chaptes woe 4: AC: Fundamentals | =. == / —____ —_— a — i ALG: means alternating _ Peon supply used fos Commenda) i and domestic purposes is eHeenading ‘revae, | _ ——e II i! An altemading cuyrent Is dhe current hich changes 4S magni - [3% and divectien COt ts Ene: belted oe - a BP eth ; DAT Poe. L ¥ Current inttases in magirtude in one Aiteetion attains mari mum and starts decreasing passing dreug Zea jf Wereaces, \o oppasite diveetion & behaves Silty: Bf Definations: 4] Anstantaneous value : The Value of an ctornading quantity ar a pesticlay ‘instant ts Known a5 ifs Instantaneous Value . 8] WlavePorm: The graph OF instantaneous values of a altexteding quantity ploted Satins! time 15 cat)ed waveform =) cycle: A set of pocidive and negative half Cycte af the alter nating quantity 1s catted oye «_|_ Time patie eT). - Ghe time _feken bya an alfer xoding quart te complete is Toone ee is Know) as its Heme period » a 1s denoted — — | — 5) | _Frequen | fine _no- of cycles tompletecl by a0 alternating quantity _ | pec setond ‘1s _kno@n_as Frequency + _ > | pes denoted by se) and measured “19 oycles| second arid Known aS este \ - i 6] Aroplitade The — marimum iets altdined Vf 40 AMernading quantity ding qusitive ov negative half cycle 18 called its amplitecte | abs densted 7 br or din: i 7) Angalae_vetonity (2): Ths Frequeney expessed In electied vactians per | getends AS one Cycle af an WMernaling quantity corresponds to “am radians phe angular frequency can be enprersed a4 C2M x eydes/ gecond) | U4 is denoted by Mor sits Wit 1s radians) sec—1 _ — 8) | RMS [Root mean square] value: _ { ee - | __lihe_effeetive or vms value of a0 alternating quantity. = [ven I ee ey _cayrent eobich, when Flowing | Streugh a given aveult fer a given Heme, produces the Sane Qnount oF heat as _preduced by dhe alternating ulrrent cl dh d OOo im] Nrms = O° TOTYM ‘| 3] Average Value: ” The average? value ef 2m alternating quantity ts Aetined AS dhat velue cobidh 4s obtained by averaging all the nslentancous Nalues over a — petiad of bali cycle dove int int int nWw) r rou Fee No}y Foc Faure nms value asnernge Vane kp © 707 te AAV 0 637 Tey | | | peak faut CED 1 14 18 defined as ratio | i | - 4 peak factor = Kp= Max value _ | ee AMS value | { il a = ——— i kpc Im 0707 Ter Of menumun Value to rms value i)H | Con ceph of In phases The two ac \OITAGeS ave said fo be “in phase if dhe phase Same Frequenty « — a Gheg aHain valyes such 45 Zeno, positive marimum 2 neopdive marimum Simul f4neously* vA-and ¥B ase inphase dB | far ay oe oO ——? Time phasor dia > VB VA > —- = =O Concept of oud of phase d (Me tue ac _quantiites ¢ same Fequenyy axe aid ‘to be ou oF phase Hof 2ath Other if dhe phase differvenne berweery thom is 180" 0% T vadians « | NAPS ae bub of phase 0 Tine PAW eT phasor Aiaes << Ya.» vA VeFrequency ix) PMs Yate wy) Average sve loo sinesyt a — 1) Vma2 wre? vi) #=? B® VDNews V) Vavy mmpaing Vie A0e Smit . i ye vm sin Wt Nm Ce we 26 | . Fe MW 914. | Sone 2m 7 T =A _ lo-s2see - ° So ~ ly) _Neans = 8° T07¥M = O-TOTXA00 = Tow] @: 6m = 0° 637X400 = | 63-7N w - a | A voltage ave 8 ewmessed Wan equation @ = 326 siossuts | Find