Bill of Rights

These rights can be exercised on the patient’s behalf by a designated surrogate or proxy decision
maker if the patient lacks decision-making capacity, is legally incompetent, or is a minor.

1. The patient has the right to considerate and respectful care.

2. The patient has the right to and is encouraged to obtain from physicians and other direct caregivers
relevant, current, and understandable information concerning diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis.

3. The patient has the right to make decisions about the plan of care prior to and during the course of
treatment and to refuse a recommended treatment or plan of care to the extent permitted by law
and hospital policy and to be informed of the medical consequences of this action.

4. The patient has the right to have an advance directive (such as a living will, health care proxy, or
durable power of attorney for health care) concerning treatment or designating a surrogate decision
maker with the expectation that the hospital will honor the intent of that directive to the extent
permitted by law and hospital policy.

5. The patient has the right to every consideration of privacy. Case discussion, consultation,
examination, and treatment should be conducted in a manner that protects a patient’s privacy.

6. The patient has the right to expect that all communications and records pertaining to his/her care
will be treated as confidential by the hospital, except in cases such as suspected abuse and public
health hazards when reporting is permitted or required by law.

7. The patient has the right to review the records pertaining to his/her medical care and to have the
information explained or interpreted as necessary, except when restricted by law.

8. The patient has the right to expect that, within its capacity and policies, a hospital will make
reasonable response to the request of a patient for appropriate and medically indicated care and
services.

9. The patient has the right to ask and be informed of the existence of business relationships among
the hospital, educational institutions, other health care providers, or payers that may influence the
patient’s treatment and care.

10. The patient has the right to consent to or decline to participate in proposed research studies or
human experimentation affecting care and treatment or requiring direct patient involvement, and to
have those studies fully explained prior to consent.

11. The patient has the right to expect reasonable continuity of care when appropriate and to be
informed by physicians and other caregivers of available and realistic patient care options when
hospital care is no longer appropriate.

12. The patient has the right to be informed of hospital policies and practices that relate to patient
care, treatment, and responsibilities.

Conclusion:
Hospitals have many functions to perform, including the enhancement of health status, health
promotion, and the prevention and treatment of injury and disease; the immediate and ongoing care
and rehabilitation of patients; the education of health professionals, patients, and the community;
and research. All these activities must be conducted with an overriding concern for the values and
dignity of patients.
 Medical and Surgical Asepsis

Nosocomial/Hospital Acquired Infections:

Nosocomial – infections contracted in an acute care hospital and in

extended care facilities outpatient care clinics, and behavioral health
institutions.
 Iatrogenic –infection that results from a particular treatment or
therapeutic procedure.
 Exogenous – infections that are caused by microorganisms that are
not normal flora.
 Endogenous – infection as a result of an overgrowth of normal flora
 Community-acquired – infections manifesting and diagnosed within
48 hours of admission in patients without any previous encounter
with healthcare.
Normal Flora : microorganisms existing in our bodies at all times.

Elements Needed to Transmit Infection

1. An infectious agent (bacterium, fungus, virus, prion, parasite). It has
characteristics that can vary in their ability to cause disease. These are:
i. Pathogenicity – ability to cause disease.
ii. Virulence – ability to grow and multiply with speed.
iii. Invasiveness – ability to enter tissues.
iv. Specificity – characterizes attraction to a particular host.
2. A reservoir/environment in which the pathogenic microbes can live
and multiply. The reservoir can be a human being, an animal, a plant,
water, food, earth, or any combination of organic materials that support
the life of a pathogen.
3. A portal to from which to exit the reservoir. In the case of human
reservoir, it might be the nose, mouth, urinary tract, intestines, or an
open wound from which blood or purulent exudate can escape. There
can be more than one portal of exit.
4. A means of transmission. Particular organisms require specific routes
of transmission for infection to occur. These routes are through:
i. Direct Contact – considered when a person or an animal with a
disease or his/her body fluids or blood are touched. This contact can
be by touching with the hands, by kissing, by percutaneous injection,
or by sexual intercourse.
ii. Indirect Contact – transfer of pathogenic microbes by touching
objects (fomites) that have been contaminated by an infected
person.
iii. Droplet Contact – involves contact with infectious secretions that
come from the conjunctiva, nose, or mouth of a host or disease
carrier as the person coughs, sneezes, or talks. Droplets can travel
from approximately 3 to 5 feet and should not be equated with the
airborne mode of transmission.
iv. Vehicles – transports infection through food, water, drugs, or blood,
contaminated with infectious microorganisms.
v. Airborne Route – infectious residue from evaporated droplets of
diseased microorganisms that are suspended in the air for long
periods of time.
vi. Vectors – insect/animal carriers of disease that deposit diseased
microbe by stinging or by biting the human host.
5. A portal of entry into a new host. It can be by ingestion, by inhalation,
by injection, across mucous membranes, or across the placenta (in case
of a pregnant woman.

