Drama as a Genre of Literature
expression of thought nearest to the truth
• Drama is the act of portraying a story in front
of an audience. It involves the characters
and events of the story being brought to life
on a stage by actors and their interactions
(verbal and non-verbal) through its events.
• Drama as a literary genre is realized in
performance, which is why Robert Di Yanni
(quoted in Dukore) describes it as “stage art”.
Drama as a Literary Form
• It is designed for theater; Actions are
enacted on stage
• Characters are assigned roles which are
acted out
• Characters include human beings, dead or
spiritual beings, animals, and abstract
qualities
• Drama is an adaptation, recreation and
reflection of reality on stage
Drama and its Characteristics
• It is written by a playwright.
• It is read and composed to be performed
• It has a medium of communication
• It uses actors to convey a message
• Drama is mimetic = imitates life
Three Levels of Drama
• Performance
• Composition
• Literary Genre
Drama as a Performance
• Drama is used for plays that are acted on
stage or screen
• Drama actors and actresses must be
playing roles by imitating other characters
• They must assume other people’s
personalities by bearing different names,
ages, occupation, nationalities, etc
Drama as a Composition
• Drama is used to describe a dramatic
composition which employs language and
pantomime to present a story or series of
events intended to be performed
• In as much as a play is enjoyed more when
it is performed, you can still read a play and
be entertained by it; it is called a closet
drama
Drama as a Branch of Literature
• Drama is a literary art
• It is presented in dialogue from the
beginning to the end
• Any information by the playwright is given in
stage- direction
Definition of Drama
• Drama is something one goes to see, which
is organized as something to be seen
• It is an enacted fiction an art form based on
mimetic action
• In arts, drama is the most elegant
(reality)
• It is the most concrete form in which art can
recreate human situation, human
relationship
What is Drama
• Aristotle defines drama simply as an imitation
of an action. He links it to the mimetic impulse
in human beings like children playing father
and mother in a childhood play. This means
that imitation is part of life. Human beings
have the desire to imitate others, situations or
events.
• Bertolt Brecht insists that drama is not just an
imitation of action, but a tool for the
demonstration of social conditions. It is not
just an entertainment but an instrument of
political and social change. From these
definitions, we can conclude that drama is a
way of creating or recreating a situation, an
articulation of reality through impersonation
or re-enactment.
ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF DRAMA
Origin of Drama
• The word drama comes from the Greek verb
“dran” which means ‘to act’ or to perform.
• Many scholars trace the origin of drama to
wordless actions like ritual dances and mimes
performed by dancers, masked players or
priests during traditional festivals or
ceremonies.
History of Drama
One account traces the origin to ritual. In the
traditional society or in the primordial times,
sometimes, the seasons did not come as expected.
When this happened, men felt that they had
offended the gods, so they devised means of
appeasing these gods. That act of appeasing the
gods is what we refer to as ritual.
Another account traces the origin to man’s desire for
entertainment. Here, during festivals or other
ceremonies, they recreate the feats of some
legendary or mythical heroes to entertain the
people.
ELEMENTS OF DRAMA OR THEATER
1) THEME
• The theme of a play refers to its central idea.
• The theme is the philosophy that forms the
base of the story or a moral lesson that the
characters learn. It is the message that the
play gives to the audience.
• It can either be clearly stated through
dialog or action, or can be inferred after
watching the entire performance.
2) PLOT
• The order of events occurring in a play
make its plot. Essentially, the plot is the story
that the play narrates.
 • The entertainment value of a play depends
largely on the sequence of events in the
story.
• The connection between the events and
the characters in them form an integral part
of the plot.
• What the characters do, how they interact,
the course of their lives as narrated by the
story, and what happens to them in the
end, constitutes the plot.
• A struggle between two individuals, the
relation between them, a struggle with self,
a dilemma, or any form of conflict of one
character with himself or another character
in the play, goes into forming the story’s
plot.
STORY VS. PLOT
• A story is a series of incidents whose
development does not necessarily
depend on each other which means that
the incidents may or may not be related
or connected.
• Plot on the other hand, is the way the
story is arranged and it thrives on
causality and logical unity. In it, one
incident happens and as a result the next
one happens and the situation must be
related to each other. It has a beginning,
middle and an end.
Structure of the Plot
• As stated earlier, a good plot should have a
beginning, middle, and an end. Oscar
Brockett, an, American Theater historian
explains further that the beginning contains
the exposition or the setting forth of
information about earlier events, the identity