Frequency and mins value » | ec 325. sin sat an at i Dez? li) €vmnse 9 Em= ansy — | we S44 and tee / w= anr | I D Fe © . ay ~ [sore ae i |W) Evms= o7o7 em sc O'1o7e6 =poga7v| ~~ NEQADR SiN MANE im= @ | vims= 2 ~ | f= 9 > Comparing Y= 282-9 sin ay t V= Vm sinwt [Nm= 282-8v i) Vxms = 07707 XVM = 0 707TX2Gr8 Vims = 194 .93V d nD) 1 0) = 2nF > Fr ws. oY 7 = Qn an T=4 2 A 0-02SeC Fr 50 - 4] ab dhe Unf is given by equatien > 25 sin at eobad ig ILS ampfirude | frequenny, and time period > e= 95 sina em= 2 ae) - us Ask e@= Usinwt ! T = 0-02S8¢¢ 5) Frm dhe given, coaveFexm, sonite Vales of gerreenk ") Time pesicd 9150. aj50 ajse —>tcCse) a | ij i | wy Frequernd iii) pealg valve Of Cuvvent W) pms value oF _tnaren ke : > i) Time peviod == A 2 Log see i 50 om | my Fo-4 4 N25 2 .| Lowe Ses istance in Ac ye vensiatot Yettege cevess“F — quvcent prong *R | ) Wave form Y= Vem sincot D Equations C= Tasinat D phawr dia. a ad ° Tt a College and tient ax inghase Impedance = Z=R+IR Buk Io purely petisiive CLF, wactive pent is ees +e x=0hoe | power faelos = units Power fatter bemuse va i both axe in cosh = pusthy inductive | c cL): : qhe ac Volteqe Ve vm Sot jg appliecl do puse “joductance SU The pure inductive eel have eeve Rediseence 2a) Greuiy dia i) Vevm Snot = Nm sino YD equations ja weet = 2) =te aeesinketL) = ‘ sya — T 2 4) Phos diag vavn t vi leads fot by ae Induefive @earance Cxu) } Leis define she inductive seactence is dhe oppesition te the floco oF aheanating tuvvent aFfered by an inductor WL= wh = 2neL an Linpedante 2= Rt fxr| penedy capacitive civ t eT “Ao Ae voltage civewt FES cis applic to purely. _ tapacdivee a) “cal ogra ie — yan S100 bt. | - vo - a 1 yee Vin sinutt D equation f= gw sincuot + 1/2) ~ | i | ¥ 4) pho see dizayrann v tags bE by ge"| ue omFc The capacitive weactance fs detined a8 the opposition offered by @ capacitor to the Flow oF cuyrent - Impedance + : 1e3 Ciuit > L Consider the civcuit wotaining vesisiance & ard inductance connected —ACw0ss aC. supply We Vin Gust RQ L hE $_ VpaTRaaul = KL) a) xest dicgsam WeNmsinust NR in phase with, and VL . ; = ol i i 7 g T 4 WRaR 1 MYoltage triangle heads dhe T by go°we VR + ONL But fon Noliage Aiangle VS pepe pe NLD 7 Fp2 + Cix)? - q2- Car rato) = 0 : Ae ow Tp ML pivided by/ bs, voltage leads tot bf p Power & p= NI Coody pocwes + niente ‘ by f J ams | V/ ML fe yar wep arent pomes is defined af dhe App Pp product oF VMS Value oF Noliaqe Cw’) and cuyent CE) i Apporent power €5) = VI VA os RNAPe . | Real Powder, Active power] True power CP) “|L__She averoge poet’ Cpay) taken by _cretult Ss | Real] act ve + | Reactive powere) ¢ | __tt_is__pred \ Sine % angte beth Nand I° ke RC Series civadtt cansidex @_ Crreuit contarsing wesistane 8! g cama tance "cs R c : - , 4 ae nw i _ Je ——yp. = Rp fe eH 9 Creut Aiagrawy rh - — \ VeVi smat | connected —acavss aC supply & =m sinatt 5 iv Was TR - > > = = I 1 YR [ Se vr i ~ | ~ aus yee DIC Ve i) vortege MaugieImpedance tz) ve Cres? $ CR\e : ve sfet xe Za y RAetxc2 Tmpedance triangle - verde RQ Nb _ vivide i . yer > xe Mere \ aul sides by eX | ; 4 : Voltage Ariangic Awgedance anglesee Nemsinwt Te Imsingfott )_ trent teads fe wh Mofiage by b : = Vre vowes ae ash Pocmes _tviang) es + RL VR Sewies crvcwt considor a iveuih cantaaing Resistance CR), Lnductance ct) and ale capacitenre CCD are tynnectea yn Sesies and voltage 7S applied — Y= vm cinudt-| en Sao = i — ana a IR pt ete | 8 tu Diagram ze WE Vensnuot b CondiHon 1: XL KC ms wLdxe than Vollage dap ASS XL 15 greater shay thet moss Xc- Hence VLD VE Voz vatve tve AS ML and ve axe ip phase Oppostien 1. 