Asepsis

 the state of being free from disease-causing micro-organisms (such

as pathogenic bacteria, viruses, pathogenic fungi, and parasites).
There are two types of asepsis:
1. Medical/Clean Asepsis – elimination of microorganisms through the
use of soap, water friction, and various chemical disinfectants.
2. Surgical/Sterile Asepsis – complete destruction of microorganisms
and their spores by means of heat or by a chemical process.
 It is not practical or necessary to practice surgical asepsis all the
time, but one must always adhere to the practice of strict medical
asepsis.

Rules for Surgical Asepsis

1. Know which areas and objects are sterile and which are not.
2. If the sterility of an object is questionable, it is not to be considered
sterile.
3. Sterile objects and persons must be kept separate from those that
are not sterile.
4. When any item that must be sterile becomes contaminated, the
contamination must be remedied immediately.
5. When table tops are to be used as areas for creating a sterile field,
they must be clean, and a sterile drape must be paced over them.
6. Personnel must be clothed in a sterile gown and sterile gloves if they
are to be considered sterile.
7. Any sterile instrument or sterile area that is touched by a nonsterile
instrument is considered to be contaminated by microorganisms.
8. A contaminated area on a sterile field must be covered by a folded
sterile towel or drape of double thickness.
9. If a sterile person’s gown or gloves becomes contaminated, they
must be changed.
10. A sterile field must be created just prior to use.
11. Once a sterile field has been prepared, it must not be left attended
as it may become contaminated presumed to be sterile.
12. An unsterile person does not reach the sterile field.
13. A sterile field ends at the level of the tabletop or at the waist of the
sterile person’s gown.
14. Anything that drops below the tabletop or sterile person’s waistline
is no longer sterile and may not be brought up to the sterile
tabletop. The only parts of the sterile gown considered sterile are
the areas from the waist to the shoulders in front and the sleeves
from 2 inches above the elbow to the cuffs.
15. The cuffs of the sterile gown are considered non-sterile because they
collect moisture. Cuffs must always be covered by sterile gloves.
16. A sterile person does not lean over an unsterile area.
17. The edges of a sterile wrapper are not considered to be sterile and
must not touch a sterile object.
18. Sterile drapes are placed by a sterile person. The sterile person
places the drapes on the area closest to him first to protect his
sterile gown.
19. A sterile person must remain within the sterile area. S/he must must
not lean on tables or against the wall.

Medically Aseptic Hand Washing Technique

1. Approach the sink. Do not lean against the sink or allow clothing to
touch the sink because it is considered to be contaminated. Remove
any jewelry except for a wedding band.
2. Turn on the tap. A sink with a foot or knee control is most desirable
but is not always available. If the faucet is turned on by hand, use a
paper towel to touch the handles and then discard the towel.
3. Regulate the water to a comfortable warm temperature.
4. Regulate the flow of water so that it does not splash from the sink to
one’s clothing.
5. During the entire procedure, keep hands and forearms lower than
the elbows. The water will drain by gravity from the area of least
contamination to the area of greatest contamination.
6. Wet hands and soap them well. A liquid soap is the most convenient.
7. With a firm circular motion, scrubbing motion, wash your palms, the
backs of your hands, each finger, between the fingers, and finally the
knuckles. Wash to at least one inch above the area of contamination.
If hands are not contaminated, wash to one inch above the wrists.
Fifteen seconds should be the minimum time allotted for this.
8. Rinse hands well under running water. If hands have been heavily
contaminated, repeat steps 6, 7, and 8.
9. Clean fingernails with a brush or an orange stick carefully once each
day before beginning work and again if hands become heavily
contaminated. Scrubbing heavily contaminated nails with a brush is
recommended.
10. Rinse fingers well under running water.
11. Repeat washing procedure as described above after cleaning nails.
12. Turn off the water. If the handles are contaminated use a paper
towel to turn them off to avoid contaminating hands.
13. Dry arms and hands using as many paper towels as necessary to do
the job well.
14. Use lotion on hands and forearms frequently. It helps to keep the
skin from cracking and thereby prevents infection.

