropic compression of air and
above 25:1 residual gases

• In turbocharged engines, the 2 to 2.5 Constant volume, adiabatic fuel

AFR at idle may exceed 160:1, injection and combustion
which means that the overall
AFR in diesel engines is 2.5 to 3 Constant pressure, adiabatic fuel
characteristically very lean. injection, and/or combustion

3 to 4 Isentropic expansion

Combustion in Compression Ignition Engines

 C.I. Combustion process is extremely complex and depends on

• Fuel characteristics,
• Combustion chamber design,
• Fuel injection system and
• Engine operating conditions 4. Combustion analysis in a diesel engine with mechanical injection system (Four cylinder

 Major consequences of the combustion process on engine

with Turbo) Lab Cycle I
operation are: 5. Combustion analysis in a diesel engine with electronic injection system (CRDI) (Twin

cylinder with Turbo)

• Higher compression ratio (no knock limit),
• Overall lean operation (higher fuel conversion efficiency)
• Spontaneous ignition characteristics of the fuel-air mixture (Cetane number),
• Unthrottled operation (better part load mechanical efficiency than S.I)
• Exhaust soot constraints the FAR at max. power to 20 % lean of stoichiometric

2
An outline Common-rail direct injection
(CRDI) Fuel delivery system
Combustion in Compression Ignition Engines

Injection pressure varies from
1200 to as high as 2500 bar
 C.I. Combustion process is extremely complex and depends on
• Fuel characteristics,
• Combustion chamber design,
• Fuel injection system and
• Engine operating conditions

 Major consequences of the combustion process on engine

operation are:

• Higher compression ratio (no knock limit),

• Overall lean operation (higher fuel conversion efficiency)
• Spontaneous ignition characteristics of the fuel-air mixture (Cetane number),
~ 2 bar • Unthrottled operation (better part load mechanical efficiency than S.I)
• Exhaust soot constraints the FAR at max. power to 20 % lean of stoichiometric
In-cylinder compression pressure
3
varies from 30–60 bar

Fundamental Influences on Combustion Basic Schematic – Diesel Combustion Chambers

A pre-combustion chamber engine can run with a lambda ratio of about 1.2 at maximum
power, while a direct injection engine requires a minimum excess air factor of about 50%
At a fundamental level the performance and emission characteristics of an
internal combustion engine is largely determined by the events taking place in
the combustion chamber;

• Configuration of the combustion chamber and cylinder-head

• Flow pattern (swirl and turbulence) of charge entering the cylinder, in turn
determined by design of induction tract and inlet valve size, shape, location,
lift, and timing
• Ignition and injection timing, injector and injection pump design, location of
injector
• Compression ratio • Smaller engines
 Large size
for Passenger cars
• Air/fuel ratio engines –truck,
• Better mixing
• Fuel properties rail, marines
• Relatively simple
• Mixture preparation  Multiple mixing Direct Injection Indirect Injection fuel injection
jets
• Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) equipment
 Multi hole
• Degree of cooling of chamber walls, piston, and bore Combustion in D.I engines is an unsteady
nozzles
• The presence or absence of particulates from previous cycles.  Mild cold heterogeneous, three dimensional and • 10% increase in
includes both physical and chemical process fuel consumption
5 starting issues
 Common types of diesel combustion chambers Diesel Combustion Characteristics
Quiescent chamber
Bowl-in piston  Fuel is injected under high pressure towards the end of
with multi-hole compression, before the top dead centre into the
chamber with swirl
nozzle combustion chamber
& multi-hole nozzle
Bowl-in piston
The fuel spray which forms in this process evaporates,
chamber with swirl
& single-hole nozzle mixes with the compressed hot air, and ignites itself

As opposed to the SI engine, the diesel engine has only

a very short time span for mixture formation available.

A fast injection and an as good as possible atomization

of the fuel are therefore the prerequisites for a fast and
intensive blending of fuel and air.

The particular sub processes proceed largely

 Large size engines simultaneously and interact with each other.
 Central multi-hole injector
 Additional organized air CI Combustion
motion is not required Processes

Combustion Process in the Conventional Diesel Engine Diesel Combustion Characteristics

1. Air is drawn into the cylinder, without throttling, but frequently with pressure
charging. Compression ratios range from about 14:1 to 22:1, depending on the
degree of supercharge, resulting in compression pressures in the range 40–60
bar and temperatures from 700 to 900 deg.C.
2. Fuel is injected at pressures above 230 bar (common rail fitted with
piezoelectric injectors, have fuel pressures over 1800 bar) Charge air
temperature is well above the autoignition point of the fuel. Fuel droplets
vaporize, forming a combustible mixture that ignites after a delay that is a
function of charge air pressure and temperature, droplet size and fuel ignition
quality (cetane number).
3. Fuel subsequently injected is ignited immediately, and the progress of
combustion and pressure rise is to some extent controlled by the rate of
injection. Air motion in the combustion chamber is organized to bring
unburned air continually into the path of the fuel jet.
4. Mechanical work is performed by expansion of the products of combustion.
Heat is transferred by radiation and convection to the surroundings. 9
 Fuel is injected under high pressure towards the end of
compression, before the top dead centre into the
combustion chamber
The fuel spray which forms in this process evaporates,
mixes with the compressed hot air, and ignites itself
As opposed to the SI engine, the diesel engine has only
a very short time span for mixture formation available.
A fast injection and an as good as possible atomization
of the fuel are therefore the prerequisites for a fast and
intensive blending of fuel and air.
The particular sub processes proceed largely
simultaneously and interact with each other.
CI Combustion
Processes
 Combustion Process in the Conventional Diesel Engine The Time scale of a typical diesel
1. Air is drawn into the cylinder, without throttling, but frequently with pressure
combustion process
charging. Compression ratios range from about 14:1 to 22:1, depending on the
degree of supercharge, resulting in compression pressures in the range 40–60
bar and temperatures from 700 to 900 deg.C.

2. Fuel is injected at pressures above 230 bar (common rail fitted with
piezoelectric injectors, have fuel pressures over 1800 bar) Charge air
temperature is well above the autoignition point of the fuel. Fuel droplets
vaporize, forming a combustible mixture that ignites after a delay that is a
function of charge air pressure and temperature, droplet size and fuel ignition
quality (cetane number).

3. Fuel subsequently injected is ignited immediately, and the progress of

combustion and pressure rise is to some extent controlled by the rate of
injection. Air motion in the combustion chamber is organized to bring
unburned air continually into the path of the fuel jet.

4. Mechanical work is performed by expansion of the products of combustion.

Heat is transferred by radiation and convection to the surroundings. 3 4

The formation of exhaust emissions is very sensitive to the course of the

combustion process, which may be controlled to some extent by changing
injection characteristics and air motion in the cylinder
Combustion
Intake Exhaust

Compression Expansion

Motoring

A four cylinder diesel engine operated at 1000 rpm and 214 Nm

experiences a combustion duration of 33 deg.CA
 A cricket ball spends about 0.001 seconds in contact with the pitch or
in contact with a bat

http://www.physics.usyd.edu.au/~cross/cricket.html#:~:text=A%20cricket%20ball%20spen
ds%20about,in%20contact%20with%20a%20bat.
7
CI Combustion Processes

Various stages of Combustion

Phases of Combustion in Diesel Engines
 CI Engine Combustion
The combustion process of CI engines can be divided into four broad regions:
1. Ignition delay
2. Uncontrolled/rapid or Premixed Combustion
3. Rate-controlled or Diffused/Mixing Combustion and
4. Final or late combustion
 Application of Ist law – HRR Calculation
1.37
The energy balance for a single zone model for an incremental crank angle interval is
hr1D(i) = (g/(g-1)*p1D(i)*10^5*dv1D(i)) + (1/(g-1)*v1D(i)*dp1D(i)*10^5)

Cylinder pressure Change in instantaneous Change in cylinder pressure

Assumptions w.r.t CA volume w.r.t CA w.r.t CA

1. The state of the cylinder contents is defined as average properties of the uniform
charge.
2. The change in sensible internal energy is assumed to be a function of mean charge
temperature only:
By considering the nonflow period:

where cv is the mass average specific heat at constant volume and is assumed to be a
function of temperature only.
3. The mean charge temperature is determined by the ideal gas law
4. The specific gas constant is assumed to be constant and this assumption has its root in
that the molecular weights of the reactants and products are nearly identical

INSTANTANEOUS ENERGY RELEASE

The cylinder pressure data, in conjunction with cylinder volume,

can be used to extrapolate the instantaneous energy release
from the cylinder with respect to crank angle.
 Premixed Combustion
 This portion of the fuel would have undergone atomization, evaporation and
the preignition chemical reactions
 This portion would have mixed with air in the chemically correct proportion and
is ready to ignite once the proper temperature (auto/self ignition temperature)
is reached
 When autoignition occurs, the premixed portion of the fuel burns at very high
rate, producing high temperature as well as pressure in the combustion
chamber
 It is generally accepted that the rate of pressure rise resulting from the
premixed combustion is proportional to the noise intensity in diesel engines
Diffusion Combustion
 In this phase of combustion, the fuel controls the burning rate, which depends
on the rate it mixes with air and acquires a condition that makes it ready to burn
 This phase is characterized by a lower heat release peak than that reached in
the premixed phase
Late Combustion
As long as motion still exists inside the cylinder, mixing will continue to occur and
provide opportunities for fuel as well partially burned products to completely burn.
Energy release is calculated using First Law of Thermodynamics without
accounting for wall heat losses
Ignition delay (ID) is the duration elapsed from the start of fuel injection (SOI)
and the start of combustion (SOC);
ID = SOI + SOC
Combustion duration (CD) is the duration elapsed from the start of combustion
(SOC) to the end of combustion (EOC);
CD = SOC + EOC
Diesel Composition [ Windom et al (2012) ]
A typical specification of locomotive diesel engines
It contains many
 n-alkanes, • 700 hp engine
• 12 cylinder V shape (40°), 4 stroke 1600 hp engine @ 2100 rpm
 cycloalkanes,
• Bore*Stroke : 140*152 mm 16 cylinder V shape (60°), 4 stroke
 polyaromatics, Bore*Stroke : 159*159 mm
• Cubic capacity/cylinder: 2.33
 alkylbenzenes l/cylinder (Square engine)
• Compression ratio 13.5:1 Displacement: 50.3 liters
Boiling range: 180–340°C
• Mean piston speed: 9.12 m/s Compression ratio 14.5:1
• Rated speed: 1800 rpm Max speed : 2400 rpm
• T/C: Pulse type Weight: 9000 kg
Diesel Kuwait Nigerian
property crude crude • Fuel tank: 1750 liters
• Cranking: 24 V battery
Density 852 878 V for V shape engines;
• Firing order T for Turbocharged;
Cetane 54 41 – 1-6-2-5-4-3 A for After cooled; VTA-1710-L
number – 6-1-5-2-3-4 1710 cubic capacity and
L for Loco application

Various stages of Combustion

Phases of Combustion in Diesel Engines
 CI Engine Combustion
The combustion process of CI engines can be divided into four broad regions:
1. Ignition delay
2. Uncontrolled/rapid or Premixed Combustion
3. Rate-controlled or Diffused/Mixing Combustion and
4. Final or late combustion

The combustion process in

internal combustion engines is
a multicomponent
two-phase problem, which
involves a gas mixture and
liquid spray droplets
 Premixed Combustion Diffusion Combustion

 This portion of the fuel would have undergone atomization, evaporation and
the preignition chemical reactions
 This portion would have mixed with air in the chemically correct proportion and
is ready to ignite once the proper temperature (auto/self ignition temperature)
is reached
 When autoignition occurs, the premixed portion of the fuel burns at very high
rate, producing high temperature as well as pressure in the combustion
chamber
 In this phase of combustion, the fuel controls the burning rate, which depends
on the rate it mixes with air and acquires a condition that makes it ready to burn
 This phase is characterized by a lower heat release peak than that reached in
the premixed phase
Late Combustion
As long as motion still exists inside the cylinder, mixing will continue to occur and
provide opportunities for fuel as well partially burned products to completely burn.

 It is generally accepted that the rate of pressure rise resulting from the
premixed combustion is proportional to the noise intensity in diesel engines

Photographic studies of engine

Energy release is calculated using First Law of Thermodynamics without
combustion
accounting for wall heat losses
High-speed photography at several thousand frames per second has been used
extensively to study diesel engine combustion

Color Interpretation Color Interpretation

Ignition delay (ID) is the duration elapsed from the start of fuel injection (SOI)
Green Early in combustion Yellow, Carbon burn up in
and the start of combustion (SOC);
process; orange- diffusion flame at lower
Low luminosity red temperatures
“premixed” type flame, ~1000 deg.C
ID = SOI + SOC
burned gas ~ 1800 deg.C Brown The appearance of a
White Carbon particle burn up brown region, usually
Combustion duration (CD) is the duration elapsed from the start of combustion & in diffusion flame, 2000 surrounded by a white
yellow- to 2500 deg.C diffusion flame, indicates
(SOC) to the end of combustion (EOC); white an excessively rich
mixture region where
substantial soot particle
CD = SOC + EOC Quiescent DI Chamber production has occurred
Ignition occurs at – 8 deg.CA in the fuel-air mixture

The flame spreads rapidly along the outside of the

spray to the spray tip

Burns with a blue-green low-luminosity flame (colored

green by the copper fuel additive)

At this crank angle (-1 deg.), about 60 % of the fuel has

been injected

The remainder is injected into this enflamed region,

producing a very fuel-rich zone apparent as the dark
brown cloud (11 deg.)

This soot cloud moves to the outer region of the

chamber ( 11 to 20 deg.); white-yellow flame activity
continues near the injector

Combustion continues well into the expansion stroke

(31 deg.CA)
 The time taken after the start of injection for the preignition processes to produce the Arrhenius Equation –
ignition nuclei, and detectable combustion phenomena, is known as the ignition delay Ignition Delay Correlations

Ignition Delay where

EA is the activation energy for the combustion process,
Physical Delay Chemical Delay ɸ is the equivalence ratio,
R the universal gas constant,
• Spray breakup and • Pre-flame oxidation of the T and p are temperature and pressure in Kelvin and bar, respectively, and
Droplet formation hydrocarbon fuel that has been n, k and A are adjustable constants
• Fuel/Air mixing It is difficult to draw a distinct premixed
line separating the physical Parameters influencing the
• Fuel Vaporizing and chemical processes, • Localized ignition that takes ignition delay process
• Fuel/Vapor mixing because they overlap place in several areas within
 Fuel type (Chemical structure)
the combustion chamber
– Cetane number
 In-cylinder temperature and
The duration of the ignition delay is one of the most important criteria, having a great effect
pressure conditions
on the
 Local AFR
 Combustion process, Mechanical stresses,
 Engine noise and Exhaust emissions (NOx)

Literature Summary of Arrhenius type ignition delay correlation

ID = A ФB PC e [E/RT]
Authors Test setup/Fuel A B C E/RU
Wolfer (1938) C I Engine /diesel 0.429 0 -1.19 4650
Zimmerman (1975) C I Engine / diesel 0.932 0 -1.05 4650
 Ea 
Schmidt (1967) C I Engine / diesel 0.0646 0 -1.08 6330  (ms)  A. p 0.386. exp 
Shipinsky (1970)
Watson (1979)
C I Engine / diesel
C I Engine / diesel
0.0097*(40/CN)0.69
3.52
0
0
-0.386
-1.022
6444
2100
 RT 
Witschakowski (1967) C I Engine / diesel 2.221 0 -1 1450
Stringer (1970) C I Engine / diesel 0.0399 0 -0.757 5473
7.996*10-9
0 -0.66 15100
Rapid compression Physical delay
Rogner (1948)
machines/n-heptane 0.493 * 10 -3
0 -1.83 1400
Chemical delay Cetane Number Ignition Delay NOx Emission
Spadaccinni (1982) Steady flow / diesel 4*10-10 0 -1 20080
Pischinger (1988) Steady flow /diesel 0.0081 0 -1.14 7813

Constant volume bomb

Fujimoto (1979) Pressure < 40 bar 0.134 0 -1.06 5130
Pressure > 40 bar 0.136 0 -0.615 4170

Pederson (1974) Single droplet study /diesel 25.33 0 -1.39 1207

Single droplet modeling /iso

Burwell et al (1955) 4.3 -1.04 -2.5 5000
octane
Constant volume bomb
Kadota et al (1976) 0.272 -1.6 -1.23 7280
/diesel
Constant volume bomb
Hiroyasu et al (1976) 0.01 -1.04 -1.06 6000
/heavy oil
Direct injection diesel engine
Assanis et al (2003) 2.4 -0.2 -1.02 2100
/ diesel (D2)
 The time taken after the start of injection for the preignition processes to produce the
ignition nuclei, and detectable combustion phenomena, is known as the ignition delay

Ignition Delay
Physical Delay Chemical Delay

• Spray breakup and • Pre-flame oxidation of the

Droplet formation hydrocarbon fuel that has been
• Fuel/Air mixing It is difficult to draw a distinct premixed
line separating the physical
• Fuel Vaporizing and chemical processes, • Localized ignition that takes
• Fuel/Vapor mixing because they overlap place in several areas within
the combustion chamber

The duration of the ignition delay is one of the most important criteria, having a great effect
on the
 Combustion process, Mechanical stresses,
 Engine noise and Exhaust emissions (NOx)
Recap
3

Arrhenius Equation –
Ignition Delay Correlations

where  Ea 
EA is the activation energy for the combustion process,  (ms)  A. p 0.386. exp 
 RT 
ɸ is the equivalence ratio,
R the universal gas constant,
T and p are temperature and pressure in Kelvin and bar, respectively, and
n, k and A are adjustable constants
Cetane Number Ignition Delay NOx Emission
Parameters influencing the
ignition delay process

 Fuel type (Chemical structure)

– Cetane number
 In-cylinder temperature and
pressure conditions
 Local AFR
 Research studies have shown that the chemical composition
Influence of Fuel on Combustion Process and engine exhaust emissions can be directly related
to the fuel composition

Gasoline Diesel
Lead content Sulphur contnet
Oxygenates Density
Aromatics Cetane number
Olefins, Benzene, RVP Aromatics
Distillation characteristics Distillation characteristics

Cetane Number Ignition Delay NOx Emission

Composition Physiochemical Engine

properties characteristics

Higher
Cetane number

Diesel Composition [ Windom et al (2012) ]

It contains many
 n-alkanes,
 cycloalkanes,
 polyaromatics,
 alkylbenzenes
So far our attention has been on fossil fuels composed of one chemical
Boiling range: 180–340°C species ( Petrol - C8H18 or Diesel - C12H26)

However, a typical gasoline or diesel may consists of 100 hydrocarbons

Diesel Kuwait Nigerian
property crude crude and another 100 to 200 trace species

Density 852 878

Cetane 54 41
number
 Fuel requirements -Combustion process
Families of
HC molecules
Spark Ignition / Petrol Compression Ignition / Diesel
The most important characteristics of petrol The most important characteristic of diesel
fuel is the fuel is the
• Ring structure with • Saturated  volatility and  Cetane number
double bonds Aromatic Paraffin hydrocarbon
 Higher self ignition temperature (how readily the fuel self-ignites)
• Hard to break – High (no double
temp. required - bond)  Octane number  Viscosity
desirable for S.I. (resistance to self-ignition) (especially for lower-grade fuels)
 Lower self ignition temperature

Naphthene Olefin • Unsaturated

• Storage problems
1 – Octene

• Ring structure with no

double bonds
• As the carbon atoms are
in ring structure - cyclic

Conventional Cetane Rating

Fuels
It is the most important diesel fuel specification and indicates
the extent of ignition delay

Both fuels are derived from petroleum Cetane rating is a numerical scale generated by comparing the self-ignition
(non-renewable resource) characteristics of the fuel to that of standard fuels in a specific test
Heat of combustion engine at specific operating conditions.
Desirable volatility

Anti-knock resistance Ignition quality

(octane rating) (cetane number)
High cetane fuels exhibits;
Stability
Fuel economy  Shorter ignition delay,
Non-corrosiveness
Minimal deposition  Smoother combustion,

Density, Viscosity  Cleaner exhaust and

Lower emissions
(Fuel injection)  Better cold starting

olefins, aromatics, paraffins, and napthenes Middle distillate fraction of a In Europe, by 2000 a minimum diesel cetane number of 51 was mandated
13
crude oil distillation
 The tests for determining cetane number are
Test Engine Fuel supply system to the VCR Engine
performed using the ASTM-CFR (Cooperative Fuel
Research) engine; this is a variable Compression ratio
engine
• Fuel being rated is injected into the
Reference Fuels engine cylinder late in the
The standard reference fuels used are compression stroke at 13° bTDC.
α-methyl naphthaline ( C11H10 ) with CN = 0
Heptamethylnonane (HMN) with CN = 15 • The compression ratio is then varied
until combustion starts at TDC, giving
Test Conditions n-cetane ( C16H34 ) with CN = 100 an ignition delay (ID); ID = 13 deg.CA

Single Cylinder
Swept volume (dm3)
Engine speed (rpm)
SOI (CA. bTDC)
Compression ratio can be
regulated in the range from
Swirl chamber test engine • Without changing the compression
ratio, the test fuel is replaced with a
0.613
blend of the two reference fuels.
900
13 • The fuel blends are varied until
7 to 28 combustion is again obtained at TDC,
an ID of 13°.
15

Test Procedure
(ASTM D613)

 Operation of the test engine with the diesel fuel under investigation

 Adjustment of the start of injection (SOI @ TDC) through alteration of the

compression ratio
Normal cetane number
The intake system of the engine is designed such that the blend of the two
range is about 40 to 60
standard fuels can be varied to any percent from all C11H10 to all C16H34.