490’ Octet phase Resatkanr 16 C¥t-Vo) CANDVO NL WR Ye §) phasor dita rayn — O Notlege NIL and ve 4 go" obey piraxe ‘siangle XL> Xe oe NLP VC7 Veve + CVO) “condition 2: ALA KC hen MLE XC then Verve. put Ve and ve ext In phare eppevtor a aesltoat e CyeeVp) in \ ; mesunaot - f | r wR ' a Met Re i A | ; ; . \ a v | Y rel [LN Curvy Cve-L) , (ramrdiag) ——___Nuttege Aandle | From voltage triangle =f vpe¢ Cve-vi)> _ eee | wee Vf CEREH CLC Kew) | ae e [P24 Cyc? 7 rzi vl-ve co Vrvl £6 >t 1 vA 7 = ” fo Mb andy are _ bub o thease boy 180" Pesunaot VevR = ER Ne Ta cohee 2a R Linpedance » Zea REF CKL-¥c) re Power Pave vecos wattAv) A reacpor SAVING Ne OH connected in sesies wlth wpesistor ef ASQ The crecuif As _cnnered —ataoss a 236, 9°%%, Single phase ac supply . cing ot) er OW €- Cosh) WY we? 1)! a . | Give: be oad . - ~ € = SoHo | | HL= OMFL = ATXSOXAGH = 91-431 | — eT 1 z= prtxe® = Vasey Cawsy Z = Ba 8s 0 | - = | rose, a2. [een] | 2 34.83, | f - © 1 PE (sp) = Bo AS 0:4 (logging) | i 3-83 i ‘ii) ve = TXL = 66K SH 43 -bor ay] | ii yR= TR = &EX 16 = |99V Q. A reacrse having A non~ inductive lood fakes 220 ahs He 2209.» gible resistance and an ‘indutlene of Cabcula | ee vaduciante oF de senttey fe ve cwoneeted ‘tn semies Vn ander that game cuvvent be Suppliccd from ogey, SeMD i rans — ALSO cleberwmmne she phase angte Letwren dhe aa0N)| Suppty and tavvent + _weqiech dhe Tesistanre Of dhe acts >| given: vezeoy || T=20f - | R oF Pen indy. \ood = 200 Ao ae yf RAtREr vod PF Coney? | T 230 ) 402 + CANTY SOM 2) Ae M5 = —_____. (aor+ C400 1108 (1's) P= 406 4 Loo mut &5)~ Joo = 1o0nL ko = 6.68 r A0oT 04H p = tas! xe = ban! seg cy 40 A capautive yeactance resistance of AD 1s comected wm series with g OF GAs whe Sevies erul jo pared arwys 260v, SoH, seepply Finf i) cepadtene (0) ny Sinped ane( 2) LW unved DW ve vve vy) os28 130 Do ze wert ae ar re | yw WR = re vy) MCE EXC = oasry = [rasv | Ww) ewsep 5 & = 3 = O78 Cleactig.) 4y jaith a Non- inductive wesistence of BoA acwss A00V, Sora _ 4 Seely. Given: | C=79 S4tfp R= 80 Vi 400v i Foe S0He fo : Doe et ane DUN SORTI-SHIO- iD) Wy) ae frre = \ 302 + Wor Tory 2 oo L Zz So = fash Xe — C= Imsnutt IMs pymsy V2 = arya wWe=g = any ses Ay ne akan - al Find G) 2 i) £ Ti) fh 1) ew fer joctantamtnss vaueY= ANeL- ane 50x o06= 12°85 9 kee AL A ea one‘c ame 50K BIO & z= ¥ prtcyc- xt)? = fe 9)? t CA6R- 18 58H)? eo ze 44g 9-2 1 wW f= NL 230 _ fos | | Z Ang -L i) G = Kayl Qeerxt) CH e8= 1889 25 x = 189-7vTcosh = 230% 0 GO: 656 Watt‘eopie BA is DC civcuris & Nehoek Theosens Fuodamenta) af pe Crrcabt Concept of “EMF ele romana | Foy og An “neta s Ceeppor, Alumionues] contains o. large oumber Be free alechens , WIth meves raadonly in au directions 06 