The Surgical Scrub

 purpose is to remove as many microorganisms as possible from the
skin of the hands and lower arms by mechanical and chemical means
and running water before a sterile procedure is begun.
 before entering surgical suite (one or more operating rooms and its
adjoining facilities, such as the recovery room and scrub room), the
radiographer must
 remove all jewelry;
 change into a scrub suit;
 cover hair with a cap;
 cover shoes; and
 place a mask over mouth and nose.
Open Method of Gloving
1. Open the wrapper as directed for opening sterile packs. Sterile
gloves are always packaged folded down at the cuff and powdered
so they may be put on more easily.
2. Glove the dominant hand first. Assuming that the right hand is the
dominant hand, pick up the right glove with the left hand at the
folded cuff and slide the right hand into the glove, leaving the cuff
folded down.
3. When the glove is over the hand, leave it and pick up the left glove
with the gloved right hand under the fold.
4. Pull the glove over your hand and over the cuff of the gown (if you
are wearing a sterile gown) in one motion.

Removing Contaminated Gloves

1. With the right gloved hand, take hold of the upper, outside portion
of the left glove and pull it off, turning it inside out as you do.
2. Hold the glove that you have just removed in the palm of the
remaining gloved hand.
3. With the clean bare index and middle fingers, reach inside the top of
the soiled glove and pull it off, turning it inside out and folding the
first glove inside it as you do so. Be careful to touch only the inside of
the glove.
4. Drop the soiled gloves into a receptacle for contaminated waste.
5. Wash your hands.

Sterile Gowning
1. Grasp the gown and remove it from the table.
2. Step away from the table. The gown is folded inside out.
3. Hold the gown away from the body and allow it to unfold lengthwise
without touching the floor.
4. Open the gown and hold it by the shoulder seams. Place both arms
into the armholes of the gown and wait fo assistance. An assistant or
the circulating nurse will place their hands inside the gown over your
shoulders and pull the gown over the shoulders until your hands are
exposed.
Removing Contaminated Garments
1. Untie waist ties of gown.
2. Remove gloves according to the procedure for removing
contaminated gloves, and place them in the waste receptacle.
3. Untie top gown ties.
4. Remove the first sleeve of the gown by placing fingers under the cuff
of the sleeve and pulling it over the hand.
5. Remove the other sleeve with protected hand inside the gown.
6. Slip out of the gown, and hold it forward so that the inside of the
gown is facing the outside.
7. Place the gown in the waste container. If gown has been
contaminated with blood or infectious material, place it in a
biohazard container.
8. Remove the cap and mask. Place the in the waste container, and
leave the room.
9. Wash hands using the medically aseptic hand washing technique.