 Operation of the test engine with the comparison fuel and alter the cetane Cetane Index
number until the combustion also begins at TDC

 The cetane number is equal to the cetane fraction of the comparison fuel.

For e.g., A 65 cetane fuel would have ignition delay performance equivalent to that
of it blend of 65 percent of n-cetane and 35 percent α-methyl naphthaline by vol.
 Octane Rating CAT I
The fuel property that describes how well a fuel will or will not
self-ignite is called the octane number. The higher the octane
number of a fuel, the less likely it will self-ignite.
6 Questions * 5 Marks = 30 Marks

𝟏
Recap 𝑪𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 α
𝑶𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓

Families of Aromatic
HC molecules compounds have
poor ignition quality

• Ring structure with • Saturated

double bonds Aromatic Paraffin hydrocarbon
• Hard to break – High (no double
temp. required - bond)
desirable for S.I.

Naphthene Olefin • Unsaturated

• Storage problems
1 – Octene

• Ring structure with no

double bonds
Straight chain paraffinic compounds have the highest ignition quality, which
• As the carbon atoms are
improves as the chain length increases
in ring structure - cyclic
 Gasoline/Petrol/Motor-spirit Composition
Summary : Effect of Composition on Fuel Property

Research studies have shown that the chemical composition and engine exhaust emissions can
Hydrocarbons (~ 400 ) Nonhydrocarbons be directly related to the fuel composition

• Parafins/Alkalines (CnH2n+2) – saturated HC •Oxygenates (boost octane quality)

•Lead Straight chain paraffinic compounds have the highest ignition quality, which
•Cycloparaffins/Naphthenes (CnH2n) – cyclic structure •Phosphorus improves as the chain length increases and desirable for C.I Engines
•Olefins/Alkenes (CnH2n) – unsaturated HC •Sulphur
•Water (presence of aqueous soln.
•Aromatics (CnH2n-6) – polyunsaturated (3 ) benzenoid ring Cetane Number Ignition Delay NOx Emission
in refinery/presence of free water)

Composition Physiochemical Engine

properties characteristics

Knock rating
Centralization of
increases with
the double bond
number of
increases the
double bonds
knock rating
Aromatic compounds have poor ignition quality and desirable for S.I Engines

[Handbook of Air Pollution from IC Engines

Pollutant Formation and Control, E Sher]

Octane Rating Test Engine The tests for determining octane number are
performed using the ASTM-CFR (Cooperative Fuel
The fuel property that describes how well a fuel will or will not Research) engine; this is a variable Compression ratio
self-ignite is called the octane number. The higher the octane engine
number of a fuel, the less likely it will self-ignite.
Reference Fuels
The two standard reference fuels used are
n-heptane ( C7H16 ) with octane number = 0
isooctane ( C8H18 ) with octane number = 100
Test Conditions
  Lead based compounds (tetramethyl or tetraethyl lead) improve the octane
Test Procedure rating of fuels.
 By adding o.5 g of lead/litre, octane rating of the fuel is increased by 5 units

1. The compression ratio of the test engine run with the gasoline fuel under investigation
is adjusted until a standard level of knock is experienced.

2. The test fuel is then replaced with a mixture of the two standard fuels.

3. The intake system of the engine is designed such that the blend of the two standard fuels
can be varied to any percent from all isooctane to all n-heptane.

4. The blend of fuels is varied until the same knock characteristics are observed as during the
operation with the gasoline fuel.

5. The percent of isooctane in the fuel blend is the octane number given to the test fuel.

6. For e.g., a fuel that has the same knock characteristics as a blend of 87% isooctane and  Alcohols are attractive as additives to petrol, since the higher octane rating of
13% n-heptane would have an octane number of 87. the alcohols raises the octane rating of the fuel.

 In Europe, blends of petrol with 3 per cent alcohol have been commonly used
to improve the octane rating

The attraction of high octane fuels is that they enable high

There are a number of gasoline compression ratios to be used. Higher compression ratios give
additives such as increased power output and improved economy
(tetraethyllead -TEL)
were used to raise the
octane number

Specific Fuel
Power output Consumption
(kW) (kg/MJ)
85 Octane 100 Octane
Correlation between the compression
ratio and the ON of the fuel an engine
requires to avoid knock

11
Compression ratio
 Recap.. Fuel Injection (Spray Formation) A schematic description of a full-cone high-pressure spray is shown below and the graphic
shows the lower part of an injection nozzle with needle, sac hole, and injection hole

The fuel is introduced into the

cylinder of the diesel engine Diesel Spray
through a nozzle in the form of a
liquid spray under the effect of a
high pressure differential.

The fuel delivered from the nozzle

is disintegrated into droplets of
different sizes and concentrations
in the spray. At the beginning of combustion in a direct
injection diesel engine the spray has a
following shape :

Diesel Spray
The average distance between the droplets is expected to change with their
Distribution of liquid (black) and vapor (gray) in an location in the spray, and is greatest near the edge downstream from the
evaporating high-pressure diesel spray from a multi-
centerline of the spray, where the smaller droplets are concentrated. The
hole nozzle under engine like conditions
average local fuel air ratio, and consequently the combustion mechanisms, are
therefore expected to vary from one location to another

The spray may be divided into several regions:

 Lean Flame Region (LFR)

 Lean Flame Out Region (LFOR)

 Spray core

 Spray tail
The mixture near the downstream edge of the
spray consists of premixed fuel-vapor and air 16
 Lean Flame Region (LFR) Early stage of the combustion process and lean mixture LFOR (Contd…..)
 Ignition starts in the spray envelope near the downstream edge of the spray.
The region in which, these independent flame propagate or microvolume  LFOR region contributes to unburned hydrocarbon and odorus constituents in
combustion occurs is referred to as LFR. the exhaust
 The size of LFOR depends on many factors like :
 The local AFR may vary from zero to infinity and the ignition nuclei is formed at • Pressure and temperature in the combustion chamber
• The air swirl and
several locations, where the mixture is most suitable for auto ignition
• Type of fuel.
Primary reactions takes place
 In this region, combustion is completed and nitric oxide is formed at high local and the initial HC reacts to
concentrations heat release peak than that reached in the premixed phase from CO, H2O and H2

Lean Flame Out Region (LFOR)

Near the far downstream edge of the spray, the

mixture is too lean to ignite or support combustion. The decomposition products consist of
This region is referred to as the LFOR, wherein the lighter hydrocarbon molecules. The partial
fuel decomposition and partial oxidation products oxidation products contain aldehydes and
are expected. other oxygenates

Spray core
Overall AFR = Mass of air/Mass of fuel
 Following the ignition and combustion in the LFR, the flame propagates toward the core
of the spray, where the fuel droplets are larger. They gain heat by radiation from the
established flames and evaporate at a higher rate. In heterogeneous mixtures, the air-fuel
 The combustion in the core of the jet mainly depends upon the fuel-air ratio, which is ratio extends from pure air (∞) in the spray
affected to a large extent by the interaction between the spray core and the swirling air periphery to pure fuel (0) in the spray core

Local AFR = Mass of air / 0 = ∞

 Near full-load conditions, incomplete combustion occurs in many locations in the fuel-
rich core. In addition to UBHC, CO, oxygenated compounds and carbon may be formed
at full-load condition.
Local AFR = 0 / Mass of fuel = 0 20
 Spray tail
 The last part of the fuel to be injected usually forms large droplets due to relatively small
pressure differential acting on the fuel near the end of the injection process.
 This is caused by a combination of decreased fuel injection pressure and increased cylinder After-Injection
gas pressure.
 Under medium and high loads, older injection systems produce “after-injection”.
 When this occurs the injector valve opens for a short time after the end of main
injection. In general, a small amount of fuel is injected late in the expansion stroke,
under a relatively small pressure differential and with very little atomization and
penetration.
 This fuel is quickly evaporated and decomposed, resulting in the formation of CO, Smoke
& UBHC.

 The penetration of this part of the fuel, referred to as the "spray tail", is usually poor.
 However, at high loads these droplets tend to evaporate quickly and decompose due to
higher temperature.
 The decomposed products contain UBHC and a high percentage of carbon molecules.

Fuel deposited on the walls Summary : Emission formation in a fuel spray

 In the case of high injection pressure and long injection duration (full load) or low gas
densities (early injection) the spray may impinge on the wall (small, high speed D.I
engines) , and the formation of a liquid wall film is possible.

 The rate of evaporation of the liquid film

depends on
Liquid wall
 Gas and wall temperatures, At the downstream edge of the spray
films
 Gas velocity
and for all distances, the
fuel-air ratio always approaches zero
 Gas pressure and fuel properties. and increases as
we move toward the core of the spray

Because of the shorter spray path and the limited number of sprays. Liquid wall films
usually have a negative influence on emissions, because the wall film evaporates slower
and may only be partially burnt.
 Summary : Emission formation in a fuel spray Recap
In cylinder - Air motion

 The engine fluid mechanics aspect is central to fuel air mixture preparation
requirements in diesel engines
 In cylinder investigation suggests several engine fluid motion characteristics as
organized and random flow motions
 Air motion within the engine cylinder is one of the major factors that control the fuel-
air mixing and combustion processes in diesel engines

EFFECTS OF AIR MOTION

 Atomizes the injected fuel into droplets of different sizes.
At the downstream edge of the spray  Distributes the fuel droplets uniformly in the air charge.
and for all distances, the  Mixes the injected fuel droplets with the air mass.
fuel-air ratio always approaches zero  Assists combustion of fuel droplets.
and increases as  Supplies fresh air to the interior portion of droplets and ensures complete combustion.
we move toward the core of the spray  Reduces the delay period
 Better utilization of air contained in the cylinder. This in turn permits reduction in the
quantity of excess air to be supplied

Tumble, Squish & Swirl are organized and

Turbulence is a random fluid motion

Swirl is considered essential for good mixing of fuel and air in a

SWIRL MOTION direct injection (DI) diesel engine. DI engine with swirl

Swirl is an organized rotational motion of the fluid present in the engine combustion space
about the cylinder axis. Swirl is designated by considering its direction of rotation about
cylinder axis as clockwise or anticlockwise and the type of port from where it originates viz.
tangential or helical.

The intake port of an engine - tangential or helical - can impart angular momentum to the
inducted air and bring about a swirling motion. While swirl generated by helical ports
depends on their geometry, valve lift and not the position of the port, the swirl from
tangential ports is caused due to the cylinder wall which directs the air flow to rotate
 Swirl Measurement

Though the knowledge of air motion in general and swirling motion in particular is quite
important for engine development, its measurement and analysis is a rather difficult task due
to the unsteadiness of the flow in the engine combustion cylinder

The rotational component having an axis that is perpendicular to the axis of

the cylinder is denoted as tumble

Squish : bowl-in-piston

The radially inward or transverse gas motion that occurs towards the end of the
compression stroke when a portion of the piston face and cylinder head
approach each other closely
 Two main in-cylinder air motions are possible, the swirl and the tumble.
Additional details of spray formation
In the case of a flat cylinder head, the swirl flow is usually utilized, while a pent
roof cylinder head also allows the application of a stable tumble flow.
Fuel sprays are the result of high pressure-driven liquid fuel jets injected through
a nozzle orifice into a combustion chamber

Upon leaving the single-

Spray formation during injection hole nozzle, the jet
Spray atomization becomes completely
turbulent
Spray penetration
Droplet size distribution Concurrently the jet spreads out
in the y – direction

Possible combustion chamber geometries as well as in-cylinder air

motions, air-guided technique – GDI Engines Fuel velocity is highest at the
centreline and decreases to zero
at the interface between the
zone of disintegration Air becomes entrained –
10 resulting in increased mass flow

Typical range of data – injection & spray formation
Parameters / Operating conditions
Standard diesel injector – operating pressure
In cylinder pressure condition
@ the time of injection
In cylinder temperature condition
@ the time of injection
Atomization is a process that transforms a liquid into a
Spray Atomization dispersion of small droplets by a “shattering” process
between the liquid fuel and the surrounding gas.
Specification / Operating range
Generally described as the The size of the droplets formed
200 and 2000 bar breakup of the fuel jet as it by this breakup is smaller than
exits the nozzle hole the nozzle holes diameter
50 to 100 bar
A liquid when sprayed is stretched to a thin sheet because of the drag, then it ripples
because of surface tension forces and breaks into ligaments; the ligaments form drops,
700 to 1000 K which further break up

In cylinder air density 15 and 25 kg/m3

@ the time of injection

Nozzle diameter and L/D ratio 0.2 to 1 mm and 2 to 8

Initial jet velocity > 100 m/s

The degree of atomization increases due
to the breakup of large droplets as the
DI with modern fuel injection systems , 6 to 15 μm jet moves further along the X - axis
average droplet size
• Immediately after leaving the nozzle hole, the jet starts to break up into a conical spray. • The subsequent break-up processes of already existing droplets into smaller ones
This first break-up of the liquid is called primary break-up and results in large ligaments are called secondary break-up and are due to aerodynamic forces caused by the
and droplets that form the dense spray near the nozzle. relative velocity between droplets and surrounding gas

• In case of high-pressure injection, cavitation and turbulence, which are generated • The aerodynamic forces decelerate the droplets. The drops at the spray tip
inside the injection holes, are the main break-up mechanisms. experience the strongest drag force and are much more decelerated than droplets
that follow in their wake

In the dense spray, the probability of droplet collisions is high. These collisions can
result in a change of droplet velocity and size

Droplets can break up into smaller ones, but they can also combine to form larger
drops, which is called droplet coalescence
15

• The drag on a larger drop shears the drops; if the drag exceeds the surface tension forces
Atomization of a jet – Four distinct regimes holding them together, then drop breaks into smaller drops. The Weber number (We)
characterizes the break up.
Low jet velocity Medium jet velocity High jet velocity Very high jet velocity
Breakup is due to As jet velocity is A further increase Further increases in jet
the unstable increased, forces in jet velocity velocity lead to
growth of surface resulting from the results in breakup breakup in the
waves caused by relative motion of the characterised by atomization regime, where , ρ is the density;
surface tension jet and the divergence of jet where the breakup of σ, the surface tension; and
& surrounding air spray after an the outer surface of
Results in drops augment the surface intact of the nozzle the jet occurs at, or
V = {Vfuel − Vair}.
larger than the jets tension force and lead before the nozzle exit
diameter to drop sizes of the In this second plane and results in If We >10, the drop breaks up into smaller drops. Thus, drop size
order of jets diameter wind-induced droplets whose
breakup regime, average diameter is
depends on injection velocity or Re, and surface tension forces.
First wind-induced the droplets much smaller than
breakup regime average size is those of nozzles The breakup and hence atomization
much less than diameter
those of jets continues as long as the “Weber
diameter Aerodynamic number” exceeds a threshold value
interactions at the (critical Weber no. 10 )
liquid/gas interface
appear to be one
major component
 Droplet Size Distribution
Atomization is responsible for creating a “fog-like medium”
inside the combustion chamber, a subject of relevance is
the size as well as distribution of these droplets
 A greater number of small size droplets leads to greater surface area that
An indicator of the atomization process is how small a facilitates heat transfer from the hot compressed air to the small fuel volume
droplet can be and how high the number of small droplets contained in this droplets
is relative to the larger ones
 Injection systems that sustain high injection pressure over most of the
injection duration will most likely support a large number of small droplets
One quantity characterizing the average droplet size of a spray, and thus the success of
spray break-up, is the Sauter mean diameter (SMD). SMD is the drop size which has the
 Hence, the mixing rates vary according to many parameters such as
same surface-volume ratio as the total spray and is given by
• droplet size distribution,
• heat distribution within the combustion chamber,
The smaller the SMD, the more • spray penetration and atomization,
surface per unit volume. • fuel quality and its evaporation rates…
The more surface, the more
effective evaporation and
mixture formation

Degree of atomization - SMD

Spray penetration Diesel spray at 250 bar injection pressure under

atmospheric chamber pressure Spray development during injection process

The faster the spray

penetrates into the Diesel spray at 550 bar injection pressure under
combustion chamber, the atmospheric chamber pressure
greater the mixing rates
as well as the air
utilization

Increasing the injection pressure increases the spray penetration but

above a certain pressure the spray becomes finely atomised and has
insufficient momentum to penetrate as far 21
 Try to visit - Spray Research Labs

Honda City Engine Petrol Diesel

Types Water cooled Inline 4 Water cooled Inline 4
Cylinder I-VTEC DOHC Cylinder I-DTEC DOHC
with VTC
Displacement (cm3) 1498
http://nccrd.in/ No. of Valves 16
Power (kW [PS] @ rpm) 89 [121] @ 6600 73 [100] @ 3600
Torque (Nm @ rpm) 145 @ 4300 200 @ 1750
Fuel Efficiency (km/l) 17.8 24.1
The German National Standard quotes engine power as PS which derives from
http://people.iiti.ac.in/~meiiti/index.php/dr-devendra-deshmukh/
the German word for horse power (Pferd-Starke) : 1 PS = 0.986 HP
1 HP = 0.746 kW
22
https://www.hondacarindia.com/all-new-honda-city

In a conventional spark-ignition the fuel and air are mixed together in the intake
Unthrottled,
Premixed system , inducted through the intake valve into the cylinder
higher CR
Homogenous
---Increased
--- lowers PM
Efficiency

Throttled Intake
Diffusion
& Lower CR
Heterogeneous
--- Decreases
--- Higher PM
Efficiency

Heterogeneous Charge––Compression
HomogenousCharge Ignition
Spark Ignition
 The optimum AFR for a spark-ignition engine is that which gives the required Carburettors Carburettors (Venturi) are used on most SI engines as the
power output with the lowest fuel consumption, means of mixing fuel with the intake air
consistent with smooth and reliable operation

The load of the SI engine is controlled quantitatively; i.e., the load is controlled by
the volume of mixture via the throttle valve.