applicarion of voltage Swurce, The negah elechoos ly charged atteacted tawoads the postive oa F botteny. the “electrons - move io a (o perticular divection 1s 1s Called ao elechomotive Face EMF. Unit> wolr (V) a (eo eee 7 _ = “The Flow 4 elechons ts from oe gahye fo posihve “Baminal. & iz The fie t CUme is Pam positive tp Negative peor)aal Concept _Ycuwes CTI: Cumtuk is phe Pavers 4 dechaNs | side a conduct, Densted bye Tg oir = 7 pons Fleus far pagar fo posiéve | the postive | end 4 | deanboal _bat the convertona] cune-+ ‘is sad f > Fran fro attery _fp the negakve end battery Cuntet is alse defined a0," the rate 4 chonge | Chechen harge vi seapect te fine 7 —}-— = Q_, change! (coven) penpase | ne time) Csecond) Dea? | Amp - 22 6.25 K)o'F electrons ave Fewing Aor ne pei fy other ia ome second then Comey Yo fhmp ‘is sdid to Flow trough conduct d"concept 4 Poleufial DifFesena = the Like Charges Yee eal cach other adbiie uolike, Chaoges Art _atrrror each ctner This means every changed particle bas 4 fendasey ste oak . pep 4 poteahal:- The ability ef chasged particle bo do the oak Is called ifs elechical parenfa)”” Change 8 Vit > Volk CV) ___plechiiead Potential = work Dome Ww Porentiad Difference !-(P.d) .- We _ E008 that water Foro [Fon Wher level to lower level . Th oe of CU Cored “is always fer pora hiffhen ¢ el echnas) a " poteukal fo fower | (_lecrheed poteuhal | Poteusad DiFfesenas pofP:- "The difference pehoeen the ojecmad Potewtial a aay hwo given polaks ical creak oa cient jis known as potential diffesena. CP)” we Pd pd- Vag = Va-Vg volt EfRct } Poteial Diffeswna '. — The malo effect is low 4 dechba cument Pan Wighor fo lower elechyjcal patential when fo potats gae_0 connected by conductiag She. SP both porats age at came electrical | poieuhay ie. P.d. bofween thems Fu Han there | ail 0dr Fie aot cumet 7 aGiechical circuit or Netwek : The conibinahion of eee devices, voltage Souecas 2B ieiaea load connected) to each other by Cond uchiag rocdera! crcult 19 tq which “congumphion. is called load . ee Direct coment coe The direct c come _addicb ~ does oot “changes: _magoinude & | direchon r+. Hoe magsibnde Bdaecion, is ner constant ‘| Resistane CR) ~ Resistance s the appositi oo ro ioe + Af Cure Kt 5 Obey (-2) || Resistane 3, metals \s Small (Cu, & y_ & resting | ‘io sulotr.s (Glass, wood. Prashc) howe “ey Kage sedi aerishane,Review + ObmS jaw: "For a constant yolue t¢ vesistana CR) the cured _ Aowing trough cooductm is __duecHy prpational to ; poteutial diffesenca apppied acwss it” _ _ of | The ratio 4 poleaal diffeance CV) between any ; _ two points OM a conductty to the cumet (£) Fiaos perneen them js _ constant , provided tre enpenahng |L\s_C@onstos . Vee = Resisinna CR) . Ya cancion! = Reslstaras - 6 Tt ; canese R= Resistance. ‘i ahrng Re (Prpeimalig Consioak tnown ® Resis v : Vv : ee [By using obms laws, O2 cao caktwlele Cuma oo. voltage | io_Hinear crew. “Eq | TF 0 Polewral differ (voirye) ap of gov Ys applied aomss £3 “ pL resistin Fad cunet How through esis ta. : ~at 5 - oe ~ jag te chms law, To VL 20v _ g 52. oof ___|_ fs dAmpece |¥ | Concepr of open & shot ewer (Oc. & sc] Open. cieculy (0.c-J 7 |_if Foe is 0 any cvcaf Blemend or UrCct Connechen beeen them Two points ta a recat at Said fo be open cir culted AS tere is ‘sno direct cmpechon to 20 OG eesistooc | oF oc: is infinite © 00 ae Ror) PLA wR is com | — ____Tap = 0 Amp ie. cumet does net Flow thrugh 4 tS le. very high gegistaoct ccnoss pte B RAB= O-2 ie. redistana is vey 1 [ow Vig = O velt te. wltage aoms¢ ALR is Zon 2 —__ 0% cicculted The vesistana af shoy~ __ Tag = (09 Amp | \-¢due fo fow sex'ishance “lage cune+ Ha WTKirchof F's laws *- Kircharf's current Jaw wf Polat law {xeL] Node /Tuouebon :~ The common point jo a neraek at wich max 4pa9 two branches roeets together - KCL Stedement: -" Tr states that the augelwclic sum af abl cunent ob ary node / Juochoo \s Zoro” je. ST=O at any node Sig cooveuhon:- wile applying KCL sign Conveuhoo fo be jakoo ‘itd _Consideeahen The cuwaik enfemiag oF going towmds te juocteo /oode_ ave tazen 09 posiAve while cumed jeaving 2 going away Prono > sfagereet TD the sum oF incoming cunmedt is equal to ‘te Sur oF ourgqdlag uments.” | Hee _ B.tnconflag_cuwet = outgdirg cumet. aN fe — rol ‘Ty e Focowing Currents =soutgoing Cusyents Gr gece? “S415 = Tat Ta . Ter Shit tg te ye ia en dem ee. ET=0 at anode AL a \kiechof F's voltage law a Mesb jaw CKVLT Statomet = “KVL Skadeo thal the algebraic sum vt ihe voltage amund o closed loop in a cWeuwit js equal _f Zoro” ZY=0. awuod a closed loop. og] “the Sum of voltage rises ls equod fe the Sum of | yoltoge drops avou 1 closed cae 100 Civcult, __EY+ ETR=O AWund 4 closed Joep EV = voltage sources jin a civculh EER = voltage drops aowss sesistoms 9 a Civcu+. fage 1S ‘ polenta} Vs _ congidered as pegative Explanation’. (9 Fiod cunedt 1, usiag eVL _ voltae drops £R, BER. - CV BR) gprs “G4i€,= CR, 4 2R a Wtlo> TCHtio) _ a pe 80 a 15@| Node Analysis .— i Node andlysis is Used te deleemine voHages at different poder, Followed by brooch cumeet Node andlysis is done ty asing KeL HEARSE (0 Tdentify 2 mork au odes & mana refeoure /gound node Rem that € corvesprnding ode voltages (Fa ground dade YeOvelt) a Oe Re — 3) G, Ri b ie oO _ a — ve OF ee Ov. Trea reial gods | Hen a® gz @ ox nodes Take Ve ana veferena node. _opply Feet pO), t,+%2 1, OD _ Kn! write “values of CumeusS ‘in-teams voltages & 8 resictaneg &-Vb _ Rs >| Par “above value 0 eg? @ or “KCL e9? at oede b a _ Simplify by. purting exact val ues ,€4. calcula the node voltage Vg @ also colculake branch Omer “prugn 20-2 resIstaIe A pan 8 cea Cc + ov = Bor == loov _ 5 _ os aa Ke ak node 8, - ~ ar node B fehth® ~O a vie volued 4 cument jn feame 4 Voltages @ resistagers 7 Ve -Vo ' a Va -Ve a 30 \ e 1 Vocov Coefeene/ground od @ Pat “the Eber “values io 2° @ _— @ 50-Va . Vg-O , Vg-(od — 6 20 30 - (oN) 28 + 2Ne~ 200 a 1S 60 4 (2%) = 5Vy- 200 oO 200-4V = SVe - 200 _ — Vg = 400 [ie = 44.44 voles | Ma To fod t, Tz &Ta pot vw > ve er) Pe ne Yh4A4 A444 100 ia 1S - 20 ~ 8a [Ez 08k] 2.22. bry | [Se 32 rp]al Marwalls loop Curent method Fee _moxwoli's loop Cuneat, we Enichoff's voltage lao (KVL) j is. “used In Mo ose! § pop cumet analysis. |OOP cuments Oe Considered rather thon lrranch cument ja Solving \™bleme Consider