Surgically Aseptic Handwashing Technique

1. Any person, including the radiographer, who will be present and
unable to protect him-/herself from radiation must don a lead apron
prior to beginning the scrub. Arms should be bare to at least 4 inches
above the elbow.
2. Approach the sink. Adjust the water temperature and pressure. Most
surgical scrub areas have either foot or knee pedals to regulate water
flow.
3. Obtain a scrub brush. Brushes must be single-use and disposable.
Many have an antimicrobial agent permeated through them. The hands
and forearms are wet to approximately 2 inches above the elbow. Hands
must be held up to allow the water to drain downward toward the
elbow from cleanest to dirtiest area. Apply the antimicrobial agent.
4. Scrub hands and arms using a firm, rotary motion. Fingers, hands, and
arms should be considered to have four sides, all of which must be
thoroughly cleansed. Follow an anatomical pattern, beginning with the
thumb and proceeding with each finger. Next, do the dorsal surface of
the hand, the palm, and up the wrist, ending 2 inches above the elbow.
Wash all four sides of the arm. The surgical scrub always begins with the
hands because they are in direct contact with the sterile field. Rinse the
soap from hands and arms and repeat the procedure.
5. When the scrub is completed, drop the brush into the sink or a
receptacle prepared to receive used brushes. Do not touch the sink or
the receptacle. Hold hands up above the waist and higher than the
elbows during the surgical scrub.
6. Proceed to the area where a sterile towel, sterile gown, and sterile
gloves have been prepared.
7. Pick up the towel, which is folded on top of the sterile gown, by one
corner and let it drop and unfold in front of you at waist level. Do not let
the towel touch the scrub unit.
8. Dry one hand and one arm with each end of the towel. Do not go over
areas already dried.

Aseptic Technique
 uses practices and procedures to prevent contamination from
pathogens. It involves applying the strictest rules to minimize the risk
of infection.
 There are four chief aspects of the aseptic technique practices:
1. Barriers – prevent the transfer of germs between healthcare
professionals, patients, and the environment. Aseptic barriers include:
i. sterile gloves
ii. sterile gowns
iii. sterile masks
iv. sterile drapes
v. protective wrappers on sterilized instruments
2. Patient and Equipment Preparation - Healthcare professionals must
thoroughly prepare both the patient and the equipment before a
medical procedure takes place. Aseptic preparation may involve:
i. disinfecting a patient's skin using antiseptic wipes
ii. sterilizing equipment and instruments before a procedure
iii. keeping sterilized instruments inside plastic wrappers to prevent
contamination before use
3. Environmental Controls - Healthcare professionals also have to
consider the patient's immediate surroundings. It is essential to maintain
an aseptic environment before and during procedures. The designated
procedural area is also called an aseptic field. Maintaining an aseptic
field involves:
i. keeping doors closed
ii. minimizing movement in and out of the aseptic field
iii. limiting entry to necessary personnel only
iv. permitting only one patient per aseptic field
4. Contact Guidelines
Once a healthcare professional has washed their hands and
donned their sterile barriers, they must follow sterile-to-sterile contact
guidelines. These guidelines prohibit any contact between sterile and
nonsterile items.
At this point, healthcare professionals can only touch sterile
objects and surfaces, and they must avoid touching nonsterile items and
surfaces at all costs.
The same guidelines apply to sterile devices. If a sterile instrument
falls on the ground and the wrapper sustains damage, a healthcare
professional must remove the instrument and re-sterilize it before use.

Sterilization and Disinfection

 Sterilization - Destruction of microbes by steam under pressure or
other means, both chemical or physical.
 Disinfection - Destruction of microorganisms and their spores by
means of chemical or physical agents. Disinfectants are classified as:
 High-level
 Intermediate-level
 Low-level

Methods of Sterilization
 Steam Under Pressure -items are double-wrapped and placed in an
autoclave. Autoclaves are manufactured to sterilize by gravity
displacement and dynamic air removal. High-speed sterilizers or flash
sterilization is an abbreviated gravity displacement method.
 Chemical Sterilization - referred to as low-temperature sterilization.
A maximum of 50°C to 60°C of gaseous sterilization is used. An
antimicrobial and sporicidal agent must be used.
 Ethylene Oxide - used for items that cannot withstand moisture and
high temperatures. All items sterilized in this manner must be
cleansed and dried since water United with ethylene oxide forms
ethylene glycol, which cannot be eliminated by aeration and is toxic.