The pressure above

the fuel in the fuel As air enters the engine due to the pressure
reservoir is equal to differential between the surrounding
atmospheric
Gasoline Injectors
atmospheric air and the partial vacuum in the
pressure as the cylinders during intake strokes, it is
reservoir is accelerated to high velocity in the throat of In the SI engine, the fuel is generally mixed with air outside the combustion chamber, on
vented to the the venturi. older engines via the carburettor or by central injection upstream of the air manifold and on
surroundings newer engines by injecting the fuel into the intake manifold upstream of the intake valve.

By Bernoulli's principle, this causes the

pressure (P2) in the throat to be reduced to
a value less than the surrounding pressure

Thus, a pressure differential acts through

the fuel supply capillary tube, and forces
In practice, spark-ignition engine induction system, the fuel and
the fuel into the venturi throat
air distribution between engine cylinders is not uniform and also
varies in each individual cylinder on a cycle-by-cycle basis
 Combustion Chambers – S.I. Write your own inferences…
Side plug location

Central plug location

Roof-shaped combustion chamber of four valve cylinder head with
centrally located spark plug

10˚ 15˚ 20˚ 25˚

Degrees from ignition (Crank angle)
Wedge chamber Hemispherical head Bowl-in piston Bath-tub head

Combustion – S.I. Engines In an SI engine, combustion ideally consists of an exothermic High speed movie of the combustion process taken through glass piston crown
subsonic flame progressing through a premixed
homogeneous air-fuel mixture

The combustion process of SI engines can be divided into :

1. Spark Ignition
2. Early Flame development
3. Flame propagation and Spark discharge Visible flame (-24˚)
4. Flame termination

Flame propagates towards the cylinder wall

Flame terminates
Ignition and Flame development Energy release aspects of S.I. Combustion
During the flame development period, ignition occurs and the combustion
process starts, but very little pressure rise is noticeable and little or no useful The flame development process, from the spark discharge which initiates the combustion
work is produced process to the point where a measurable fraction of the charge has burned is considered
the initial stage
Flame propagation

Fraction of fuel energy released

This is the period when the bulk of the fuel and air mass is burned (~ 80-90%).
During this time, pressure in the cylinder is greatly increased, and this provides
the force to produce work in the expansion stroke
The combined duration for flame development and propagation is typically bet.
30 and 90 deg.CA

Flame termination
The final 5% to 10% of the air-fuel mass which burns is classified as flame
termination. During this time, pressure quickly decreases and combustion
terminates
Crank angle
Rapid-burning
Flame-development angle
angle

Understanding the structure of this engine flame as it develops from the spark
I. Flame-development angle / Ignition delay discharge and the speed at which it propagates across the combustion chamber,
and how that structure and speed depend on charge motion, charge composition
The crank angle interval between the spark discharge and the time when a significant
fraction of the cylinder mass has burned or fuel chemical energy has been released. and chamber geometry are critical to engine optimization
Generally, this fraction is 10%.

II. Rapid-burning angle

The crank angle interval required to burn the bulk of the charge, defined as the interval
between the end of the flame-development stage (energy-release fraction is 10%) and
the end of the flame propagation period (energy-release fraction is 90%)

III. Overall burning angle

The duration of the overall burning process and is the sum of flame development and
rapid burning angle The structure of the flame are studied using photographs obtained using
Schlieren & Shadowgraph technique
These images has revealed that the shape of the flame is roughly spherical in
Overall burning angle = Flame development angle + Rapid burning angle shape and grows steadily from the time of spark discharge
At any given flame radius, the geometry of the combustion chamber and the
spark plug given location govern the flame front surface area
Factors affecting Flame development & Propagation Side plug location Write your own inferences…

➢ Location of the spark plug

➢ Engine speed

➢ Gas motion & composition

Central plug location
➢ Residual gas fraction

➢ Chamber geometry
Fresh fuel
Fresh fuel
air mixture
(petrol+eth
+Residual
anol,
gas fraction
hydrogen)
(CO,UBHC,..
air mixture 10˚ 15˚ 20˚ 25˚
)
Degrees from ignition (Crank angle)

In order to achieve a faster burn-through of the mixture,

✓ The approximately spherical development of the flame from the vicinity of
the spark plug, except where it intercepts the chamber walls, is evident for
both the side and center ignition
✓ The center plug location gives approximately twice the flame area of the
side plug geometry at a given flame radius, and burns about twice as fast .
three-valve engines with two decentrally positioned spark plugs
(dual ignition) are now also being employed
alongside the well-known four-valve engines with centrally
positioned spark plug

Bullet 350
TVS 50

Four-valve engine with a central spark plug

 Engine speed
✓ It is well established that the combustion duration (deg.CA) only increases
marginally with increasing engine speed
✓ At a given engine speed, increasing in-cylinder gas velocities, increases the
burning rate
✓ Increasing engine speed, and introducing swirl both enhances the
turbulence, which in turn increases the rate of development and propagation
Flame speed
• The flame speed is the product of the combustion speed and transport speed of the local
fresh gas
• The combustion speed is strongly influenced by the local charge composition and increases
with the charge turbulence in the combustion chamber
• The transport speed is influenced by the piston movement, the squish flows, and charge
movement triggered by the intake process (swirl, tumble)

Overall burning
angle

Both intervals
increases slowly
with engine
speed
Flame
development
angle
Flame speed increases with engine speed due to the higher turbulence, swirl, and squish

Gas composition
The maximum work is accomplished at
✓ Fuel composition changes also plays a role: λ = 0.8–0.9 because of the fast combustion
• While mixtures of isooctane or gasoline with air and burned gases have
comparable burning rates, The flame speed slows
• Propane, methane methanol and ethanol mixtures exhibit modest greatly with richer or leaner mixtures and
differences in burning rates must be corrected by advancing the
• Whereas hydrogen mixtures display substantial differences ignition angle

Slightly rich mixtures have the fastest flame

speeds, with the maximum for most fuels
Residual gas fraction occurring at an equivalence ratio near 1.2

✓ The burned gas fraction in the unburned mixture, due to the residual gas
fraction and any recycled exhaust gases, affects the burning rate

✓ Increasing the burned gas fraction slows down both flame development and
propagation
 Understanding the structure of this engine flame as it develops from the spark
discharge and the speed at which it propagates across the combustion chamber,
ECE Feedback and how that structure and speed depend on charge motion, charge composition
and chamber geometry are critical to engine optimization
 Numerical solving

 Previous day – content sharing

 Additional questions

 Relating exam queries with the classroom lectures

 CAT I answer discussions

 Strengthening the Fundamentals/Basics
The structure of the flame are studied using photographs obtained using
Schlieren & Shadowgraph technique
These images has revealed that the shape of the flame is roughly spherical in
shape and grows steadily from the time of spark discharge
At any given flame radius, the geometry of the combustion chamber and the
spark plug given location govern the flame front surface area Recap

Factors affecting Flame development & Propagation Combustion Performance Relatively large fluctuations in the pressure path
(Cycle to cycle variation) from cycle to cycle, so-called cyclical fluctuations,
are a typical feature of SI engine combustion
 Location of the spark plug

 Engine speed
The cycle-to-cycle
 Gas motion & composition variations are
essential parameters
 Residual gas fraction for evaluating
the combustion
 Chamber geometry performance of spark-
ignition engines
 71.5
The CCV in the IMEP directly affect the drivability of an engine
71 3.1

70.5
3.05
70

3
69.5
Pmax (bar)

69 2.95

IMEP (bar)
68.5
2.9

68
2.85
67.5

2.8
67
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Cycle num ber 2.75
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Cycle num ber

If cyclic variation /dispersion could be eliminated, there would be a 10 % increase in the

power output for the same fuel consumption

Cyclic variation occurs because

• the turbulence within the cylinder varies from cycle to cycle,
• the air-fuel mixture is not homogeneous (may be the presence of
fuel droplets)
• the exhaust gas residuals will not be fully mixed with the
unburned charge.
Control measures
The reduction of cyclical fluctuations in SI engine combustion through the
optimization of mixture formation, of ignition, and of flame spreading is a
rewarding goal, also in consideration of the reduction of
specific fuel consumption and of HC emissions

And is increased by anything that tends to slow-up the combustion During thermodynamic evaluations of the tests, an average
of the measured pressure curves, therefore, has to be
process: taken, normally over 100 working cycles
o lean mixture operation,
o exhaust gas residuals and
Peak pressure (bar) Mean (bar) 59.5
o low load operation (attributed to greater exhaust gas residuals Standard deviation (bar) 2.7
and lower in-cylinder pressures /temperatures). COV (%) 4.5
Statistical summary of the combustion performance
IMEP (bar) Mean (bar) 7.40
Cycle to Cycle Variations Standard deviation (bar) 0.14
COV (%) 1.9
 One important measure of cycle variability, derived from pressure data is the
Coefficient of Variation (COV) in indicated mean effective pressure.

The main challenge for the free-

It is the standard deviation in IMEP divided by the mean IMEP and piston engine is engine control,
usually expressed as percentage particularly the influence of
cycle-to-cycle variations in the
It defines the cyclic variability in indicated work per cycle, and has been combustion process and
found that the vehicle driveability problems usually result when COVimep engine performance during
exceed about 10 %
transient operation

Abnormal Combustion
These pressure fluctuations produce the
 Two major phenomena of the various abnormal combustion processes are
sharp metallic noise called “knock” Knock & Surface ignition

 During normal combustion relatively "gentle pressure curves" with

maximum pressure increase rates of ~ 2 bar/KW are to be observed.

 By comparison, sharp pressure fluctuations occur in the air-fuel mixture

during knocking combustion

Knock
The noise associated with
auto ignition of a portion of
the fuel-air mixture ahead of
Knock is the most important abnormal combustion phenomenon. the advancing flame front
The noise that results from the auto ignition of a portion of the fuel,
air, residual gas mixture ahead of the advancing flame
 The spontaneous propagation of the reaction fronts is frequently inhomogeneous because
Effects of abnormal combustion of the sequential, apparently random ignition of neighbouring mixture components at
shock wave propagation speeds of up to 600 m/s that are, hence, close to the velocity of
 When the abnormal combustion processes are severe; they can cause sound of the final gas, and can trigger thermal explosions that can damage the engine.
major engine damage and

 Further, they are regarded as an objectionable source of noise by the

vehicle operator Flame propagation during
knocking combustion

Knocking combustion research is crucially

Abnormal important because it determines
combustion  engine durability,
 fuel consumption,
 power density,
 noise,
 emission & performance.
Knock Surface ignition

Spark knock Surface ignition

ECE Feedback
“Preignition"
“Postignition"
 Numerical solving

 Previous day – content sharing

 Additional questions
Run-on
Knocking surface
ignition
NonKnocking  Relating exam queries with the classroom lectures
surface ignition

 CAT I answer discussions

Runaway surface
ignition
 Strengthening the Fundamentals/Basics
Wild ping Rumble
Recap These pressure fluctuations produce the
sharp metallic noise called “knock”
One important measure of cycle variability, derived from pressure data is the
Coefficient of Variation (COV) in indicated mean effective pressure.

It is the standard deviation in IMEP divided by the mean IMEP and

usually expressed as percentage

It defines the cyclic variability in indicated work per cycle, and has been
found that the vehicle driveability problems usually result when COVimep
exceed about 10 % Knock is the most important abnormal combustion phenomenon.
The noise that results from the auto ignition of a portion of the fuel,
air, residual gas mixture ahead of the advancing flame

Abnormal Combustion Effects of abnormal combustion

 Two major phenomena of the various abnormal combustion processes are
Knock & Surface ignition  When the abnormal combustion processes are severe; they can cause
major engine damage and
 During normal combustion relatively "gentle pressure curves" with
maximum pressure increase rates of ~ 2 bar/KW are to be observed.  Further, they are regarded as an objectionable source of noise by the
vehicle operator
 By comparison, sharp pressure fluctuations occur in the air-fuel mixture
during knocking combustion

Abnormal
combustion
Knock
The noise associated with
auto ignition of a portion of
the fuel-air mixture ahead of
the advancing flame front Knock Surface ignition
The spontaneous propagation of the reaction fronts is frequently inhomogeneous because
of the sequential, apparently random ignition of neighbouring mixture components at Knock is the result of spontaneous
shock wave propagation speeds of up to 600 m/s that are, hence, close to the velocity of release of much of end-gas
sound of the final gas, and can trigger thermal explosions that can damage the engine. chemical energy,
which produces a substantial local
increase in gas pressure and
temperature, thereby causing a
Flame propagation during shock wave to propagate away from
knocking combustion the end-gas region across the
combustion chamber
Knocking combustion research is crucially
important because it determines
 engine durability,
 fuel consumption,
This shock wave, the
 power density, expansion wave that
 noise, accompanies it, and the
 emission & performance. reflection of these waves
by the chamber walls
create the oscillatory
pressure versus time
records

Typical damage caused by engine knock Spark knock Surface ignition

“Preignition"
“Postignition"

Run-on
Knocking surface NonKnocking
ignition surface ignition

Runaway surface
ignition

Wild ping Rumble

 Continuation of engine firing after the electrical ignition is shut-
Run-on off and probably caused by compression ignition of the fuel-air Engine Knock
mixture. Too low an octane number also causes run-on when
the engine is switched off.  Knock primarily occurs under wide-open-throttle operating conditions

 Knock also constrains engine efficiency, since by effectively limiting the

Surface ignition, which occurs earlier and earlier in the
Runaway surface cycle. It is the most destructive type of surface ignition and
ignition can lead to serious overheating and structural damage to
the engine. Usually caused by overheated spark plugs,
valves or other combustion chamber surfaces
temperature and pressure of the end-gas, it limits the compression ratio
 The ability of a fuel to resist knock is measured by its octane number; high
octane numbers indicate greater resistance to knock

Gasoline octane ratings can be

A low pitch thudding noise, accompanied by engine roughness. To avoid knocking,
enhanced by
Rumble Possibly caused by the high rates of pressure rise associated the compression ratio
with very early ignition or multiple surface ignition • Refining process: Catalytic at full load condition
cracking and reforming is restricted to 11:1

Knocking surface ignition caused by one or more erratic sharp • Additives: alcohols, lead
Wild ping cracks. It is probably the result of early surface ignition from alkyls or organomanganese
deposit particles compound
Roof-shaped combustion
chamber

The spontaneous autoignition is controlled almost exclusively by the chemical reaction

Origin of Knock kinetics.

Two theories have been proposed to explain the origin of knock Trials with single-cylinder engines have shown that knocking occurs at temperatures of
around 1100 K.

The elementary chemical processes that take place here can be explained relatively
well by the chain branching via the HO2 radical as
Autoignition Theory √ Detonation Theory

Under knocking conditions, the

When the fuel-air mixture in the end gas
advancing flame front
region is compressed to sufficiently high
accelerates to sonic velocity and
pressures and temperatures, the fuel
consumes the end-gas at a rate
oxidation process – starting with the The spontaneous autoignition is essentially dependent on the composition of the fuel
much faster than would occur
preflame chemistry and ending with
with normal flame seeds
rapid energy release – can occur A three-step mechanism for two-component SI fuels consisting of n-heptane and iso-
spontaneously in parts or all of the end- octane is given as
gas region

Both theories attempt to explain the cause for the rapid release Fundamentals of Knock
of chemical energy in the end gas but the autoignition theory is
most widely accepted
 Knock detection Typical combined spark plug and cylinder pressure transducer

 Human ear / Microphone and operator detection is still a valid method

 Optical probes and ionisation detectors (spark plug)

 Piezoelectric pressure transducer

 Accelerometer (relative knock severity)

An accelerometer tuned to look for
Pressure sensor
the vibration caused by knock;
this is the common method used Spark plug
by an ECU electrodes

16

Continuous knocking combustion damages

the engine, primarily the
pistons, cylinder head seal, and cylinder head
Controlling the knock process

Photographic studies of knocking combustion have been an important source of

insight into the fundamentals of the phenomenon over past fifty years

• Retarded ignition
• Higher octane number
• Lower charge pressure
• Lower intake air temperature
• Reduction of deposits on the piston & valves
• Suitable construction of the combustion chambers
One of the most important boundary
conditions that an engine control system
must be programmed to avoid is “knock”.
 The goal of engine management is to operate the engine
in a closed control loop at the knocking threshold to the extent
that it is "before" the optimum moment of ignition.
The combustion event must be properly located to TDC to obtain the
maximum power or toque
With the turbocharged SI engines, the higher charge pressure results in higher ultimate
compression temperatures. This increases the risk of autoignition and of knocking.
For this reason, it can be necessary to lower the compression ratio. In any case, the start
of ignition of the SI engine must be shifted towards "retard" in order to avoid
impermissibly high ignition pressures and knocking combustion
Pressure curve of a
turbocharged SI engine
with retarded ignition angle
The optimum timing, which gives the maximum brake torque, called MBT timing –
occurs when the magnitudes of these two opposing trends just offset each other
The optimum spark setting will depend
on the
• Rate of flame development &
propagation
• Length of flame travel path across
the combustion chamber,
• Details of the flame termination
process after it reached the walls
These depends on engine design,
operating conditions and the properties
of fuel, air, burned gas mixture.
Engines today are usually timed to an angle referred to as
MBT (minimum advance for best torque)
 Combustion chambers with little knocking tendency have
Powertrain Mapping and Calibration
 Short flame paths through compact construction and a centrally
The optimized control parameters, when found, are stored within the “map”, essentially a arranged spark plug,
multi-axis look-up table or set of tables, held in the memory of the engine control unit (ECU),  No hot spots at the end of the flame path through the positioning
the powertrain, and vehicle control units.
of the spark plug in the area of the exhaust valve,
 High flow velocities and hence favourable mixture formation as a
 During the mapping process, in order to discover boundary conditions, such as result of swirl, tumble and squeeze flows
“knock”, the engine will be run through test sequences that seek and confirm,  The compression ratios of SI engines are limited to ~11:1
by variation of control parameters of which ignition timing and fuelling are only
two, the map position of these boundaries at a wide range of vehicle operating
conditions.
 A typical mapping sequence is that called “spark sweep” wherein, at a given operating
point, the spark timing is varied until a knock condition is approached, the timing is then
backed off and the knock point approached with finer increments to confirm its map
position.