of characters and the present situation.
Another aspect of the beginning is the point
of attack which is the moment at which the
main story starts as a potential conflict is
identified. This is more obvious in classical
plays usually, is focused early on the potential
conflict or a question and its resolution leads
to the end of the play. Such plays start with
the inciting incident. This incident is usually an
occurrence that sets the main action in
motion.
• The middle is made up of series of
complications. A complication is a new
element which changes the direction of the
action. It leads to the discovery of new
information. The series of complications
culminate in crises and climax.
• The end is the last part of the play. Here issues
are unraveled, untied and resolved.
It is important to note here that you may not
find all these elements in one play.
Types of Plot
o Aristotle identifies two types of plots: (a)
the unified plot and (b) the episodic plot.
He refers to the unified plot as the well-
made plot. In the unified plot, the
incidents are presented in a logical order
and there is a causal arrangement.
(The play starts from the beginning
followed by the middle and the incidents
in the middle are consequences of what
happened in the beginning and these
are resolved in the end. It is a kind of
cause-and-effect presentation. The
incidents will be so related that when
anything is removed, it will create
illogicality.)
In episodic plot, there is no causal
relationship between the incidents. The
only unifying factor is that the incidents
are related or happening to one man.
(In episodic plot, you can remove an
aspect of the plot without changing or
destroying the plot. It means, therefore,
that the part that was removed is not
necessary.)
3) CHARACTERS
• The characters that form a part of the story
are interwoven with the plot of the drama.
• Each character in a play has a personality of
its own and a set of principles and beliefs.
• Actors in the play have the responsibility of
bringing the characters to life.
• Characterization is the playwright’s
imaginative creation of characters that can
effectively dramatize his story. The action of
the play is presented through such
characters. He does so by imbuing the
characters with certain recognizable human
traits and qualities. These qualities include
physical attributes, moral, psychological and
emotional dispositions, their attitude towards
other characters and situations, and so on
Types of Characters
o Protagonist/Hero -
o Antagonist
o Dynamic/ Round Character
o Static/Flat/Stock Character
o Symbolic
4) DIALOG
• The story of a play is taken forward by means
of dialogs.
• The story is narrated to the audiences
through the interaction between the play’s
characters, which is in the form of dialogs.
• The contents of the dialogs and the quality of
their delivery have a major role to play in the
impact that the play has on the audiences.
How important is the dialog?
• It is through the dialogs between characters
that the story can be understood. They are
important in revealing the personalities of the
characters. The words used, the accent,
tone, pattern of speech, and even the
pauses in speech, say a lot about the
character and help reveal not just his
 personality, but also his social status, past,
and family background as given by the play.
5) SETTING
• The time and place where a story is set is one
of its important parts. The era or time in which
the incidents in the play take place,
influence the characters in their appearance
and personalities. The time setting may affect
the central theme of the play, the issues
raised (if any), the conflict, and the
interactions between the characters.
• The historical and social context of the play is
also defined by the time and place where it
is set. The time period and the location in
which the story is set, affect the play’s
staging. Costumes and makeup, the
backgrounds and the furniture used, the
visuals (colors and kind of lighting), and the
sound are among the important elements of
a play that dictate how the story is translated
into a stage performance.
6) PERFORMANCE
• It is another important element of drama, as
the impact that a story has on the audiences
is largely affected by the performances of
the actors. When a written play is
transformed into a stage performance, the
actors cast for different roles, the way they
portray the characters assigned to them,
and the way their performances are directed
are some important factors that determine
the play’s impact.
• Whether an actor’s appearance (includes
what he wears and how he carries himself on
stage) suits the role he is playing, and how
well he portrays the character’s personality
are determinants of how well the play would
be taken by the audiences. Different actors
may play the same roles in different
renditions of a play. A particular
actor/actress in a certain role may be more
or less accepted and appreciated than
another actor in the same role.
• As different actors are cast for different roles,
their roles are more or less appreciated
depending on their performances. The stage
performances of a play’s characters,
especially those in lead roles, directly affect
the success and popularity of a play.
7) MUSIC
• This element includes the use of sounds and
rhythm in dialogs as well as music
compositions that are used in the plays. The
background score, the songs, and the sound