Cleaning and Proper Waste Disposal

1. Wear a fresh uniform each day. Do not place your uniform with
other clothing in your personal closet. Shoes should be cleaned and
stockings should be fresh each day.
2. Pillow coverings should be changed after each use by a patient.
Linens used for drapes or blankets for patients should be handled in
a way that they do not raise dust. Dispose of linens after each use by
a patient.
3. Flush away the contents of bedpans and urinals promptly unless they
are being saved for a diagnostic specimen.
4. Rinse bedpans and urinals and send them to the proper place
(usually a central supply area) for re-sterilization if they are not to be
reused by the same patient.
5. Use equipment and supplies for one patient only. After the patient
leaves the area, supplies must be destroyed or re-sterilized before
being used again.
6. Keep water and supplies clean and fresh. Use paper cups in the
diagnostic imaging department and dispose them after a single use.
7. floors are heavily contaminated. If an item to be used for patient
care falls to the floor, discard it or send it to the proper department
to be recleaned.
8. Avoid raising dust because it carries microorganisms. While cleaning,
use a cloth thoroughly moistened with a disinfectant.
9. The radiographic table or other imaging or treatment equipment
should be cleaned with a disposable disinfectant towellete or
sprayed with disinfectant and wiped clean and dried from topo to
bottom with paper towels after each patient use.
10. When cleaning an article such as an imaging table, start with the
least soiled area and progress to the moist soiled area. This prevents
the cleaner areas from becoming more heavily contaminated. Use a
good disinfectant cleaning agent and disposable paper cloths.
11. Place dampened or wet items such as dressings and bandages into
water proof bags, and close the bags tightly to prevent workers
handling those materials from coming in contact with bodily
discharges. Place in contaminated waste containers.
12. When an article that is known to be contaminated with virulent
microorganisms is to be sent to a central supply area for cleaning
and re- sterilizing, place it in a sealed, impermeable bag marked
“BIOHAZARD”. If the outside of the becomes contaminated while the
article is being placed in the bag, place a second bag over it.
13. Always treat needles and syringes used in the diagnostic imaging
department as if they are contaminated with virulent microbes. Do
not recap needles or touch them after use. Place them immediately
(needle first) in a puncture-proof container labeled for this purpose.
Do not attempt to bend or break used needles because they may
stick or spray you in the process.
14. Do not reuse rags or mops for cleaning until they have been properly
disinfected and dried.
15. Pour liquids to be discarded into drains or toilets. Avoid splashing or
spilling them on clothing.
16. If in doubt about the cleanliness or sterility of an item, do not use it.
17. Medicinal charts that accompany patients to the diagnostic imaging
department must be kept away form patient care areas to prevent
contamination. Keep charts in an area where only those directly
involved in patient care may read them.
18. Place specimens to be sent to the laboratory in solid containers with
secure caps. If the specimen is from a patient with a known
communicable disease, label the outside of the container as such.
Avoid contaminating the outside of the container, and place the
container in a clean bag. If a container becomes contaminated, clean
it with a disinfectant before placing it in the bag. Specimens must be
sent to the laboratory immediately after collection for examination.
1. Body mechanics
Proper body mechanics reduces the amount of fatigue and chance
of injury and its rules of are based on the laws of gravity.

 Gravity - is the force that pulls objects toward the center of the
Earth.
center of gravity - is the point at which the mass of any body is centered.
(Ex. When a person is standing, the center of gravity is at the center of
the pelvis. )
 Body alignment - body deviations must be from correct body
alignment

Deviations in normal physiologic body alignment may result from the

following: (1) poor posture, (2) trauma, (3) muscle damage, (4)
dysfunction of the nervous system, (5) malnutrition, (6) fatigue, or (7)
emotional disturbance.
 Body balance - keep the body balanced over the feet to provide a
broad base of support.

2. Principles of Body Mechanics

a. Rules for correct upright posture are as follows:

• Hold chest up and slightly forward with the waist extended. This allows
the lungs to expand properly and fill to capacity.
• Hold head erect with the chin held in. This puts the spine in proper
alignment, and there is no curve in the neck.
• Stand with the feet parallel and at right angles to the lower legs. The
feet should be 4 to 8 inches apart. Keep body weight equally distributed
on both feet.
• Keep the knees slightly bent; they act as shock absorbers for the body.
• Keep the buttocks in and the abdomen up and in. This prevents strain
on the back and abdominal muscles.

b. Rules for picking up or lifting heavy objects are:

• When picking up an object from the floor, bend the knees and lower
the body. Do not bend from the waist
• The biceps are the strongest arm muscles and are effective when
pulling; therefore, pull heavy items or patients rather than push them.
• When assisting a patient to move, balance the weight over both feet.
Stand close to the patient, flex the gluteal muscles, and bend the knees
to support the load. Use arm and leg muscles to assist in the move.
• Always protect the spine. Rather than twisting the body to move a
load, change the foot position instead. Always keep the body balanced
over the feet, which should be spread to provide a firm base of support.
• Make certain the floor area is clear of all objects.