 The test sequence then sweeps the ignition timing so that a fault condition, such as high
exhaust temperature, is located at the other end of the sweep. Given sufficient data the
software can then calculate and extrapolate the boundary conditions for a wide
operating envelope without having to run all of it. 23
Four-valve engine with a central spark plug

Spark ignition is used in

Ignition Energy - Gas turbine engines
- Gasoline/petrol engines
Lead is the most effective antiknock element - Industrial and residential burners
 Maximum voltage and current be on the order of 40,000 volts & 200 amps
Increase in RON and MON

 Overall spark discharge lasts about 0.001 second, with an average temperature
of about 6000 K.

 The total energy delivered during one discharge is generally about 30 to 50 mJ.

Requirements - Ignition System

 High energy storage capacity to create a spark kernel

 Sufficient duration of the voltage pulse to ensure ignition

 High ignition voltage to break down the gap between the plug electrodes
Lead (g/liter)
 Steep voltage rise or a low source impedance
 Fuel Initial temperature (K) Ignition energy The spontaneous propagation of the reaction fronts is frequently inhomogeneous because
of the sequential, apparently random ignition of neighbouring mixture components at
(mJ) @ 1 atm shock wave propagation speeds of up to 600 m/s that are, hence, close to the velocity of
n-Heptane 298 14.5 sound of the final gas, and can trigger thermal explosions that can damage the engine.
373 6.7
444 3.2
Iso-ocatane 298 27 Flame propagation during
knocking combustion
373 11
444 4.8
Knocking combustion research is crucially
Increasing the inlet mixture temperature results in important because it determines
decreased ignition energies  engine durability,
 fuel consumption,
 power density,
 noise,
 emission & performance.

Recap

Engine Knock Origin of Knock

 Knock primarily occurs under wide-open-throttle operating conditions Two theories have been proposed to explain the origin of knock

 Knock also constrains engine efficiency, since by effectively limiting the

temperature and pressure of the end-gas, it limits the compression ratio
Autoignition Theory √ Detonation Theory
 The ability of a fuel to resist knock is measured by its octane number; high
octane numbers indicate greater resistance to knock Under knocking conditions, the
When the fuel-air mixture in the end gas
advancing flame front
region is compressed to sufficiently high
accelerates to sonic velocity and
pressures and temperatures, the fuel
consumes the end-gas at a rate
Gasoline octane ratings can be oxidation process – starting with the
To avoid knocking, much faster than would occur
enhanced by preflame chemistry and ending with
the compression ratio with normal flame seeds
rapid energy release – can occur
• Refining process: Catalytic at full load condition
is restricted to 11:1 spontaneously in parts or all of the end-
cracking and reforming gas region
• Additives: alcohols, lead
alkyls or organomanganese Both theories attempt to explain the cause for the rapid release
compound of chemical energy in the end gas but the autoignition theory is
Roof-shaped combustion
chamber most widely accepted
The spontaneous autoignition is controlled almost exclusively by the chemical reaction
kinetics. Knock detection
Trials with single-cylinder engines have shown that knocking occurs at temperatures of
around 1100 K.  Human ear / Microphone and operator detection is still a valid method

The elementary chemical processes that take place here can be explained relatively
well by the chain branching via the HO2 radical as  Optical probes and ionisation detectors (spark plug)

 Piezoelectric pressure transducer

The spontaneous autoignition is essentially dependent on the composition of the fuel

 Accelerometer (relative knock severity)
A three-step mechanism for two-component SI fuels consisting of n-heptane and iso- An accelerometer tuned to look for
octane is given as the vibration caused by knock;
this is the common method used
by an ECU
Fundamentals of Knock

Typical combined spark plug and cylinder pressure transducer

Photographic studies of knocking combustion have been an important source of

insight into the fundamentals of the phenomenon over past fifty years

Pressure sensor
Spark plug
electrodes

7
 Continuous knocking combustion damages The goal of engine management is to operate the engine
the engine, primarily the
in a closed control loop at the knocking threshold to the extent
pistons, cylinder head seal, and cylinder head
Controlling the knock process that it is "before" the optimum moment of ignition.

• Retarded ignition
• Higher octane number
• Lower charge pressure
• Lower intake air temperature
• Reduction of deposits on the piston & valves
• Suitable construction of the combustion chambers
One of the most important boundary
conditions that an engine control system
must be programmed to avoid is “knock”.

The combustion event must be properly located to TDC to obtain the

With the turbocharged SI engines, the higher charge pressure results in higher ultimate
compression temperatures. This increases the risk of autoignition and of knocking. maximum power or toque

For this reason, it can be necessary to lower the compression ratio. In any case, the start
of ignition of the SI engine must be shifted towards "retard" in order to avoid
impermissibly high ignition pressures and knocking combustion

Pressure curve of a
turbocharged SI engine
with retarded ignition angle
 The optimum timing, which gives the maximum brake torque, called MBT timing –
occurs when the magnitudes of these two opposing trends just offset each other Powertrain Mapping and Calibration

The optimized control parameters, when found, are stored within the “map”, essentially a
The optimum spark setting will depend multi-axis look-up table or set of tables, held in the memory of the engine control unit (ECU),
on the
• Rate of flame development & the powertrain, and vehicle control units.
propagation
 During the mapping process, in order to discover boundary conditions, such as
• Length of flame travel path across
“knock”, the engine will be run through test sequences that seek and confirm,
the combustion chamber,
by variation of control parameters of which ignition timing and fuelling are only
• Details of the flame termination
two, the map position of these boundaries at a wide range of vehicle operating
process after it reached the walls
conditions.
These depends on engine design,  A typical mapping sequence is that called “spark sweep” wherein, at a given operating
operating conditions and the properties point, the spark timing is varied until a knock condition is approached, the timing is then
of fuel, air, burned gas mixture. backed off and the knock point approached with finer increments to confirm its map
position.

Engines today are usually timed to an angle referred to as
MBT (minimum advance for best torque)
 The test sequence then sweeps the ignition timing so that a fault condition, such as high
exhaust temperature, is located at the other end of the sweep. Given sufficient data the
software can then calculate and extrapolate the boundary conditions for a wide
operating envelope without having to run all of it. 14

Consider a fuel that is burned with

(a)130 percent theoretical air and

The process of supplying the intake air to the engine at a
(b) 70 percent excess air.
density more than the density of surrounding ambient air
is known as
a) Blow down In which case is the fuel burned with more air?
b) Scavenging
c) Supercharging
d) Detonation

4
The vehicle drivability problems usually result
when COVimep exceed about
Reference Fuels for
cetane Testing
(a) 20%
The two standard reference fuels used are
(b) 10% α-methyl naphthaline ( C11H10 ) with CN = 0
n-cetane ( C16H34 ) with CN = 100
(c) 90%

What compounds are added to improve the

octane rating of fuels?
a) tetraethyl lead
b) methanol
c) tetramethyl lead Quiz I (30.11.21)
d) Lead or Oxygenates
 Powertrain Mapping and Calibration Recap
ECE Feedback
The optimized control parameters, when found, are stored within the “map”, essentially a

 Numerical solving multi-axis look-up table or set of tables, held in the memory of the engine control unit (ECU),
the powertrain, and vehicle control units.
 Previous day – content sharing
 During the mapping process, in order to discover boundary conditions, such as
“knock”, the engine will be run through test sequences that seek and confirm,
 Additional questions by variation of control parameters of which ignition timing and fuelling are only
two, the map position of these boundaries at a wide range of vehicle operating
 Relating exam queries with the classroom lectures conditions.
 A typical mapping sequence is that called “spark sweep” wherein, at a given operating
 CAT I answer discussions point, the spark timing is varied until a knock condition is approached, the timing is then
backed off and the knock point approached with finer increments to confirm its map
position.
 Strengthening the Fundamentals/Basics
 The test sequence then sweeps the ignition timing so that a fault condition, such as high
exhaust temperature, is located at the other end of the sweep. Given sufficient data the
software can then calculate and extrapolate the boundary conditions for a wide
operating envelope without having to run all of it. 10

Combustion chambers with little knocking tendency have

 Short flame paths through compact construction and a centrally
arranged spark plug, Lead is the most effective antiknock element
 No hot spots at the end of the flame path through the positioning
of the spark plug in the area of the exhaust valve,

Increase in RON and MON

 High flow velocities and hence favourable mixture formation as a
result of swirl, tumble and squeeze flows
 The compression ratios of SI engines are limited to ~11:1

Lead (g/liter)

Four-valve engine with a central spark plug

 Spark ignition is used in
Ignition Energy - Gas turbine engines Fuel Initial temperature (K) Ignition energy
- Gasoline/petrol engines (mJ) @ 1 atm
- Industrial and residential burners n-Heptane 298 14.5
 Maximum voltage and current be on the order of 40,000 volts & 200 amps 373 6.7
 Overall spark discharge lasts about 0.001 second, with an average temperature
444 3.2
of about 6000 K. Iso-ocatane 298 27
373 11
 The total energy delivered during one discharge is generally about 30 to 50 mJ. 444 4.8
Requirements - Ignition System Increasing the inlet mixture temperature results in
decreased ignition energies
 High energy storage capacity to create a spark kernel

 Sufficient duration of the voltage pulse to ensure ignition

 High ignition voltage to break down the gap between the plug electrodes

 Steep voltage rise or a low source impedance

NO Formation Rate Thermodynamic considerations for chemical reactions

Stoichiometric mixture at A, B, C, and D represent the chemical species

room temperature
Backward (Right to left)
t1/2 < 10-6 s
Reactants Products
H2 O2
Forward (Left to right)
Reacts so slowly that no change
can be detected after a, b, c, and d are the stoichiometric coefficients of these species
hundreds of years
t1/2 > 1025 years we see that the definition of which we call reactants and which products is arbitrary

Oxygen NOx

Temperature Residence time

 Engine Emissions Delhi has been ranked the most polluted capital in the world and
major sources of pollution include
Engine exhaust gas is a mixture of solids, liquids, and gases, including a  Emissions from industries and construction sites
large amount of water vapor  Vehicular Emissions (Diesel vehicles - 72% of total air pollution load*).
 Agricultural Activities ( Open burning)

Emissions of concern
– Hydrocarbon (HC) India’s high air pollution, ranked by the World Health Organisation (WHO) among the
worst in the world, is reducing most Indian lives by over three years: a 2015 study
– Carbon monoxide (CO)

– Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) Control Measures Initiated by the Government of India

 NGT (National Green tribunal) banned 10-year-old diesel vehicles
– Smoke/Soot/Particulates
 Delhi ODD – EVEN scheme, Car Free day
 Proposed ban on diesel SUV (>2000 cc)
The major causes of these emissions are non-stoichiometric
combustion, dissociation of nitrogen, and impurities in the fuel and air  BS IV to BS VI & Swachh Bharat Abhiyan

* As per IPCC(intergovernmental panel on climate change ) assessment report.

Most of the countries have experienced health hazards related

to automotive emission, such as photochemical smog, which was
first identified in Los Angeles in the 1950s

Outdoor pollution considered the primary cause

5
https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/asthma-cases-in-city-double-in-5-years/article24866869.ece
 NO ~ 90%
Diesel Emissions Engine
Exhaust NOx NO2 ~ <10% Bharat Stage (BS) : Emission Regulations
NOx is carcinogenic others

NOx increases ground level ozone but depletes atmospheric ozone

[NO] = 20*toxic [CO]

PM NOx

PM
PM10 PM2.5
Average human hair
30*[largest fine PM]
100 miles travel farther
Deeper into lungs
More toxic

NO Formation Rate NOx Background

• Nitrogen gas (N2) makes up ~78% of the earths atmosphere

• Reactivity of N2 is low since it’s a tripe bond molecule

Kinetics of the thermal NOx formation

941 kJ/mol N N

 The kinetics of the thermal NOx formation rate is much slower than the main
hydrocarbon oxidation rate, and so most of the thermal NOx is formed after N2 fixing Lightening
completion of combustion. organisms
Combustion
 Therefore, the thermal NOx formation process can often be decoupled from
the main combustion reaction mechanism and the NOx formation rate can
be calculated by assuming equilibration of the combustion reactions. • NOx is carcinogenic and lethal to animals and humans
• NOx increases ground level ozone but depletes atmospheric ozone
 Using this approach, the calculation of the thermal NOx formation rate is
considerably simplified (causes respiratory irritation, lung damage, damage vegetation and reduce crop yields)
Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
Thermodynamic considerations for chemical reactions
N2 + O ↔ NO + N
– Acidic Pollutant
Thermal NO N + O2 ↔ NO + O
Prompt NO
A, B, C, and D represent the chemical species
NO N + OH ↔ NO + H
Fuel NO (~0.002%) Backward (Right to left)
NO2 N2O Pathway Y B Zel’dovich
(Pressure) postulated the
N2 O mechanism in 1943 Reactants Products
NOx Thermal dominance (Ban-Weiss et al, 2007)
N2O3
Removed Predicted Relative decrease Forward (Left to right)
N2O4 Mechanism NO (ppm) when removed (%)

N2O5 --- 747 ---

650 13
a, b, c, and d are the stoichiometric coefficients of these species
Prompt
N2O 742 01

Thermal 60 92 we see that the definition of which we call reactants and which products is arbitrary

NO formation is favored at temperatures 1300˚C and higher; Thermal NOx production rate
doubles for every 90 K temperature increase beyond 2200 K

NO2 formation occurs at relatively lower temperatures of about 800 to 1000˚C 10

Scope of Chemical Kinetics Types of Reactions

Chemical kinetics deals with the rates of chemical reaction and how the rates Elementary Reaction Composite Reaction

depend on factors such as concentration and temperature A reaction that occurs Reactions, which involve
in a single step, with Chain Reaction more than one elementary
 Intermediate
[Fuel] + [O2] [Fuel] Compounds  Products
+ [O2]  Products no experimentally reaction is known as
detectable reaction A composite reaction mechanism complex or stepwise or
intermediates sometimes includes a cycle of composite reactions
Such studies are important in providing essential evidence as the mechanism
reactions, such that certain reaction
of chemical processes intermediates consumed in one step
Step Reactants Type of chain reactions Products are generated in another. If such a
cycle is repeated more than once the
𝑦 reaction is known as chain reaction
First CxHy + (x + )O2 Initiating Intermediate
4 Chain initiation, provides active intermediates
Propagating Compounds 𝐵𝑟2 −→ 2𝐵𝑟
Very slow Branching or Terminating (peroxides &
aldehydes) 𝐵𝑟 + 𝐻2 −→ 𝐻𝐵𝑟 + 𝐻 Chain propagation, constitutes a cycle (Br, H consumption &
𝐻 + 𝐵𝑟2 −→ 𝐻𝐵𝑟 + 𝐵𝑟 production)
Second
Intermediate Combination of above types nCO2 + 𝑚H2O 2𝐵𝑟 −→ 𝐵𝑟2 Chain termination, the reverse of initiation reaction
2
Very fast Compounds Terminating
 If a reaction takes place in a series of steps, a study of the rate of the reaction
Chemical Kinetics gives information about the slowest step of the reaction
Chemical kinetics is the study and discussion of chemical reactions
with respect to reaction rates, effect of various variables,
re-arrangement of atoms, formation of intermediates etc.

If we study the water flow rate through this system of short pipes, information will be
For example, the heat of formation of water from gaseous H2 and O2 is -285 kJ/mol, but obtained about the flow of water through a 1" pipe since the 3" and 5" pipes do not
the reaction takes place very slowly, if at all, unless the reaction is initiated by a spark. normally offer as much resistance to flow as does the 1" pipe. Therefore, in the language
of chemical kinetics, the 1“ pipe represents the rate-determining step.

Suppose that the reaction takes place in steps that can be written as

The reason for this is that although a great deal of energy is released as H2O
forms, there is no low energy pathway for the reaction to follow. In order
for water to form, molecules of H2 and O2 must react, and their bond
energies are about 435 and 490 kJ/mol, respectively.
The amount of C (known as an intermediate) that is present at any time limits
Chemical kinetics is largely an experimental science and is the rate of the overall reaction
intimately connected with the analysis of data

Reaction Rate Order of a Reaction

The rate of a chemical reaction is expressed as a change in concentration of If we consider a reaction that can be shown as;
some species with time. Therefore, the dimensions of the rate must be those
of concentration divided by time (moles/liter sec or moles/liter min, etc.).

The mathematical equation relating concentrations The rate law will usually be represented in terms of a constant times some
and time is called the rate equation or the rate law function of the concentrations of A and B, and it can usually be written in the
form;
𝑑[𝐴]
The rate can be expressed either in terms −
of the reactant (disappearance of A) 𝑑𝑡 where x and y are the exponents on the concentrations of A and B, respectively. In
this rate law,
Or “k” (lower case) is called the rate constant and the exponents
𝑑[𝐵] “x” and “y” are called the order of the reaction with respect to A & B, respectively
+
In terms of the product (appearance of B) 𝑑𝑡
The overall order of the reaction is the sum of the exponents x and y. Thus, for a
second-order reaction, the sum of the exponents in the rate law is 2, and for third-
order is 3, etc. These orders are purely experimental quantities and are not
necessarily integral
 The relationships between the concentrations of A and B with time are Factors affecting the reaction rate
represented graphically in Figure for a first-order reaction in which initial
concentration of [A]o is 1.00 M and rate constant, k = 0.050 min-1

[A]o  Temperature
 Frequency of molecular collision
 Kinetic energy of collision between the molecules
 Orientation of collision between the molecules

Temperature Frequency of molecular collision

• An increase in temperature, increases the kinetic energy of the molecules and increases • An increase in frequency of molecular collision, increases the rate of reaction
the chance of their collision
• One way to increase the frequency is to increase the number of molecules
• There are several types of behaviour exhibited when the rates of reactions are studied
as a function of temperature.

• Three of the most common variations in rate with temperature are shown in Figure
explosive at a certain temperature

Exponentially increasing Reactions involving enzymes (biological catalysts)

frequently increase in rate up to a certain
temperature and then decrease
in rate at higher temperatures
 Kinetic energy of collision Orientation of collisions between molecules

The molecules should collide with right amount of energy (minimum amount of Not all of the collisions with the appropriate energy of activation leads to products.
energy required to break a bond) This is because the relative orientation of colliding molecules play a role in
determining, whether a particular collision results in a reaction.
In order for molecules to be transformed from reactants to products, it is necessary
that they pass through some energy state that is higher than that corresponding to The probability of a reaction occurring depends not only on the collision energy but
either the reactants or products. also on the spatial orientation of the molecules when they collide.
high-energy state, which is called the transition
state or the activated complex The fraction of
orientations that result in
a reaction is called
the steric factor and its
Activation Energy value can range from 0
(no orientations of
The height of the energy barrier over which the
molecules result in
reactants must pass on the way to becoming
reaction) to 1 (all
products is known as the activation energy
orientations result in
reaction).

exothermic reaction E.g., NO and O3 to produce NO2 and O2, a terminal oxygen atom of O3 must collide with
nitrogen atom of NO at an angle that allows O3 to transfer an oxygen atom to produce NO2

Hydrocarbon combustion is extremely

Oxidation of hydrocarbons The formation of aldehyde (formaldehyde HCHO), during which only about 10 % of the
complex and proceeds approximately
total energy release arises, is accompanied by the appearance of a cold flame.
according to the oxidation diagram

In the first reaction phase, hydrocarbon

peroxide ( ROOH ) is formed, which
disintegrates through dehydrogenation into
small alkanes.