O NetwWeek ConsisKag af 2 loops gt two Voltage sounees. GB = Jov_ == £ | a lor ©, - loop @ aa @ ler cumed 2, be He al mT) & cum a, io leop (2) _ Here, Lures in ditfeant branches, “According i Hhomwoll § loop Cure __theoetry, “oppy kvL loop © 2 toop @). “Hew the beooeh ie “is Common be lbote te oops @C Cures Flowing tnug “bel is (Lite). - Fa loop ie p= Fo ay ti EE 28-2 Gig) 28, 41020 oOAtce Simpliicahoo, =$ 2, -Bey = -10 $24 8d, 710 —O =32,-Bh, =-3 Zr Athgck® —G) simplify fa 2, d dy voknouns, aye \.o) # Qos 0.6) A —~ é & Cunet trough - broach “be is Uttas }62A “| cthus_by using Maxwells Joop cum rethod we ___ [ean colcutate wronch curds. = 6Seviey _& Parcilie) Circus Resistanaes in_Seried » when eesistances &, Ra & Re dae connected io senes Git eae other 1e. end te end connected . then they dw sod to be comnected io _serles. Pr con be proved that _ equivalent resistarce between point Ato D ts equal fe the sum of Individual resishaoa s. Bub (D Current is same Hyvough all te resistinas 9 {) Sum of voltage doops aciass each desistnee i is equal fototay | vol Fogo apptied aceoss aut! resistances Ry Ro Ra f Vitek = 2M He HVS Z (cr oe Gry = (PR) + CTR.) + CRs) 7 TR = T (R,+Ro+Rg) [ Re, = Riteates _ Characterictick 2) All resistors camry same cuarent BD Equivalent gegisiance of | co jes clycult ic equal fe the sum of | aesistances @oneced in somes ia Rr SRit Rpt ka +- =--+Ro Resistance 10 foralle}- - _lotmer . That means oe fn parasiel “Compeckion 1 7e SIStOrS aye connected “acres each of each resistor is ced fog | Wuochon poiat A wh te. athorr end af _eqch zesistor ‘is Connected to the other juochonke Vested es Do this case (@) Porena) di fFecence aowss abl secistances | is the same @) current in each gesistarce is. iFferet 2 s quen by obm’s lad G@ the total Curent is the sum Te D4hth, —~O (ket Jaw) “Tpesisters Ri, Ro £RG PSP Bu T=V/R (onmsian) pur in 2g? OD eo cuneut Tis Aided inte T, To &Fa ‘0 _pespechye i the three seperate Cumeut. |e. sg _ ° a 1 \ ywft ytd) a NOR, Ro R37 peg Ry Ro RS {tp genaand. ‘nN Number of resists are conneak 10 poralie) Rey Ri Ro ke ~ 77 Ro is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of the | Se iat seSistanws f0o_pesistarct are ‘ta 10 paretlel 12-022. theo, \ Rit ko Ry + Rae RRO [yeep _ wl a The cipread OF the 2quirajenf zesishance b& poreliel :Stor delta & peltq- Stat conversion Star_oervek/wye /Yi- Shs oblained by conneding one. end ef three resistance RR & R3 _ together. This’ point is calles aS star poit,’S’ J@y | DELTA & STAR Conversion: ~ Ria: Rig oO 6 I\ TT Rizk Rast Ro} ie 1 Re \ we Rio. Ros. Re aT Riz + Rear RS} a pay 4 Ro fie Be - 2” Ras Riz t Rast Ra) ® w - = e.Source Conversion’ _ Fo. _siengl fica 09 of Complex n@hwek the fransfiemation | Voltage source fo its equnatent current (on be done & vice _ Verso. Wwe Know that, _ __ Yolrage gaueco bas serne intkanal cesistoxa wile current Sours has Shunt resistao@ | Rse yen AL — — f ———— eve OE 17 8 _ _ wom using 6 vologe to Cuwent cource: - & Rs\ (2) | Fed equivalent Neher goure for given Cue gourte . — A facesn gM ESR aR LC TT zg = bem hes Cored SOU = 50 ~ Buiralenk volfage Soures 4 |e vena i _ _ - ee 6.