3.Moving and transferring patient

A. Assessment of patient’s ability

Look for the following during patient assessment:

1. Deviations from correct body alignment. Support blocks or pillows,

which are used to assist the patient during the procedure, must be
available.
2. Immobility or limitations in range of joint motion. Any stiffness,
instability, swelling, inflammation, pain, limitation of movement, or
atrophy of muscle mass surrounding each joint must be noted and
considered in the plan of care.
3. The ability to walk. Before beginning the move, the amount of
assistance needed to safely complete the move and procedure must be
planned.
4. Obvious respiratory or cardiovascular symptoms that impair
circulation and signal potential problems in positioning must be planned
for. Metabolic problems such as diabetes mellitus or rheumatoid
arthritis may be discovered during the interview process and planned for
as necessary.

Other assessment considerations are:

1. The patient’s general condition. How well or how poorly is he or she

functioning?
2. Range of motion and weight-bearing ability. Has the patient had a
surgical procedure that restricts motion or limits weight bearing until it
is healed?
3. The patient’s strength and endurance. Will the patient become
fatigued and be unable to complete the transfer with only stand-by
assistance?
4. The patient’s ability to maintain balance. Can the patient sit or stand
for as long as the procedure requires?
5. The patient’s ability to understand what is expected during the
transfer. Is he or she responsive and alert?
6. The patient’s acceptance of the move. Does the patient fear or resent
the transfer? Will the transfer increase the pain? Does the patient feel
that the move is unnecessary?
7. The patient’s medication history. Has the patient received a sedative,
hypnotic, or other psychoactive drug in the past 2 or 3 hours? Will any
medication that he or she has taken affect the ability to move safely?

b. Rules when moving a patient

1. Give only the assistance that the patient needs for comfort and safety.
2. Always transfer a patient across the shortest distance.
3. Lock all wheels on beds, gurneys, and wheelchairs before the move
begins.
4. Generally, it is better to move a patient toward his or her stronger
side while assisting on the patient’s weaker side.
5. The patient should wear shoes for standing transfers, not slippery
socks.
6. Inform the patient of the plan for moving and encourage him or her to
help.
7. Give the patient short, simple commands and help the patient to
accomplish the move.

4. Methods of transfer
- by (1) gurney, by (2) wheelchair, and by (3) ambulation.
a. Gurney - If the patient is unconscious or unable to cooperate in the
move, the patient’s spine, head, and extremities must be well
supported.
“Safe ways to do this are by using a sliding board or a sheet to slide the
patient from one surface to another.”
b. Wheelchair - never allow a patient to get off a table or onto a
wheelchair without some assistance. The patient is often not as strong
as he or she thinks.
c. Ambulation - is the process of moving a patient from one place to
another Ex. From Gurney to radiographic table or reverse
b. Wheelchair

b.1. If the patient can assist, instruct him or her to push up with the
upper arm when told to do so (Picture A).
b.2. On the count of three, move or help the patient to a sitting position
at the edge of the table. Before helping the patient to stand, allow him
or her to sit for a moment and regain a sense of balance. While the
patient is “dangling,” place nonskid slippers on the patient’s feet.
b.3. If the patient needs minimal assistance to get off the table, stand at
the patient’s side and take the patient’s arm to help.
b.4. If the radiographic table is high, never allow a patient to step down
without providing a secure stepping stool. Always stay at the patient’s
side to assist. A telescoping radiographic table must be placed in the
lower position before a patient is assisted to move off of it.
b.5. The wheelchair must be close enough so that the patient can be
seated in the chair with one pivot (Picture B).Have the foot supports of
the chair up and the wheels locked.
b.6. The footrests on the wheelchair should then be put down and the
wheels unlocked. A safety belt should be put across an unsteady patient.