Through subsequent reactions with the

Temporal progression of concentration in the combustion of hydrocarbons
radicals (chain propagators)

at first light alkenes and alkadienes and finally

aldehydes are developed. In the blue flame following this CO, H2 and in the last place, in the hot flame finally
CO2 and H2O are formed.
In the oxidation of hydrocarbons to CO , about 30 % more and in oxidation from CO
to CO2 finally the remaining 60 % of the thermal energy in the fuel is released.
24 25
 IC Engine (three-dimensional turbulent flames ) Reaction rate parameters for the single-step reaction

The reaction speed in engine combustion is essentially dependent on local conditions

such as temperature, pressure, and composition and results from the reaction rates
of the several hundred to thousands of participating elementary reactions under
these boundary conditions

Westbrook and Dryer (1981), suggested a relation for the reaction rate of
global reactions for a selection of hydrocarbons

The corresponding parameters A, m and n as well as the co-called activation temperature

EA / R
26 27

Arrhenius Equation IC Engine (three-dimensional turbulent flames )

The Arrhenius equation is an expression that provides a relationship between The reaction speed in engine combustion is essentially dependent on local conditions
the rate constant, the absolute temperature, and the pre-exponential factor as; such as temperature, pressure, and composition and results from the reaction rates
of the several hundred to thousands of participating elementary reactions under
these boundary conditions

Westbrook and Dryer (1981), suggested a relation for the reaction rate of
Where, global reactions for a selection of hydrocarbons
k denotes the rate constant of the reaction
A denotes the pre-exponential factor which, in terms of the collision theory, is the
frequency of correctly oriented collisions between the reacting species
Ea denotes the activation energy of the chemical reaction (in terms of energy per mole)
R denotes the universal gas constant
T denotes the absolute temperature associated with the reaction (in Kelvin)
The corresponding parameters A, m and n as well as the co-called activation temperature
EA / R
3
 Hydrocarbon combustion is extremely
Reaction rate parameters for the single-step reaction Oxidation of hydrocarbons complex and proceeds approximately
according to the oxidation diagram

In the first reaction phase, hydrocarbon

peroxide ( ROOH ) is formed, which
disintegrates through dehydrogenation into
small alkanes.

Through subsequent reactions with the

radicals (chain propagators)

at first light alkenes and alkadienes and finally

aldehydes are developed.

4 5

The formation of aldehyde (formaldehyde HCHO), during which only about 10 % of the NO Formation Rate
total energy release arises, is accompanied by the appearance of a cold flame.

Kinetics of the thermal NOx formation

Temporal progression of concentration in the combustion of hydrocarbons
In the blue flame following this CO, H2 and in the last place, in the hot flame finally
CO2 and H2O are formed.
In the oxidation of hydrocarbons to CO , about 30 % more and in oxidation from CO
to CO2 finally the remaining 60 % of the thermal energy in the fuel is released.
 The kinetics of the thermal NOx formation rate is much slower than the main
hydrocarbon oxidation rate, and so most of the thermal NOx is formed after
completion of combustion.
 Therefore, the thermal NOx formation process can often be decoupled from
the main combustion reaction mechanism and the NOx formation rate can
be calculated by assuming equilibration of the combustion reactions.
 Using this approach, the calculation of the thermal NOx formation rate is
considerably simplified

6
 700
NOx Background Diesel 1400rpm

• Nitrogen gas (N2) makes up ~78% of the earths atmosphere 600

• Reactivity of N2 is low since it’s a tripe bond molecule

500 NOx NO NO2

Oxides of nitrogen (ppm)

400
941 kJ/mol N N

300

N2 fixing Lightening
organisms 200
Combustion
11% of total NOx
• NOx is carcinogenic and lethal to animals and humans 100

• NOx increases ground level ozone but depletes atmospheric ozone

0
(causes respiratory irritation, lung damage, damage vegetation and reduce crop yields)
3 6 9 12 15 18
Brake power (kW)

Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)

N2 + O ↔ NO + N NO Formation
– Acidic Pollutant
Thermal NO N + O2 ↔ NO + O • Prompt No formation: The mechanism for prompt NO
Prompt NO formation was first discovered by Fennimore. NO
NO N + OH ↔ NO + H
Fuel NO (~0.002%) formation in the HC-air flames at the early phase results
NO2 N2O Pathway Y B Zel’dovich from an attack of carbon and hydrogen radicals on
(Pressure) postulated the
N2 O mechanism in 1943 nitrogen to form cyanide (HCN). Oxidation of HCN results
NOx Thermal dominance (Ban-Weiss et al, 2007) in NO. It has weak temperature dependence and is
N2O3
N2O4
Removed
Mechanism
Predicted
NO (ppm)
Relative decrease
when removed (%)
significant in very fuel-rich flames.
N2O5 --- 747 ---

Prompt 650 13
• NO from nitrogen in the fuel: Fuel NO forms via the
N2O 742 01
oxidation of nitrogen in the fuel. The reactions are not
Thermal 60 92
fully known and only a small part of fuel nitrogen is
NO formation is favored at temperatures 1300˚C and higher; Thermal NOx production rate converted to NO. The nitrogen content in diesel fuel is
doubles for every 90 K temperature increase beyond 2200 K very low, and thus not a problem for diesel engines.
NO2 formation occurs at relatively lower temperatures of about 800 to 1000˚C 10
 Thermal NO
Very small amount of NOx formation
occurs at the initial step of combustion
Combustion occurs in the fuel-rich
premixed flame. Although temperatures
are sufficiently high, the combustion in the
fuel-rich premixed flame occurs at a very
low oxygen concentration
Reacting DI diesel jet during the quasi-steady
period of combustion
The chain reactions are initiated by the atomic oxygen which is formed from the dissociation
of oxygen molecules at the high temperatures reached in the combustion process.
O2 ↔ 2O
Thermal NO
Nitric oxide, NO, is formed during the combustion process at various concentrations in all the
spray regions.
Most of the NO formation occurs during the postflame reactions. It is expected that the LFR
is one of the major contributing regions to NO formation since it is the first part of the
spray to burn and has the longest post-flame residence time. LFR

The Bulk of NOx Formation is expected to occur on

the lean side of the Diffusion Flame
In diesel combustion the local NO formation in the spray is related to the local oxygen atom
The second step of combustion occurs at the diffusive concentration. This is a function of the local concentration of the oxygen molecules and the
layer (orange-colored layer). This part of the flame local temperature.
contains sufficient quantities of oxygen for NOx
formation
13

Extended Zeldovich Mechanism Thermal NO model

dNO
Nitrogen dissociation reaction triggered by an  K A [N 2 ]e [O]e  K B[NO]e [N]e  KC[N]e [O2 ]e  K D[NO]e [O]e  K E [N]e [OH]e  K F[NO]e [H]e
dt
oxygen atom. It is an endothermic reaction and
therefore controls the system, but has very high Assumptions Input parameters
N2 + O ↔ NO + N • Nitrogen chemistry is de-coupled from •
activation energy. In-cylinder pressure, temperature
It is thus slow at low temperature. Therefore, the combustion reactions histories (adiabatic flame temperature)
thermal NO is formed in the post-flame • The species (O,O2,OH,H and N2) are • Instantaneous equivalence ratio
products. approximated to be at equilibrium • Fuel specific heat values as a function
concentration (Since the nitric oxide
of temperature and enthalpy of the
Nitrogen atom reacts exothermically with an formation rate is much slower than the
reactants
N + O2 ↔ NO + O oxygen molecule to form nitric oxide and an oxygen oxidation reaction of hydrocarbon fuel)
atom at equilibrium temperature
• The nitrogen (N) radical is in steady
state concentration
An exothermic reaction between a nitrogen atom
N + OH ↔ NO + H and a hydroxide radical producing nitric oxide and a
hydrogen atom. It is more pertinent to rich mixtures, where β is a calibration factor (of converting NO to NOx)
where the oxygen concentration is low For diesel fuel, a conventional value of β is 1.533 (the ratio of the molecular weight of NO 2 to NO)
 Try deriving the reaction Rate –
Reaction Rate – NO Formation NO Formation

Endothermic reaction N2 + O ↔ NO + N Second step N + O2 ↔ NO + O

dNO
N2 + O  NO + N  K A [N 2 ]e [O]e dNO
Forward reaction
dt  K C [N]e [O 2 ]e  K D [NO]e [O]e
𝑑[𝐴]
dt
A B −
𝑑𝑡

N2 + O  NO + N dNO Third step

N + OH ↔ NO + H
Backward reaction  K B [NO]e [N]e
dt
A B 𝑑[𝐴]
𝑑𝑡
dNO
 K E [N]e [OH]e  K F [NO]e [H]e
Overall reaction N2 + O ↔ NO + N dt
dNO
 K A [N 2 ]e [O]e  K B [NO]e [N]e
dt 16 17

NO Formation Rate NO Formation Rate

dNO
 K A [N 2 ]e [O]e  K B[NO]e [N]e  KC[N]e [O2 ]e  K D[NO]e [O]e  K E [N]e [OH]e  K F[NO]e [H]e
dt

N2 + O ↔ NO + N
Kinetics of the thermal NOx formation
Overall reaction N + O2 ↔ NO + O
 The kinetics of the thermal NOx formation rate is much slower than the main
N + OH ↔ NO + H hydrocarbon oxidation rate, and so most of the thermal NOx is formed after
completion of combustion.

 Therefore, the thermal NOx formation process can often be decoupled from
the main combustion reaction mechanism and the NOx formation rate can
be calculated by assuming equilibration of the combustion reactions.

 Using this approach, the calculation of the thermal NOx formation rate is
considerably simplified

18
 Quiz I
The heat flux from a candle flame is found to be 100 kW/m2
and the wood is capable of auto-ignition above 40 kW/m2.
Explain the heat flux feature of the candle flame prone to
accidently start fires.
Heat flux is the main parameter in calculating heat transfer and is the
amount of heat transferred per unit surface area to or from a surface
Yes, it start fires
Why SI engines are not preferred for commercial transport
applications requiring large sized engines?
Larger SI engines, such as those required for commercial vehicles,
also have to run at low speeds, would be more prone to knock on
a given fuel because there is more time available for chemical
reactions leading to knock and their efficiency would be reduced.
Hence, SI engines are not usually used in commercial transport
requiring large engines.

Why is the compression ratio of an SI engine often reduced

A pure carbon particle has a diameter of 0.01 micron metre
when the engine is redesigned to be used with a
and a density of 2000 kg/m3. How many carbon atoms does
turbocharger?
the particle contain? would be more prone to knock
Assume the atoms are densely packed and use Avogadro's
number
52, 533.9 carbon atoms

A fuel is completely burned first with the stoichiometric amount

of air and then with the stoichiometric amount of pure oxygen.
Controlling the knock process For which case will the adiabatic flame temperature be higher?

C25H52+38(O2+3.76N2)  25CO2+26H2O+
• Retarded ignition 38*3.76N2
• Higher octane number
• Lower charge pressure Hreactants = (-559,330)+38*0+38*3.76*0=-559.33 kJ
• Lower intake air temperature Hproducts =25*(-393,546+56.21(T-298))+26*(-241,845+ 43.87(T-
298)) +38*3.76*(0+33.71(T-298))
• Reduction of deposits on the piston & valves = -16126620+7362.3548(T-298)
• Suitable construction of the combustion chambers Equating the enthalpies
-559,330 = -16126620+7362.3548(T-298)
AFT = 2412.4 K
 Extended Zeldovich Mechanism Thermal NO model
dNO
Nitrogen dissociation reaction triggered by an  K A [N 2 ]e [O]e  K B[NO]e [N]e  KC[N]e [O2 ]e  K D[NO]e [O]e  K E [N]e [OH]e  K F[NO]e [H]e
dt
oxygen atom. It is an endothermic reaction and
therefore controls the system, but has very high Assumptions Input parameters
N2 + O ↔ NO + N • Nitrogen chemistry is de-coupled from •
activation energy. In-cylinder pressure, temperature
It is thus slow at low temperature. Therefore, the combustion reactions histories (adiabatic flame temperature)
thermal NO is formed in the post-flame • The species (O,O2,OH,H and N2) are • Instantaneous equivalence ratio
products. approximated to be at equilibrium • Fuel specific heat values as a function
concentration (Since the nitric oxide
of temperature and enthalpy of the
Nitrogen atom reacts exothermically with an formation rate is much slower than the
reactants
N + O2 ↔ NO + O oxygen molecule to form nitric oxide and an oxygen oxidation reaction of hydrocarbon fuel)
atom at equilibrium temperature
LFR
• The nitrogen (N) radical is in steady
state concentration
An exothermic reaction between a nitrogen atom
N + OH ↔ NO + H and a hydroxide radical producing nitric oxide and a
hydrogen atom. It is more pertinent to rich mixtures,
where the oxygen concentration is low

Try deriving the reaction Rate –

Reaction Rate – NO Formation NO Formation

Endothermic reaction N2 + O ↔ NO + N Second step N + O2 ↔ NO + O

dNO
N2 + O  NO + N  K A [N 2 ]e [O]e dNO
Forward reaction
dt  K C [N]e [O 2 ]e  K D [NO]e [O]e
𝑑[𝐴]
dt
A B −
𝑑𝑡

N2 + O  NO + N dNO Third step

N + OH ↔ NO + H
Backward reaction  K B [NO]e [N]e
dt
A B 𝑑[𝐴]
𝑑𝑡
dNO
 K E [N]e [OH]e  K F [NO]e [H]e
Overall reaction N2 + O ↔ NO + N dt
dNO
 K A [N 2 ]e [O]e  K B [NO]e [N]e
dt 5 6
 NO Formation Rate
dNO
 K A [N 2 ]e [O]e  K B[NO]e [N]e  KC[N]e [O2 ]e  K D[NO]e [O]e  K E [N]e [OH]e  K F[NO]e [H]e
dt

N2 + O ↔ NO + N

Overall reaction N + O2 ↔ NO + O

N + OH ↔ NO + H

 The kinetics of the thermal NOx formation rate is much slower than the main
hydrocarbon oxidation rate, and so most of the thermal NOx is formed after
completion of combustion.

 Therefore, the thermal NOx formation process can often be decoupled from
the main combustion reaction mechanism and the NOx formation rate can
be calculated by assuming equilibration of the combustion reactions.
7

2500 4500
In reciprocating engines the NO removal processes during the expansion stroke are Biodiesel 4000 Lower engine speed

Adiabatic flame temperature (K)

2300
very slow, and thus NO concentration remains nearly constant during expansion
Diesel 3500
2100
3000

Thermal NO (ppm)
1900
2500
1700
2000 Longer
1500
1500
cycle time
1300
1000

1100 500

900 0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Longer residence
Equivalence ratio time

Bell shaped curve 500

0.08s
480
(Maximum NO formation occurs

Nitric oxide (ppm)

slightly to the lean side of 460

stoichiometry) 440

420
0.04s
Oxygen NOx
400

When combustion products are cooled rapidly by expansion or heat transfer, the NO 380
concentration tends to freeze at a certain value because the kinetic rates slow down Temperature 1400 2000 2500
Residence time
rapidly as the temperature drops Engine speed (rev/min)
10
Influence of in-cylinder oxygen, temperature and time

• The formation of NO increases rapidly with flame temperature. This suggest

that slightly rich mixtures with high temperatures would produce the higher NO
concentration. • Venus is Earth's closest planetary neighbour and is wrapped in a thick, toxic
atmosphere that traps in heat.

• This is not quite true, since NO formation is also influenced by flame speed. • Surface temperatures reach a scorching 471 degrees Celsius, hot enough to melt lead.
lean mixtures have lower flame speeds, which gives more time for the NO to form
and hence a higher NO is observed at leaner side of stoichiometric and decreases • Phosphine was seen at 20 parts-per-billion in the Venusian atmosphere, a trace
concentration.
as the mixture gets richer.
parts-per notation describe small values of miscellaneous dimensionless quantities,
• The fuel-rich cases have lower NO concentrations due to lack of oxygen and parts-per-million (ppm, 10−6),
parts-per-billion (ppb, 10−9), Units Used for Exhaust Gas Components
lower temperatures. parts-per-trillion (ppt, 10−12) and The amount of each gas component in the engine
parts-per-quadrillion (ppq, 10−15). exhaust is represented by its
• The NO levels reach equilibrium values in 0.5 to 1.5 s. At lower temperatures volume concentration or its mass emission.
Volume concentration is expressed
the approach to equilibrium is slower because the back reactions become more
either in % (or vol%) or ppm (or vol ppm)
important. Thus the NO emissions in actual systems are expected to be highly corresponding to its concentration
dependent on excess air. 12

Physical Characteristics of Exhaust Gas Sample Dehumidification and Heating

When measuring gases that contain high concentrations of H2O, it is necessary to

As engine operating conditions change, there is a corresponding change in the
either dehumidify the sample gas or heat the sampling system to prevent H2O
composition and physical nature of exhaust gas. Careful attention must be paid
condensation before or inside the detector.
to the analytical measurements and the sample conditioning of exhaust gases

The measured exhaust gas temperatures during a high-speed driving cycle (US06)

Engine exhaust gas temperatures may increase to as high as 900°C in the exhaust manifold.
Exhaust gas temperatures may reach 700°C when operated on an engine dynamometer.
Operating a vehicle on a chassis dynamometer, where the engine exhaust is cooled in the
vehicle exhaust system, the exhaust temperature may increase up to 350°C during high-
speed or high-acceleration conditions.
13
The above arrangement heats the line between the sampling point and the NOx
converter. After the NO2 is converted to NO by the converter, the gas is
dehumidified. This prevents loss of water-soluble NO2 inside the dehumidifier.
14
 CLD utilizes a phenomenon in which a compound excited in a chemical reaction
Measurements emits excitation energy as luminescence, or light.
In a reactor, NO in the introduced sample gas is oxidized into NO2 by ozone, which is
 Non-Dispersive Infrared Analyzers (SAE811234) also introduced into the reactor.

 Electrochemical gas sensors (http://www.tsi.com/)

 Zirconia-Type NO Sensor

Chemiluminescence Detection (CLD) Proportional to NO in

Exhaust gas (ppm)
NO detector

Photodiode
NO +O3 NO2* + O2

Reaction chamber Excited molecule Emission of

photons
As this excited NO2* decays to its ground state, excitation energy is emitted as
NO2 + hγ
(Red light)
photons. This phenomenon is generally called chemiluminescence.
The intensity of luminescence is proportional to the amount of NO reacted with
Ground state
O3; therefore, detecting the luminescence intensity with a photoelectric element
CLD has been adopted to measure NO and NOx (sum provides the NO concentration in the sample gas.
of NO and NO2) in engine exhaust gas. 16

Chemiluminescence Analyzer Oxygen

Sample
Ozone
Make : Rosemount analytical Exhaust

Model: NGA2000CLD

Principle: Chemiluminescence

Features: NO and NO2

Range : 0 to 10ppm through

0 to 10,000ppm

Flow diagram-CLD NGA2000 analyzer

 Bioluminescence
Chemiluminescence Measurement sensitivity
NO sensitivity is influenced by the existence of CO2 and H2O in the sample gas.