effects used should complement the
situation and the characters in it.
• The right kind of sound effects or music, if
placed at the right points in the story, act as
a great supplement to the high and low
points in the play. The music and the lyrics
should go well with the play’s theme. If the
scenes are accompanied by pieces of
music, they become more effective on the
audiences.
8) VISUAL ELEMENT
• While the dialog and music are the audible
aspects of drama, the visual element deals
with the scenes, costumes, and special
effects used in it. The visual element of
drama, also known as the spectacle, renders
a visual appeal to the stage setup.
• The costumes and makeup must suit the
characters. Besides, it is important for the
scenes to be dramatic enough to hold the
audiences to their seats. The special effects
used in a play should accentuate the portion
or character of the story that is being
highlighted.
The Elements of Drama
The elements of drama, by which dramatic works
can be analyzed and evaluated, can be
categorized into three major areas:
• Literary elements
• Technical elements
• Performance elements
Aristotle (384-322 BC) was a Greek philosopher
whose writings still influence us today. He was the first
to write about the essential elements of drama more
than 2,000 years ago. While ideas have changed
slightly over the years, we still discuss Aristotle's list
when talking about what makes the best drama.
Aristotle’s Six Elements of Drama
Aristotle considered these six things to be essential to
good drama:
• Plot: This is what happens in the play. Plot refers to
the action; the basic storyline of the play.
• Theme: While plot refers to the action of the play,
theme refers to the meaning of the play. Theme is
the main idea or lesson to be learned from the play.
In some cases, the theme of a play is obvious; other
times it is quite subtle.
•Characters: Characters are the people (sometimes
animals or ideas) portrayed by the actors in the play.
It is the characters who move the action, or plot, of
the play forward.
• Dialogue: This refers to the words written by the
playwright and spoken by the characters in the play.
The dialogue helps move the action of the play
along.
• Music/Rhythm: While music is often featured in
drama, in this case Aristotle was referring to the
rhythm of the actors' voices as they speak.
• Spectacle: This refers to the visual elements of a
play: sets, costumes, special effects, etc. Spectacle
is everything that the audience sees as they watch
the play.
The Modern Theater
In the modern theater, this list has changed slightly,
although you will notice that many of the elements
remain the same. The list of essential elements in
modern theater is as follows:
 • Characters
• Plot
• Theme
• Dialogue
• Convention
• Genre
• Audience
The first four, character, plot, theme and dialogue
remain the same, but the following additions are
now also considered essential elements of drama.
Convention: These are the techniques and methods
used by the playwright and director to create the
desired stylistic effect.
Genre: Genre refers to the type of play. Some
examples of different genres include comedy,
tragedy, mystery and historical play.
Audience: This is the group of people who watch the
play. Many playwrights and actors consider the
audience to be the most important element of
drama, as all of the effort put in to writing and
producing a play is for the enjoyment of the
audience.
Literary Elements
There are six stages in a plot structure.
1. Initial incident: The event that “gets the story
going.”
2. Preliminary event: Whatever takes place
BEFORE the action of the play that is directly
related to the play.
3. Rising action: A series of events following the
initial incident and leading up to the
dramatic climax
4. Climax: The turning point or high point of a
story when events can go either way
5. Falling action: The series of events following
the climax
6. Denouement: Another term for the
conclusion from the French word for
“unraveling.”
Other Literary Elements
Exposition: The “who, when, where and what” part
of the play.
Story organization: beginning, middle, end.
Conflict: The internal or external struggle between
opposing forces, ideas, or interests that creates
dramatic tension.
Suspense: A feeling of uncertainty as to the
outcome, used to build interest and excitement on
the part of the audience.
Language: In drama, the particular manner of verbal
expression, the diction or style of writing, or the
speech or phrasing that suggests a class or
profession or type of character.
Style: the shaping of dramatic material, settings, or
costumes in a deliberately non-realistic manner.
Soliloquy: A speech by a single actor who is ALONE
on stage.
Monologue: A long speech made by one actor (a
monologue may be delivered alone or in the
presence of others.)
Technical Elements
Scenery (set): The theatrical equipment, such as
curtains, flats, backdrops, or platforms, used in a
dramatic production to communicate environment.
Costumes: Clothing and accessories worn by actors
to portray character and period.
Props: Short for properties; any article, except
costume or scenery, used as part of a dramatic
production; any moveable object that appears on
stage during a performance, from a telephone to a
train.
Other Technical Elements
Lights: The placement, intensity, and color of lights to
help communicate environment, mood, or feeling.