A portion of excited NO2 can decay to the ground state without emitting photons by
NO2 →NO NO +O3 NO *2 Ground
collision with CO2 or H2O as:
state

Heated bed of Reaction chamber Excited molecule NO2 * + CO2 → NO2 + CO2*
vitreous carbon Quenching effect
NO2 + Red light
NO2 * + H2O → NO2 + H2O*

Emission of
photons
Proportional to NO in DC
Photodiode
sample gas output Total NOx (NOx converter packed with a carbon based material)
NO2 + C → NO + CO
Nitrogen dioxide is converted to nitric oxide by decomposition so that total NOX (NO+NO2)
concentration can be determined 2NO2 + C → 2NO + CO2

Water Addition
Diesel NO – Parametric Studies & Control Measures
Increasing inlet air humidity in a D.I. engine was found to reduce NO significantly and to
increase smoke emission. Adding water changes the lean ignition limit and increases the
LFOR size and the hydrocarbon and CO formation
 Effect of Fuel Air Ratio

 Effect of Fuel Types

 Effect of Injection Timing

 Effect of Swirl

 Effect of Turbocharging

 Effect of Intake Air Charge Dilution

 Effect of Injection Nozzle Continuous phase : oil

Dispersed phase: water
Emulsion type: water-in-oil
 Low Temperature Combustion (LTC)
One way to avoid both soot and NOx emissions is to keep the
temperature during combustion below ~1650 K

A new combustion concept known as low-temperature combustion

is formed on a similar basis to HCCI combustion

Effect of Fuel Air Ratio Effect of Fuel Types

The injection timing was advanced for the low cetane number fuel to account for its longer
The effect of the overall fuel-air ratio on the NO emission for a single cylinder D.I. research delay period, which kept the start of combustion at the same point in the cycle for each fuel.
engine is shown below. The observed NO concentration in the exhaust increased with the
increase in fuel air ratio and reached a maximum at a ratio of about 0.048

With low cetane fuel, the ignition delay is longer than with the other fuel and more fuel is
present in the LFR when combustion starts. This larger quantity of fuel produces a higher gas
temperature upon combustion early in the cycle, and more NO is formed in the LFR.

The increase in NO formation with the decrease in cetane number of the fuel may be
attributed to the effect of the preignition radicals on the mechanism of NO formation.
 Fuel additives
Altering the fuel composition or blending with additives for desired effect
(NOx mitigation)

 Alcohol blends
 Fischer-Tropsch diesel blends
 Additives like Di-tert-butyl peroxide (DTBP) and 2-ehtyl hexyl nitrate (EHN)
 Metallic fuel additives…. Potentiality of two
different cetane
Some metallic fuel additives may reduce NO while enhancing techniques, viz.
causing the emission of harmful particulates partial hydrogenation and
addition of
2-Ethylhexyl nitrate (EHN)

27

Effect of Injection Timing Split / Pilot injection

This figure shows that injection advance results in longer ignition delay because the fuel is Pilot injection is an effective way to reduce the ignition delay and high rates of pressure rise
injected in air at lower temperatures and pressures. Longer ignition delay causes more fuel at the start of injection. This results in lower NO and noise, but in higher HC emissions
evaporation and mixing in the LFR and high NO concentration.

The results show that,

a sacrifice in fuel
economy and smoke
emissions
with injection retard in the
D.I. engine, but can be
reduced by increasing the
injection pressures

Late injection has been established to be an effective way to reduce NO emissions; however
this results in a loss in BMEP and fuel economy Injection results from a CRDi engine
 Split / Pilot injection EGR recirculate a portion of the exhaust gas
back into the engine intake to increase the specific heat capacity of the
Pilot injection is an effective way to reduce the ignition delay and high rates of pressure rise combustion gas, consequently effectively lowering the combustion
at the start of injection. This results in lower NO and noise, but in higher HC emissions
temperature inside the cylinder and reducing NOx formation. Surplus
Injection Timing Retardation Exhaust Gas Recirculation

Injection results from a CRDi engine

Conventional means of NOx Mitigation

Effect of Intake Air Charge Dilution EGR Measurement and Control

One of the methods used to reduce the NO emissions in diesel exhaust is to dilute the
intake air charge with exhaust gases or water injection.

 Acts as a heat sink and

 Displaces the fresh oxygen
< 1bar ~ 2/3 bar

2.5 bar?
- TC Engines

34
 Figure shows an example of the EGR ratio measurement EGR configurations for Turbo Charged engines
when opening the EGR valve in a step change. It seems that the behaviour of the
EGR ratio closely correlates to the opening of the valve.
[Zheng M et al.,2004]

• Low pressure loop • High pressure loop

35
 The maximum concentration of EGR rates attempted by various
researchers for single cylinder and multi- cylinder engines are shown

1400 rpm-Full load

High EGR rates are introduced to retard the ignition timing

Effect of EGR (5,10, 15%) on NO, smoke, fuel consumption & peak pressure
39
toward TDC and to control the onset of combustion process

Effect of Swirl
Regulated
Research studies has shown that the shroud position which produces minimum CO also Emissions
results in the highest NO concentration in the exhaust. Further, an increase in NO
emissions with swirl has also been reported.

Effect of Turbocharging
The orders of magnitude of the
Turbocharging-intercooling tends to reduce NO emissions slightly. However, to avoid the concentrations of various
high peak pressures caused by turbocharging, the compression ratio may be reduced
but this would produce cold startability problems
pollutant components in
the exhaust gas of an internal
combustion engine

2
 Brake Specific Nitric Oxide : Calculation
The brake specific emission concentrations of NO are obtained from their measured
emission concentrations in ppm as

NO( ppm) *1e  6 * mexh ( g / h) * MWNO ( g / mol )
BSNO( g / kWh) 
BP( KW ) * MWexh ( g / mol )
BS VI emission standards for heavy-duty engines
where NO is nitric oxide,
mexh is the mass flow rate of exhaust gas (sum of mass flow rate of air and fuel),
MWNO is the molecular weight of nitric oxide (30 g/mol) and
MWexh is the molecular weight of exhaust gas.

BS VI emission standards for 2- and 3-wheel vehicles, g/km

https://www.dieselnet.com/standards/in/hd.php

NOx Formation and Control in S.I. Engines NO Formation in S.I. Engines

Nitric oxides are formed via oxidation of molecular nitrogen in the bulk gases,
 Nitric oxide is the only oxide of nitrogen produced in significant quantities
inside the engine cylinder as shown below :
inside petrol engine, forms in the burning and burnt gases

 NO forms in both the flame front and the post flame gases. However, the
formation in the post flame gases is generally much more important
Mass fraction
burned

TDC

Flame front, The NO formation is rate controlled and the freezing of NO chemistry occurs
source of NO early in the expansion process as the gases cool.
The temperature distribution in the burnt and unburnt gases has a significant
effect on the emissions characteristics of the engine Diesel NO – Parametric Studies & Control Measures

 Effect of Fuel Air Ratio

Nitric oxides forms quickly
during the highest
temperature period, but
 Effect of Fuel Types
freezes after the
temperature has dropped  Effect of Injection Timing
to about 1400 K for
stoichiometric mixtures.  Effect of Swirl

Therefore, any operating  Effect of Turbocharging

parameter leading to a
change in the temperature  Effect of Intake Air Charge Dilution
history of the burned gas
will have a pronounced
effect on the NO yield
 Effect of Injection Nozzle

Effect of Spark Timing

Gasoline NO – Parametric Studies & Control Measures
 Advancing the spark from MBT leads to higher peak temperatures and thus higher NO
 Effect of Fuel Air Ratio levels.

 Retarding the spark timing decreases the peak temperatures (and increases the exhaust
 Effect of Fuel Types temperatures), leading to lower NO and HC, subject to a penalty in fuel efficiency.

 Effect of Spark Timing For example, spark retard reduces cylinder pressures and thus burnt gas temperatures
during the combustion process, and NO formation rates are thereby reduced.

 Effect of Swirl
Geometric Design Factors
 Effect of Turbocharging  Higher compression ratios increase engine efficiency but also increase the final
temperature of the burned gases
 Effect of Intake Air Charge Dilution  Valve overlap angles have a strong effect on dilution: Larger fractions of burned gases are
trapped in the cylinder with increasing valve overlap angles and therefore decreases NO.
 Effect of Injection Nozzle
Changes in the inlet geometry, asymmetric EGR injection and stratification can be used to
increases tolerance to dilution and affect combustion phasing in order to decrease NO
 Geometric Design Factors (as it affects flame speed and length
of flame travel)
 Engine Emissions
The opening and closing of the exhaust and inlet valve The undesirable emissions generated in the combustion process
overlap each other of automobiles pollute the environment and contribute to global
warming, acid rain, photochemical smog, respiratory and other problems

Emissions of concern
– Hydrocarbon (HC)
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
Matter in the
– Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) form of minute
separate
– Smoke/Soot/Particulates particles

The major causes of these emissions are non-stoichiometric

combustion, dissociation of nitrogen, and impurities in the fuel and air

Engine Emissions Tobacco Smoke

• Ammonia—used in household cleaners
The undesirable emissions generated in the combustion process • Arsenic—used in pesticides and rat poisons
of automobiles pollute the environment and contribute to global • Benzene—found in gasoline
warming, acid rain, photochemical smog, respiratory and other problems • Butane—used in lighter fluid
• Cadmium—used to make batteries
• Carbon Monoxide—found in car exhaust
Emissions of concern • Chromium—used to make steel
– Hydrocarbon (HC) • Cyanide—deadly poison
• Formaldehyde—used for embalming
– Carbon monoxide (CO) • Hydrogen Cyanide—used in chemical weapons
Matter in the • Lead—once used in paint
– Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) form of minute • Malitol—a sweetener not permitted to be used in foods in the U.S.
separate • Nicotine—found in bug sprays; one of the harshest chemicals found in tobacco
– Smoke/Soot/Particulates particles smoke
• Polonium 210—radioactive and very toxic
• Tar—material used to make roads
The major causes of these emissions are non-stoichiometric • Toluene—found in paint thinners
combustion, dissociation of nitrogen, and impurities in the fuel and air • Vinyl chloride—used to make pipes
3
https://www.swedish.org/classes-and-resources/smoking-cessation/whats-in-a-cigarette
 [Ref: http://www.clean-heat.eu/en/background/particulate-matter.html]

Heavy-duty diesel engines typically emit

SI Engine Particulates CI Engine Particulates higher particle number concentrations than
spark-ignition engines and light-duty vehicles
The particle size distribution with leaded fuel is about 80% by mass
– Lead below 2 micron dia and about 40% below 0.2 micron dia
Typical composition of diesel exhaust
particulate matter (PM). Any matter collected on a
– Organic particulates including soot However, it depends on the exhaust conditions filter paper at a temperature
and the particulate sampling method of 325 K and consists of small
– Sulfates carbon spheres (0.01-0.08µm)

Unleaded
gasoline has 150
to 600 ppm sulfur
Sulfur is oxidized SO2 is oxidized by the PM  1.024 Soot  0.277 HC
to sulfur dioxide exhaust catalyst to SO3

Diesel particulate consist principally of

combustion generated carbonaceous
material (soot) on which some organic
SO3 combines with water
compounds have become absorbed
at ambient temperatures
to form
In properly tuned SI engine, soot emissions (black smoke – Sulfuric acid aerosol
overrich – cold starting) in the exhaust is
not a significant problem
 The composition of all particulate matter in the diesel exhaust is shown below:
Diesel particles consist up to 95 % of organic (PAH and soot) and
up to 5 % of inorganic components
Diesel exhaust samples are seen to consist of collections of primary
particles (Spherules) agglomerated into aggregates (particles)
Individual particles range in
appearance from clusters of
spherules to chains of spherules.
Clusters may contain as many as
4000 spherules
The spherules are combustion
generated soot particles which
vary in diameter between 10 and
80 nm, although most are in the
range from 15 to 30 nm
Diesel PM is generally composed of the following four main fractions:
• Elemental carbon (solid), i.e. soot,
• Soluble organic fraction (solid or liquid substances finely distributed in gases)
from fuel and engine lubricant oil,
• Sulfates (hydrated sulfuric acid, metal sulfates, depending on sulfur content of
fuel), and
• Ash (inorganic materials), which requires low sulfated ash, phosphorous, and
sulfur engine oils, and other components (solid) mainly from engine corrosion
and wear (Fe, Cu, Cr, and Al), lube oil with additive package (Ca, Zn, P, S, etc.),
and base stock (HC)
The carbon atoms are bonded together in hexagonal face-
centered arrays in planes, commonly referred to as platelets.
Platelets are arranged in layers to form crystallites.
Platelet Crystallite Particle
Typically, there are 2 to 5 platelets per crystallite, and on the order of 10^3
crystallites per spherule. The spherules are fused together to form particles.
A lattice image of diesel particle, suggests that a concentric lamellate
structure arranged around the center of each spherule.
A single spherule contains 10^5 to 10^6 carbon atoms
 Particle Diesel engine particles are a complex mixture of nonvolatile
(or solid) and semivolatile components

Platelet Crystallite Spherule Nonvolatile component Semivolatile component

The formation process starts with a
fuel molecule containing
12 to 22 carbon atoms and an
H/C ratio of ~2
 It mainly consists of fractal-like  This composed of low- and
Particle carbonaceous agglomerates also semivolatile organic and sulfuric
known as the accumulation acid (H2SO4) vapors that
(soot) mode in the size range of originate from unburned fuel,
The exhaust particulate is usually partitioned lubricant oil and partial
30–500 nm. combustion products
with an extraction solvent into a soluble
fraction a dry-soot fraction
 Soot particles are formed in  The formation of semivolatile
locally fuel-rich regions of the nucleation mode particles in
combustion flame in the engine. engine exhaust has commonly
been linked to the binary
homogeneous nucleation of
H2SO4 and H2O and possibly HC
Ends up with particles (~100 nm),
composed of spherules 20 to 30 nm, Decreasing the sulfur level in the fuel linearly decreases the
containing 10^5 carbon atoms and amount of sulfate in particulate
an H/C ratio of ~0.1

Reducing sulfur in diesel fuel is the most cost-effective way and consequently, many
countries are desulfurizing diesel fuel because of the reductions in particulate

Exhaust gas generally contains sulfur compounds generated by engine oil and
fuel combustion. Figure shows an example of the concentrations of sulfur
Compounds present in the exhaust gas estimated from sulfur
content in the fuel and engine oil
 Particle size distribution

Soot particles can be categorized into the following five sizes of the
aerodynamic diameter:

 Large particles >10 μm

 Coarse particles 2.5 to 10 μm (PM10)
 Fine particles 0.1 to 2.5 μm (PM2.5)
 Ultra-fine particles 50 to 100 nm (0.1 nm) (PM0.1) and
 Nanoparticles <50 nm
The particle size distribution is bimodal and
• The smaller size range is thought to be liquid hydrocarbon drops and/or
individual spherules characterized by number-mean diameters of 10 to 20 nm
• The larger size range is thought to be the particles of agglomerated spherules
characterized by number-mean diameters of 100 to 150 nm.
16

Diesel exhaust samples are seen to consist of collections of primary The carbon atoms are bonded together in hexagonal face-
particles (Spherules) agglomerated into aggregates (particles)
centered arrays in planes, commonly referred to as platelets.
Platelets are arranged in layers to form crystallites.
Individual particles range in
appearance from clusters of
spherules to chains of spherules.
Clusters may contain as many as Platelet Crystallite Particle
4000 spherules

The spherules are combustion
generated soot particles which
vary in diameter between 10 and
80 nm, although most are in the
range from 15 to 30 nm
Typically, there are 2 to 5 platelets per crystallite, and on the order of 10^3
crystallites per spherule. The spherules are fused together to form particles.
A lattice image of diesel particle, suggests that a concentric lamellate
structure arranged around the center of each spherule.
A single spherule contains 10^5 to 10^6 carbon atoms
 Particle Particle size distribution

Platelet Crystallite Spherule

Airborne particles have irregular shapes, and their aerodynamic behaviour is
expressed in terms of the diameter of an idealised spherical particle known
as aerodynamic diameter.
Particle
Soot particles can be categorized into the following five sizes of the
aerodynamic diameter: The particle size distribution is bimodal and
• The smaller size range is thought to be liquid hydrocarbon drops and/or
 Large particles >10 μm individual spherules characterized by number-mean diameters of 10 to 20 nm
 Coarse particles 2.5 to 10 μm (PM10) • The larger size range is thought to be the particles of agglomerated spherules
characterized by number-mean diameters of 100 to 150 nm.
 Fine particles 0.1 to 2.5 μm (PM2.5)
 Ultra-fine particles 50 to 100 nm (0.1 nm) (PM0.1) and
 Nanoparticles <50 nm

Size distribution of particulate matter emitted from the DI diesel engine was measured
using a Cascade Impactor. The typical contribution of the small and large particles to the Electrical Low Pressure Impactor (ELPI)
particle number and particle mass is shown below;
Nanoparticles are classified into size fractions by a multiple-stage cascade
impactor

Principle of Measurement
Nuclei are
the first The number concentration for each particle size classification is measured by a
recognizable very small electric current that is proportional to the number of particles collected
soot particles by a stage in the impactor

Schematic

Order of large-size
particles to smaller-
It is clear that the very small particles that make up the nuclei mode are present size particles
in the greatest number, but contribute little to the total mass, while the relatively
small number of the larger particles that make up the accumulation mode
dominates the particulate mass. 7
 ELPI Operating Procedure Chassis dyno for measuring vehicle emissions
• Once the particles enter the detector, they are charged by a corona charger and then sent
to the cascade impactor, where they are separated and classified by the impactor stages.

• The flow velocity of the particles in the first stage of the impactor is low; hence, particles
with the largest inertia, which are particles with the largest diameter, are collected by
the first-stage impaction plate.

• The cross-section of each successive impactor nozzle is smaller, which accelerates the
flow velocity such that the largest remaining particles impact on the next impactor plate.
Smaller particles are collected in downstream stages.

• In other words, the particles are classified in the order of large-size particles to smaller-
size particles. A very weak electric current is generated as the charged particles are
collected on the impaction plates.

• By measuring the current generated from each plate, the number of particles in each size
classification is continuously measured.

In the standard mass emission

measurement procedure, dilution
tunnels are used to simulate the
physical and chemical processes the
particulate emissions undergo in the
atmosphere
The smaller particles that are proposed to be the most harmful to human health.
Consequently, the particulate emissions are being legislated not only in mass (PM),
but also in number (PN)

In the dilution tunnel, the raw exhaust

gases are diluted with ambient air to a
temperature of 52 deg.C or less and a
sample stream from the diluted exhaust is
filtered to remove the particulate material
 First stage Clean flame since no solid carbon
is formed
Soot Formation 𝛽
𝛼𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻 + 2𝑥 − 𝛼 𝑂2 Clean (𝒙 ≥ 𝟐𝜶)
2 2

𝐶𝛼 𝐻𝛽 + 𝑥𝑂2
The formation process starts with a
fuel molecule containing The exhaust particulate is usually partitioned
𝑥 𝑥 𝛽
12 to 22 carbon atoms and an with an extraction solvent into a soluble 𝐶𝑂 + 𝛼 − 𝐶 𝑠 + 𝐻2 Sooting (𝒙 < 𝟐𝜶)
H/C ratio of ~2 fraction a dry-soot fraction 2 2 2

Not enough oxygen & likely to

occur locally within the fuel spray
1
Ends up with particles (~100 nm), Second stage 𝐶𝑂 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2
2
composed of spherules 20 to 30 nm,
containing 10^5 carbon atoms and 𝐶(𝑠) + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2
an H/C ratio of ~0.1
1
𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂
2

A two stage reaction path for the heterogeneous combustion of a

hydrocarbon fuel

Soot Formation (nonequilibrium process) Particulate Production Process

Soot formation takes place in the diesel combustion environment at temperatures between about
1000 and 2800 K, at pressures of 50 to 100 atm with sufficient air overall to burn fully all the fuel and Dehydrogenation
the time available for soot formation from a fraction of the fuel, is in the order of milliseconds Nucleation
Oxidation
Soot production paths Formation
Dehydrogenation
temperature Surface growth Oxidation Cylinder
1 Pyrolysis (Aromatics / ≤ 1700 K
Unsaturated aliphatic
compounds) Dehydrogenation
Agglomeration Oxidation
2 All hydrocarbon fuels ≥ 1800 K (Diffusion Dilution
at rich stoichiometry flames) tunnel –
simulates the
3 Nucleation process At very high Occurs after the cylinder gases are Adsorption & actual
seems likely involving temperatures exhausted from the engine, as Hydrocarbons Condensation atmospheric
carbon vapor these gases are diluted with air dilution
process
The resulting aerosol – dispersed solid phase particles in a gas can be characterized by the total
amount of condensed phase
At each stage in the process oxidation (soot oxidation is a kinetic process) can
 Soot volume fraction (soot volume /total volume), occur where soot or soot precursors are burned in the presence of oxidizing
 Number of soot particles per unit volume and the species to form gaseous products such as CO and CO2
 Size of the particles The final/net emission of soot from the engine will depend on the balance
between these processes of formation and burnout.
 Particle Formation Particle Growth
• Pyrolysis process – the decomposition and atomic rearrangement of the fuel • Particle growth includes both surface growth, coagulation and aggregation
molecules, that culminates in nucleation • Surface growth, by which the bulk of solid-phase material is generated,
• Thermal cracking results in fragmentation of fuel molecules into smaller ones, involves the attachment of gas-phase species to the surface of particles and
• Condensation reaction and polymerization that result in larger molecules and their incorporation into the particulate phase.
• Dehydrogenation that lowers the H/C ratio of the hydrocarbons destined to • Surface growth reactions lead to an increase in the amount of soot but the
become soot number of particles remains unchanged
Condensation reactions • Whereas, the opposite is true for growth by coagulation, which decreases the
Direct (fast) number of particles with constant soot volume fraction
Soot
at low temperature • Agglomeration does not contribute to the rise in soot volume fraction but
Graphitelike structure increase the particle size
Aromatics (PAH)
CHx
C2Hx Indirect (slow) Collision of two spherical
C3Hx Soot
particles
Single spheroid
These smaller hydrocarbon
fragments polymerize to form May result in their
larger unsaturated molecules coagulation into a
Aliphatics

Adsorption & Condensation Soot modelling

 Adsorption involves the adherence of molecules of unburned Acetylene and its higher
hydrocarbons to the surfaces of the soot particles by chemical or analogues (C2nH2) and
physical (Van der Waals) forces polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH) are
considered the most likely
 Adsorption depends on the fraction of the available particle precursors of soot in flames
surface area occupied by hydrocarbons and on the partial
pressure of the gaseous hydrocarbons that drives the adsorption
process

 High exhaust concentrations of hydrocarbons are the conditions

where condensation is likely to be most significant and the
hydrocarbons most likely to condense are those of low volatility.

 Condensation will occur, whenever the vapour pressure of the

gaseous hydrocarbon exceeds its saturated vapour pressure
 The soot mass fraction as a function of the crank angle in a diesel
engine is illustrated below.

• At the beginning of combustion, a relatively large amount of soot is produced, which is

however for the most part oxidized again during the main and post-combustion phases.

• The amount of particles measured in the exhaust gas is thus only a fraction (approx. 0.1
to 1 %) of the maximum formed particles.

• This very much problematizes the understanding and the coverage of the dominating
chemical and physical processes in soot formation

Summary Soot Formation

- Chemical reduction of the fuel molecules to acetylene and to C3H3 ions,
formation of the first benzene ring,
- Formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons via polymerization of rings and
advancing dehydration, also proportional increase of C atoms,
Precursor Soot Primary
- Condensation and formation of soot kernels (nucleation) with dimensions of Fuel + Air
Molecule Nuclei Particle Aggregate
approx 1 to 2 nm, (20 nm) (50 – 150 nm)

- Coalescence of soot kernels to form primary soot particles (surface growth) with
diameters of about 20-30 nm and then addition of various substances,
 Pyrolysis  Coagulation  Surface Growth
- Coalescence of primary soot particles to long, chain structures (agglomeration),  Surface  Aggregation
 Incomplete Nucleation
Combustion Growth
- Breaking down of soot particles and intermediate species via oxidation with O2
molecules and OH radicals.

22 23
 Measurement Methods PM Measurement

Techniques for PM measurement range from simple smoke meter opacity readings to
analyses using dilution tunnels. Weighing a filter paper before and after a known volume
of exhaust gas. However, this is a slow process and not suitable for transient testing

TEOM Detector for continuous monitoring

 A rapid technique is the tapered element oscillating micro-balance detector,

were a very small filter paper is fitted to the narrow end of a tapered tube in a
50 deg.C constant- temperature oven
 The tube is held at the wider end and free at the filter end. The flow of
particulates is calculated by monitoring the change in mass of the assembly
 To measure the mass, the tube is excited to vibrate at its natural frequency as
a cantilever.
 As the mass of the filter increases, the natural frequency decreases according
to the relationship;

𝒌 Spring rate (N/m)

Frequency(rad/s) 𝒇=
24
𝒎

The sensor unit consists of a teflon-coated glass filter

cartridge mounted at the tip of a tapered glass tube.
This tube (the tapered element) is fixed at the base,
while the tip is free to vibrate at its natural frequency.

https://app.cpcbccr.com/AQI_India/

As particles accumulate on the filter cartridge, the natural

frequency of oscillation of the tube decreases. TEOM calculates the
mass of particles collected on a filter by monitoring the
corresponding frequency changes of a vibrating tapered element 27
 Other Measurements Black Smoke Measurement
Opacity / Reflectivity from a filter paper
Opacity method and light reflection method are generally used to measure the
smoke emissions
 Exhaust gas specimen is sucked through a filter paper.
 Blackening of the filter indicates the soot content in the exhaust gas. Opacity Meter

In the optical instruments, a known volume
of exhaust is drawn through a Filter paper
and its reflectivity assessed.
Exhaust gas sample is sent to the measurement cell, where a laser beam is aimed
at the flowing sample. A part of the beam is obscured from absorption and is
scattered by the particles in the exhaust. The amount of obscured light
determines the smoke concentration and is represented in units of either opacity
[%] or absorption coefficient [m–1].

Bosch Smoke Meter

Bosch Smoke Inference

Number (BSN)
0 Clean paper
10 Paper which reflects no light
at all 29

Mathematical Calculations Light Reflection

Approximately 250 to 330 mL of exhaust gas is sampled and drawn through a 30 to 32 mm-
Opacity [%] diameter filter by a suction pump. Next, the percentage of reflected light is determined
from pre-test and post-test filter measurements.

A photo cell is used to detect the reflected light, and the degree of blackness is scaled from
In either case, the smoke 0 to 10 (0 to 100%). When calibrating the sensitivity, a mask specifically used for the
concentration depends on the calibration is laid on a clean filter to create a condition of 50% blackness. Only black
particulate components that contaminate the filter are measured by this method.
measured optical path length
and the particle concentration
that obscures the light, and
not the exhaust flow rate or Absorption coefficient
the flow velocity

30 31
The paper blackening is determined by diffuse reflection of the blackened filter paper Emission analysis

Smoke meter
(AVL 415SE)

Paper blackening value (PB):

Emission Testing Equipment's at VIT
= Reflectometer value of sample
= Reflectometer value of the unblackened paper
= relative brightness of the sample (relative radiance factor)

Filter Smoke Number (FSN) Exhaust gas

analyzer
FSN = PB, at sampling length is 405 mm. & sampled volume is related to 298 K and 1 bar. (AVL DiTest
GAS 1000)
Brake specific soot emission (g/kWh):

33

Other Measurements
The initial nanostructures of the particulate samples, were visualized by high resolution
transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM).

RCM can simulate one cycle of the

actual engine

Tokyo institute of technology is focusing on

the research domain
- mechanism of heat loss in gasoline and
- mechanism of diesel spray

Rapid Compression Machine (RCM)

https://www.jsme.or.jp/esd/COMODIA-Procs/Data/001/C85_P149.pdf
 Recommended Test Setups
Smoke Emission Control

In cylinder Control

Use of Oxygenated Fuels
Exhaust After Treatment Systems

“Only the Exhaust After Treatment systems can reduce the smoke or soot
emissions drastically”

Example: Diesel Particulate 1. Engine

Filter (DPF) 2. Catalyst
3. Analysis of exhaust gases plant pre-cat.
4. Analysis of exhaust gases plant post-cat.
5. Partial flow dilution tunnel for the gravimetric particle measurement
Picture source: SUNNY-METAL PARTIAL-FLOW DPF; http://www.Sunny-metal.Com/partial-flow%20dpf.Html 6. Opacity measuring instrument
7. Smoke Meter
36

Engine Spec. Soot Formation Recap…

• Displacement: 2.74cc

• Speed: 28,000rpm

• Power: 1.0hp Precursor Soot

Fuel + Air Primary
Molecule Nuclei Particle Aggregate
• Weight: 250g (20 nm) (50 – 150 nm)

 Pyrolysis  Coagulation  Surface Growth

 Incomplete Nucleation  Surface  Aggregation
Combustion Growth

Gravitas RC Baja
3
 Emission analysis
Smoke Emission Control

In cylinder Control

Smoke meter
Use of Oxygenated Fuels
(AVL 415SE) Exhaust After Treatment Systems

“Only the Exhaust After Treatment systems can reduce the smoke or soot
Emission Testing Equipment's at VIT emissions drastically”

Exhaust gas Example: Diesel Particulate

analyzer Filter (DPF)
(AVL DiTest
GAS 1000)

Picture source: SUNNY-METAL PARTIAL-FLOW DPF; http://www.Sunny-metal.Com/partial-flow%20dpf.Html

4 5

• Filtration efficiency

• Filter material, geometry (pore size..) Ambient air

PM Control Methods • Filter blockage & impacts (cost, replacement..)

• Filter operating conditions (pressure difference..)

• Filter operation hours

Suction

Filter Element

Air Purifiers
DPF Ambient air
DOC

7
 Engine Exhaust Pipe Back Pressure

Pressure sensor Pressure sensor Pressure sensor Pressure sensor

Engine exhaust

Particulate Filter
Filter Blockage leads
to pressure build-up

8 9

Traps are filter-like devices designed to

Particulate Traps remove particulates, from the exhaust
stream and is located in the vehicle tailpipe
 Ceramic monoliths
Alumina coated wire mesh Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) reduce course particles
 Ceramic foam whose diameter is between 1 and 10 µm and is
Ceramic fiber mat usually cylindrical ceramic structure with thousands of
small parallel channels positioned in the longitudinal
Woven silica-fiber rope direction of the exhaust system
wound on a porous tube

Traps are filter-like systems often made of

ceramic in the form of a monolith/mat, or
else made of metal wire mesh. Traps
typically remove 60-90% of particulates in
the exhaust flow
 Trap Containment Features – Exploded view

Most modern Diesel particulate filters are composed of refractory

ceramics. Two most popular ceramic compositions of filters are
Cordierite and Silicon Carbide

Monolithic (Cordierite) Segmented (Silicon Carbide)

The main design criteria that can contribute to the

successful performance of DPFs typically are; Particulate matter filtration efficiency (PMFE)

 high filter efficiency,

 low pressure drop,
 robust structural and thermal durability and reliability,
high capacity to resist high temperature excursions
Where;
during a large number of regeneration events over PMup is particulate mass upstream from the DPF,
PMdn is particulate mass downstream from the DPF
their life cycles
 DPF Development Roadmap Regeneration Passive system

• The most challenging problem has been to develop the

technology to oxidize or in other words to "regenerate" the
substrate back to the original clean state.

• Diesel particulate matter ignites ~500 to 600 deg.C and this

temperature range in the typical diesel vehicle application is
not achieved for sufficient time periods to self regenerate.

• Regeneration is the term used to describe the process of

removing soot by oxidizing it to carbon dioxide at a suitably
high temperature (active filters)

Active system

Active system Passive system / Catalysed Trap

This involves catalysed coatings on the trap substrate or the use of
The sensors monitor the build-up of PM in the trap; periodically the
additives in the fuel that in turn lay down the additive or the additive
control system activates specific processes that involve diesel fuel
reaction products with the diesel particulate matter on the trap
burners or electric heaters to initiate oxidation of the collected
substrate which then catalyses the regeneration process.
particulate matter. These active systems have generally been complex
and costly

Burner system Electrically Catalytic coatings on the trap material reduce the ignition
regenerated DPF temperature by up to 250 deg.C
 CATALYST
 Catalysts are used essentially to lower the activation energy (minimum
energy that reactants must have in order to form products) of the overall
reaction such that the reaction proceeds at a high rate even at low
temperature
 A catalyst is a material that accelerates the rate of a given reaction without
itself being consumed by the reaction
 The action of the catalyst is to adsorb one or more of the reactants onto the
surface of the catalyst at so called active sites
𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡 ⇄ 𝑌 + 𝑍 + 𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡
CATALYTIC CONVERTERS
 Generally, catalytic converters are called three-way converters because they
promote the reduction of CO, HC, and NOx in a single catalyst bed
Most consist of a stainless steel container mounted along the exhaust pipe of
the engine. Inside the container is a porous ceramic structure through which the
gas flows and alumina is the base ceramic material used for catalytic converters
 In most converters, the ceramic is a single honeycomb structure with many flow
passages, which ensures the greatest possible surface for the catalytic reaction in a
small space.
Volume of the ceramic structure of a converter is generally about half the
displacement volume of the engine

In order for molecules to be transformed from reactants to products, it is necessary

that they pass through some energy state that is higher than that corresponding to
either the reactants or products.

A catalyst increases the reaction rate by lowering the activation energy so that Activation energy
more reactant molecules collide with enough energy to surmount without platinum catalyst
the smaller energy barrier
Free
Energy
With
Reactants platinum catalyst

Activation Energy 2H2 + O2

The height of the energy barrier over which the Net reaction energy
reactants must pass on the way to becoming Products
products is known as the activation energy
2H2O

exothermic reaction Reaction Progress

23
 Catalyst Types
 The catalyst types could be a base metal (Copper or Chromium) but are more
usually noble metals (Platinum, Palladium and Rhodium)

 The transition metal oxides of copper, cobalt, iron chromate and vanadium are “Pt or Pd”
also useful as catalysts and have been considered Oxidation of CO &
HC into CO2 & H2O
 However, in spite of their expense, the noble metals are preferred because: “water gas shift
 They are much less deactivated by sulphur in the fuel at < 500 deg.C reaction”
 They have a higher specific activity for hydrogen oxidation
 They can be made more thermally resistant to reduced low-temperature
activity
 They have a superior cold-start performance “Rhodium”
 They provide equivalent catalytic activation with smaller volumes than do Reduction of
NO/NO2 into N2
base metals

Diesel oxidation catalysts

There is a narrow range of air/fuel ratio (~0.1) near stoichiometric in
 For exhaust purification, oxidation catalytic converters (DOC) have been used for
which high conversion efficiency are achieved – Closed loop control
more than many years in diesel passenger cars
 DOC serve the role of oxidizing both HC and CO emissions

The activity of DOCs on engine test

benches is primarily established by
their so-called light-off temperature.
The conversion at specific
temperatures and loads at the point at
which 50% conversion occurs is termed
the light-off temperature.
The CO light-off is approximately 175°C
in this instance.
 Different catalytic converter systems are distinguished based on the
arrangement of the catalytic converter in the overall vehicle
 In addition to the selection of catalyst materials, the geometry
of the catalyst plays a very important role in the overall A position close to the engine is
possible (underhood) that is
performance. The most important geometric factors are: subject to restrictions of
 Catalyst volume thermal, mechanical stability &
available installation space
 Cell density and active surface area
 Net flow cross-sectional area There is the traditional
underfloor position where the
 Inlet diffuser design lower exhaust temperature is
less supportive of catalysis

A combination of an
underhood preliminary
converter and underfloor
converter is used. This system
combines the advantages of a
fast heating curve of the
underhood arrangement with
the required installation space
underfloor position

PM NOx

The addition of a DPF increases the complexity in the engine/aftertreatment

system. The DPF substantially lowers PM mass emissions, but its effect on
particle number is ambiguous. This is because the mass is dominated by the soot
accumulation mode, which is efficiently trapped, but the number can be
dominated by nucleation particles formed downstream of the DPF, a process that
is very sensitive to engine operating conditions
30
 Exhaust Gas Composition SI Engine
A fuel rich AFR
does not have
enough oxygen to
HC emissions also react with all the
Gasoline (SI) Engine increase at very lean carbon, hydrogen,
mixtures due to poor and both HC and
combustion and CO emissions
misfires. increase.

Diesel (CI) Engine

The unburned hydrocarbons are composed of a number of

Unburned Hydrocarbons (UBHC) different components, which are either completely unburned or
already partially oxidized

 Exhaust gases leaving the combustion chamber of an SI engine

Hydrocarbon composition of SI engine exhaust
contain up to 6000 ppm of hydrocarbon components, the
Carbon, % of total HC
equivalent of 1-1.5 % of the fuel.
Paraffins Olefins Acetylene Aromatics
 Combustion chamber geometry and engine operating parameters 33 27 8 32
also influence the HC component.