Sound: The effects an audience hears during
performance to communicate character, context,
or environment.
Makeup: Costumes, wigs, and body paint used to
transform an actor into a character.
Performance Elements
Acting: Use of face, body, and voice to portray
character.
Character motivation: The reason or reasons for a
character’s behavior; an incentive or inducement
for further action for a character.
Character analysis: In responding to dramatic art,
the process of examining how the elements of
drama – literary, technical, and performance – are
used.
Empathy: The capacity to relate to the feelings of
another.
Other Performance Elements
Speaking: The mode of expression or delivery of lines.
Breath control: Proper use of the lungs and
diaphragm muscle for maximum capacity and
efficiency of breath for speaking.
Vocal expression: How an actor uses his or her voice
to convey character.
Inflection: Change in pitch or loudness of the voice.
Projection: How well the voice carries to the
audience.
Speaking style: The mode of expression or delivery of
lines.
Diction: Selection and pronunciation of words; clarity
of speech.
Nonverbal expression:
Gestures: Any movement of the actor’s head,
shoulder, arm, hand, leg, or foot to convey meaning.
Facial expression: Physical and vocal aspects used
by an actor to convey mood, feeling, or personality.
Theater Arts
Theater is the one major art form that brings together
all the other art forms—from painting and sculpture,
to installation art, to music, to dance, to literature,
even to computer arts--- in single production.
Part of the Spanish culture is the dramatic forms that
flourished in the rural areas all over the Philippines.
Such theater forms include the comedy, the playlets,
the senakulo, the zarzuela, and drama which are
being staged in different provinces along our many
festivals.
Philippine Theater Groups
The Philippine theater has undergone major
developments and celebrated multiple success over
time. Various theater groups were founded, and
many outstanding performances were well-received
by the audience. Not only did they represent Filipino
culture, but they also reflected Filipino values and
artistry.
A. Philippine Educational Theater Association
(PETA)
• It was founded in 1967 by Cecile-Guidote
Alvarez. It has been known and credited
for creating issue-based performances
that mirror and reflect the times and its
fearless delivery of truth through different
theatrical forms. PETA evolved as one of
the most organized and successful
theater groups in the country.
Ex. Batang Rizal by PETA
B. Repertory Philippines
• Founded in 1967 by a group of actors on
the initiative of the late Zeneida A.
Amador who was its President and Artistic
Director until her death in 2005,
REPERTORY PHILIPPINES FOUNDATION,
INC., also known as “REP”, has often
been called “the most professional
English-speaking theater company in the
country”.
• It has produced more than 300 plays
including Shakespeare’s plays and other
classics, children’s musicals, comedies,
and dramas.
• This theater company was formed by five
Filipino actors in 1987. It aims to create a
theater industry in the Philippines that
would give a venue to actors, directors,
designers, and other theater workers to
use their talents and earn a living in the
work they enjoy.
C. Triumphant People’s Evangelistic
Theater Society (TRUMPETS)
• Trumpets, the first Asian professional
gospel theater group, is known for
wholesome family entertainment
musicals such as “First Name,” “Fables
and Parables,” “N.O.A.H.,” “The Lion, The
Witch and the Wardrobe,” “Joseph the
Dreamer” and “The Little Mermaid.”
D. Tanghalang Pilipino (TP)
• Tanghalang Pilipino (TP) is the resident
drama company of the Cultural Center
of the Philippines. Since it was established
in 1987, it has successfully presented 114
productions within 15 seasons while
generating one of the best attendance
records among the CCP’s resident
companies.
• TP hopes to bring to the experience of
both artists and audience the best of
Philippine and global theater tradition. It
looks forward to educating and
awakening the cultural consciousness of
the Filipino audiences through its regular
performances and other related
activities like workshops, symposia and
interactions.
• Tanghalang Pilipino some famous plays:
Ibalong Musical and Walang Sugat
E. New Voice Company
• Internationally acclaimed theater artist
Monique Wilson founded the New Voice
Company (NVC)in 1994 to help expose
Philippine audiences to an awareness of
the many social and political concerns in
the country through theater arts.
F. Atlantis Theatrical Entertainment Group
• This is a theatrical group formed by stage
director/producer Bobby Garcia in 1998
that evolved from Atlantis Production.
• ATEG is responsible for staging the
legendary musical Carrie in the
Philippines.
• Other productions made by ATEG
include Rock of Ages, Saturday Night
Fever, The Bridges of Madison County,
Jersey Boys, and so forth.
ROLES IN A STAGE PRODUCTION
1. PRODUCER
The person who takes the play from mere
concept to an actual presentation. He or she
choose all the team members and assigns
them their functions, and oversees the
casting of the actors and actresses for he
different roles.
2. DIRECTOR
Is the overall artistic coordinator of the entire
production. Like a conductor of an
orchestra, he or she has a vision of the
 desired total effect and impact of the
performance.