 UBHC can result from flame quenching within and at the crevices,
such as those formed from piston topland and ring stack
 All components except CH4 react with atmospheric gases to form
photochemical smog.
Fuel composition consisting of high proportions of aromatics
and olefins produce relatively higher concentrations of
reactive hydrocarbons
 Causes – HC Emissions

– Nonstoichiometric AFR
Fuel-rich mixture: (Engine Startup & Rapid acceleration)
There is not enough oxygen to react with all the carbon, resulting in
high levels of HC & CO
Too-lean mixture: (Incomplete combustion & misfires)
One misfire out of 1000 cycles gives exhaust emissions of 1 gm/kg of
fuel used.
– Incomplete Combustion
Flame quenching at the walls leaves a small volume of unreacted air-
and-fuel mixture & Higher exhaust residuals 8

Flame quenching Peclet number

HC development has the following causes: If the ratio of the thermal energy released in the flame to heat losses of the flame
at the wall is lower than a certain value, the flame is extinguished.
 Frontal extinguishing of the flame while approaching a cold wall,
 Flame extinguishment within a gap due to excessive cooling of the flame front, This can be roughly described by the Peclet number

 Flame extinguishment as a result of an insufficient flame speed during expansion

Quench layers are regions very close to the
cooled engine walls through which a
premixed flame can no longer propagate
whereby the first two cases of wall and gap of flame extinguishment are
differentiated with the indices 1 and 2.
w stands for the flame speed and x1 and x2 for the wall distance and the gap
width

From numerous experiments, the values Pe1 ≈ 8 and Pe2 ≈ 40 result for the
Flame quenching at the walls leaves a small volume of unreacted air-and-fuel critical Peclet numbers

mixture & higher exhaust residuals 10

As combustion starts, up to 6 % of the mixture escapes into the piston ring gap, of which
about 2 % flows back again towards the end of combustion. At this late time, the
combustion chamber temperatures are often already so low that no further oxidation to
complete combustion products is possible anymore.
HC Reaction Rate
The so-called mechanisms of HC development are in total very complex, and a
quantitative calculation of HC emission in the SI engine is thus not yet feasible.
For the estimation of the oxidation speed of the amount of HC originating in the
cylinder, the following global relation is often recommended

In the upward movement of the piston, the unburned hydrocarbons

are then pushed out along with the remaining combustion exhaust gasses

11

1. The catalytic conversion efficiency at which

…………. conversion occurs is termed the
light-off temperature

(a) 50%

(b) 70%

HC Formation Mechanisms in SI Combustion (c) 90%

13 3
 2. Fill the empty cells 3. Identify the arrangement of following carbon atoms

Crystallite
Platelet

Surface growth

Adsorption &
Condensation

4. SO3 combines with water at ambient temperatures to

Exam Max & Min Toppers Class No of students
form…………….Sulfuric acid aerosol Average secured failed

CAT I 21.5 (out HARIHARAN R 13.92 21

of 30) & less than
5.5 15 marks
5. Size distribution of particulate matter emitted from the DI diesel
engine was measured using a………………… Cascade Impactor CAT II 40 (out of SANJEEV R 29.57 9
50) & 15 less than
25 marks

6 7
 Only 7 per cent engineering graduates employable: What's wrong
with India's engineers?
https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/featurephilia/story/engineering-employment-problems-329022-2016-07-13

Employability Survey 2019: Jobs slip away from the ill-equipped

Indian engineer
Read more at:
https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/jobs/employability-survey-2019-jobs-slip-away-from-the-ill-equipped-indian-
engineer/articleshow/68559686.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst

HC Formation Mechanisms in SI Combustion

8 9

HC emission from CI engines Fuel injected during delay period

 Some of the fuel will have mixed rapidly to
equivalence ratios lower than the lean
• Diesel fuel contains hydrocarbon compounds with higher boiling points and hence higher limit of combustion
molecular weights than gasoline.  Some will be within the combustible
• Further, pyrolysis (transformation of a substance produced by the action of heat) of diesel range

compounds within the sprays leads to complex composition of unburned hydrocarbons in  Some will have mixed more slowly and be
too rich to burn (locally overrich mixture)
diesel exhaust than their counterpart
The overlean mixture is
• HC emission levels from diesel vary significantly with operating conditions the most important, as
the mixture will not
Later in the autoignite or support a
expansion propagating flame
Fuel-air mixture can become process,
Fuel
too lean to autoignite this fuel
escaping
this normal will be
combustion consumed
process Fuel-air mixture may be too by slow
unburned rich to ignite/support a flame thermal
oxidation
reactions
 A good correlation between ignition delay and HC is evident and
Fuel injected during as the delay period increases beyond its minimum value, HC
delay period Fuel-air mixture Air increases at an increasing rate

The magnitude of the

Locally overlean unburned HC from these
Combustible overlean regions will
mixture Locally overrich mixture depend on the amount of
mixture fuel injected during the
Within this region,
unburned fuel, fuel ignition delay, the mixing
decomposition rate with air during this
products and period and the extent to
partial oxidation Slow reaction, no ignition Ignition & which prevailing cylinder
or flame propagation Bulk
products Flammation conditions are conducive to
(aldehydes and quenching
autoignition
other oxygenates)
will exist, some of
these will escape
the cylinder
without being
burned Products of incomplete Products of complete
combustion combustion

Fuel injected while To summarize

combustion is happening
In the CI engine, the process of HC formation is even more complex
Slow mixing or and thus even more problematic to calculate as in the SI engine.
Pyrolysis
lack of oxygen
The most important sources of HC are:
Combustible
mixture - the periphery of the spray – the mixture composition lies outside
Locally overrich the ignition area (too lean),
Products of
pyrolysis
mixture - the inner spray area – the mixture composition is too rich,
- extinguishment of the diffusion flame by rapid pressure and
Flammation
Bulk temperature decreases during expansion,
quenching Slow reaction, no
ignition or flame
- fuel adhering to the wall is not completely oxidized due to
propagation insufficient temperatures,
- "after-injection" due to renewed opening of the nozzle needle after
injection finish. From this results extremely large fuel drops, which
can only evaporate and combust slowly.
Products of complete Products of incomplete
combustion combustion 15
 Sac Volume - Undermixing
Injector sac volume is the small volume left in the injector tip after the needle seats.
Sac volume helps to equalize the fuel pressures immediately upstream of the nozzle
Sac hole / Blind hole volume
orifices

Sac volume = 1.35 mm3 Reduced Sac volume = 0.6 mm3

Undermixing, resulting in overrich mixture during the combustion period, is the

mechanism by which some of the fuel remaining in the sac volume escapes
combustion, and is also the cause of very high HC emissions during overfueling 17

At the end of the

injection process, the
sac volume is left filled
with fuel, which gets
heated and vaporized
during the combustion
process and enters the
cylinder at low velocity.
This fuel vapor mixes
slowly with air and
may escape the
combustion process

Fuel in the nozzle holes also

contribute to HC
 Flame Ionization Detection (FID) uses the phenomenon that HC
HC Measurement combustion in a hydrogen flame generates HC ions. The FID
response is in approximate proportion to the number of carbon
– Flame Ionization Detector (FID) atoms contained in the sample. The FID method is commonly used
for measuring HC contained in the engine exhaust gas as Total
FID is effectively a carbon counter Hydrocarbon (THC) in ppmC units.
The hydrocarbon present in the exhaust gas sample are burned in a
hydrogen-air flame, producing ions in an amount proportional to the
number of carbon atoms burned
Calibrated with known amounts of hydrocarbons
Expressed as a mole or volume fraction in ppm as C1.
– Gas Chromatography with FID
– Non Dispersive InfraRed Analyzer (NDIR)
5

Measurement results
ppm hexane (C6H14)
0r
ppm propane (C3H8) The FID is widely used for continuous measurement of THC
as well as for
batch measurement in combination with
Gas Chromatography (GC)

Comparison of Hydrocarbon Measurement with FTIR and FID in a

Dual Fuel Locomotive Engine
FID has lower sensitivity to oxygenated HC SAE 2016-01-0978
components such as methanol
Typical response of FID to different molecular structure: Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) provides a high-resolution
normalized to methane
Infrared absorption spectrum by combining an interferometer and fast Fourier
Alkanes Oxygen in Alkynes Aromatics Carbonyl
primary radical transformation. The FTIR has been approved as a principle to measure NH3 and
alcohol
N2O concentration in engine emission regulations
1 - 0.6 0.95 1 0
 In engine exhaust gas measurement, the FID sensitivity for each HC is
represented by a “response factor” that indicates the relative sensitivity
compared to propane as the calibration gas.
Gas flow diagram
HC measurement for diesel emission tests is calculated from continuous THC measurement of
diluted gas, instead of measuring a concentration from the sample collected in a bag. This is to
avoid measurement errors resulting from HC adsorption onto the bag’s internal surface as
high-boiling-point HCs cool and condense.

The sample gas flow rate in the FID detector is quite small, so a sample bypass
Table shows examples of response factors of typical FID for
line is usually included in the analyzer to speed up the
some HC components. Generally, the FID has lower sensitivity to oxygenated HC
sample transport to the detector.
components such as methanol.
8 9

Non-Dispersive Infra-Red
NDIR

Non-Dispersive Infra-Red (NDIR) detectors, using infrared absorption by

chemical compounds, is applicable to various gas components.
An analyzer employing NDIR can be configured for
easy maintenance and is also applicable for continuous measurement.
With these features, the NDIR-based
analyzer is widely used to measure several gas components
in engine exhaust gas (e.g., CO, CO2, HC, and NO).

Non-Dispersive IR  All light goes through sample

Dispersive IR  Only selected wavelength light goes through sample

10 11
 Operating principle
Lab Exam
Whether gas, liquid, or solid, many chemical compounds absorb infrared energy. The
wavelengths to be absorbed depend on the chemical structure of the compounds. The
infrared absorption spectrum of each compound has inherent and unique characteristics. Internal / Lab classes 50 (60 %)
FAT / External 50 (40 %) Dates

FAT split-up
Written viva 10
6 Jan
Lab records 5
The absorbance is known to (Thursday,
be ideally proportional to the 30 students 2 to 4 and 30
sample concentration Infrared absorption spectra Experimental Data, Procedure/Explanation, 15
students 4 to 6 pm) 2022
and the light path length. 10
Formulae
Calculations, Results table, Figures/Plots 10 Calculators, pen, pencil,
Inferences, Conclusions etc.

12

Operating principle
Recap Whether gas, liquid, or solid, many chemical compounds absorb infrared energy. The
wavelengths to be absorbed depend on the chemical structure of the compounds. The
infrared absorption spectrum of each compound has inherent and unique characteristics.
– Flame Ionization Detector (FID)
FID is effectively a carbon counter
The hydrocarbon present in the exhaust gas sample are burned in a
hydrogen-air flame, producing ions in an amount proportional to the
The absorbance is known to
number of carbon atoms burned be ideally proportional to the
sample concentration Infrared absorption spectra
Calibrated with known amounts of hydrocarbons and the light path length.

Expressed as a mole or volume fraction in ppm as C1.

– Gas Chromatography with FID
– Non Dispersive InfraRed Analyzer (NDIR)
4
The CO2 molecule has a unique absorbance band of infrared light that
shows a dominant peak at the 4.26 m wavelength and the
absorbance of the gas “A(σ)” is directly proportional to its
concentration, in accordance with the Lambert-Beer law
ε(σ): Absorption coefficient at
wave number σ
c: Sample concentration
L: Light path length in the sample
Selective filters to other wavelengths of infrared, is possible to detect
other compounds such as CO and hydrocarbons at around 3.4 μm
Pneumatic Cell-Type Detector is commonly used for CO and CO2 analysis in
engine exhaust gases. It consists of two pneumatic light-receiving cells, sample side and
reference side, filled with the target gas components. The two cells are divided by a
movable film, which acts as a diaphragm in a condenser microphone.
The infrared ray emitted from the light
source is directed to both a sample cell
and a reference cell.
Sample gas flows through the sample
cell, and the infrared ray
that passes through this cell is absorbed
by the sample gas, thereby decreasing its
intensity.
The reference cell, on the other hand, is
filled with an inert gas such as
N2, which does not absorb the infrared
ray and lets it pass through the cell
without absorbing energy.
The infrared beam is typically chopped
by a rotating blade in the
light path, which results in alternating
periods with and without infrared
radiation in the cells.
 The analytical techniques utilizing the characteristic that a compound absorbs
infrared energy at an intrinsic wave number (or wavelength) proportionally to its
concentration is generally called the Infrared (IR) method.
 NDIR is one of the IR methods, which is not spectroscopic analysis but uses non-
dispersive infrared light.
 In NDIR, the region of wavelengths used for analyzing the target component is
selected by using an optical filter (multilayer interference filter) or a gas filter (a cell
enclosing interfering gases).
 It must be noted that other gases that show absorption in the same wavelength
region will contribute to the measurement result of the target component.
 For example, when analyzing CO in engine exhaust gas, CO2 and H2O also included
in engine exhaust gas are likely to interfere with the measured CO concentration.
6
If molecules of the target component exist in the sample cell, the intensity of
the infrared light is decreased before reaching the light-receiving cell; hence, a
pressure difference is generated between the two light-receiving cells
corresponding to the concentration of the target component in the sample gas.
The displacement of the movable film (condenser microphone) caused by this
pressure difference can be converted into an alternating current signal because
of the chopped infrared beam.
Adjustment of Water Concentration
To measure low-concentration of CO accurately by NDIR,
interference from H2O should be fully considered. For controlling
the H2O interference, sample gas is often dehumidified by a sample
cooler at 2 to 5°C before it enters the sample cell
8
 Pollutants Concentration Effects
COHb*(ppm)**
Emission Equivalent Carbon 14 (100) Headache
Collapse
Monoxide 45 (500)
67 (1000) Death
Low Threshold nasal,
Throat irritation,
(0.1-3 ppm)
Respiratory problems
HC measured by FID = 2 * NDIR High
Fluid accumulation in
(0.5-10 ppm) tissue(edema), increased
FID NDIR Unburned
air way resistance and
Hydrocarbon
other changes in
pulmonary function,
fatigue, lack of
coordination, eye irritation
Low Respiratory illness
(0.06-0.1 ppm) Increased air-way
Nitric oxide
High resistance, severe edema,
(5-500 ppm) severe coughing
Particulate 100-200ppm Respiratory illness
matter Bronchitis
300-600ppm

Carbon monoxide (CO) —

CARBONMONOXIDE (CO)
 CO is a colourless, odourless, poisonous gas, is generated in an
engine at fuel-rich equivalence ratio
CO Emissions a colourless, odourless, tasteless, and
toxic air pollutant—is produced in the
incomplete combustion of carbon-
containing fuels, such as gasoline, natural
gas, oil, coal, and wood.

 When there is not enough oxygen to convert oxygen to convert all Breathing the high concentrations of CO typical of a
carbon to CO2, some carbon ends up as CO. Typically the exhaust polluted environment leads to reduced oxygen
transport by haemoglobin and has health effects
from SI engine will be about 0.2 to 5% CO.
EPA set CO standards of a maximum 1-h average
concentration of 35 ppm and a maximum 8-h average
 CO represents lost chemical energy; concentration of 9 ppm
CO + 1/2O2  CO2 + heat

 Poor mixing, local rich regions and incomplete combustion will A fuel rich AFR does not have enough
create some CO. oxygen to react with the fuel and thus CO
emissions increases.
 Fuel conversion process CO Formation – S.I
In general, the conversion of primary fuel takes place to smaller intermediate As S.I engines often operate close to
hydrocarbons, followed by oxidation to aldehydes or ketones and finally to stoichiometric at part load and fuel
carbon monoxide (CO), which is then oxidized to CO2 rich at full load conditions, carbon
monoxide (CO) emissions
[Fuel] + [O2]  Intermediate Compounds  Products S.I engine
are significant.
CO + OH CO2 + H
Slower rate Whereas, diesels operate well on the
Product of incomplete
of oxidation
conversion to CO2 lean side of the stoichiometric,
process
hence CO emissions are
negligible/unimportant
C.I engine
As a result of lack of oxygen – When the As well as of the fast expansion of the
mixture is fuel-rich - Prominent during burned gases, which freezes the final
cold start and hard acceleration oxidation process

CO Reaction Rate Stoichiometric range (λ = 1.0 )

Reactions (1) and (2) can be described with a very good approximation as a gross reaction
 In premixed flames, the CO concentration increases rapidly in the flame zone to a via the water gas reaction
maximum value, which is larger than the equilibrium value for adiabatic combustion
which in this case proceeds near equilibrium, because the surplus concentrations of the
of the fuel-air mixture.
chain propagators H• and OH• are very large
 CO formation is one of the principal reaction steps in the hydrocarbon combustion
mechanism, summarized as;
Lean range (λ > 1.0 )

CO oxidation no longer progresses in competition with H2 oxidation, but rather according to

Rich range (λ < 1.0 ) the following pattern

CO oxidation progresses, due to a lack of O2 , in competition with H2 oxidation

In this range and during the act of expansion, relatively more H• than OH• exists because
of the lack of equilibrium in reaction (1), and CO oxidation proceeds slowly.

whereby the hydroxyl radical OH• and atomic hydrogen H• function as chain propagators.
In an extremely lean mixture (λ > 1.0 ), increased CO develops again due to the lower
While reaction (2) is found in practical equilibrium, reaction (1) is kinetically controlled thus
temperatures and incomplete combustion in the area near the
advances much more slowly in the sub-stoichiometric range
wall of the combustion chamber
 CO emission from multi-cylinder engines
 In multi-cylinder engines, because CO increases rapidly as the inlet mixture becomes
richer than stoichiometric, cylinder to cylinder variations in equivalence ratio about the
mean value are important;
 Nonuniform distribution can significantly increase average emissions
 Thus improved cylinder-to-cylinder fuel/air ratio distribution has become essential
Problem
A four cylinder engine of a light duty truck vehicle has been
converted to operate on propane fuel. A dry analysis of the
engine exhaust gives the following volumetric percentages; CO2 =
4.9%, CO = 9.79%, O2 = 2.45%. Calculate the equivalence ratio at
which the engine is operating.
Quiz II Online : Schoology
 Problem
A four cylinder engine of a light duty truck vehicle has been
converted to operate on propane fuel. A dry analysis of the
engine exhaust gives the following volumetric percentages; CO2 =
4.9%, CO = 9.79%, O2 = 2.45%. Calculate the equivalence ratio at
which the engine is operating.

4 5

Take home
The analysis of the dry exhaust gas from an internal combustion
engine gave 12% CO2, 2% CO, 4% CH4, 1% H2, 4.5% O2 and 76.5
%N2. Calculates the proportions by mass of carbon to hydrogen in
the fuel, assuming it to be a pure hydrocarbon and the air to fuel
ratio used.

 y
C x H y  a(O2  3.76 N 2 )  xCO2    H 2O  3.76 N 2
2
6 7
 Take home

A fuel has the following gravimetric composition;

Hexane (C6H14) 40%

Octane (C8H18) 30%
Cyclohexane (C6H12) 40%
Benzene (C6H6) 5%

If the gravimetric AFR is 17:1, Determine the equivalence ratio.

Answer : Equivalence Ratio = 0.88

Take home Dual Fuel Operation

Orsat analysis of the products of combustion of an

unknown hydrocarbon, measured on a dry basis is as
follows :
•Carbon dioxide (CO2) = 10.4%
•Carbon monoxide (CO) = 1.2%
•Oxygen (O2) = 2.8%
•Nitrogen (N2) = 85.6%

Determine the following :

(i) Composition of hydrocarbon and
(ii) the percent theoretical air 11
 Problem
The stoichiometric AFR and net calorific value of ethyl
alcohol is 8.95:1 and 27,800 kJ/kg, calculate the calorific
value of the combustible mixture per cubic metre at 1.013
bar and 15 deg.C.

Fuel +
Air
Mixture

12 13

Ideal gas equation

14