3. PLAYWRIGHT
For a script intended for stage performance,
the writer of the script is more specifically
called a playwright. The initial concept or
plot may be original, and then developed
into a play script is more script. Or it may be
based on an existing story or another play
which the playwright will then adapt to
present in a new.

4. SET DESIGNER
The concept and creation of the physical
stage is the task of the set designer. He or she
builds the set (or sets) that will simulate the
world that the play’s characters are
supposed to live in.

5. LIGHTING DESIGNER
Coordinating closely with the set designer is
the lighting designer. Lighting is critical in
designing the mood of each scene in the
play, highlighting a dramatic moment,
signaling the entrance of a character,
focusing attention on a specific spot on
stage, or even providing the blanket of
darkness for set and prop changes.

6. COSTUME DESIGNER
The actors and actresses must look
believable in their roles and much of this is
owed to the costume designer. He/She
studies the general setting (time and place)
that the play is meant to take place in, as
well as each character in the script.

7. SOUND DESIGNER
The sound designer serves a vital role in
creating and enhancing the atmosphere of
the,performance.

8. CHOREOGRAPHER
He/she not only plans out all the dance steps
to suit the music but also rehearses the actor
until they are able to perform the dance
skillfully – while remaining “in character” on
stage.

PARTS OF A THEATER STAGE

STAGE

MEZZANINE

AUDIENCE